March 2005

TAE 955

Aeroelastic Analysis of Propellers

Part 2 - Flutter Analysis By

Y. Yadykin, V. Tenetov, I. Weissberg and A. Rosen

March 2005

Aeroelastic Analysis of Propellers Part 2 - Flutter Analysis

By

Y. Yadykin, V. Tenetov and A. Rosen

Faculty of Aerospace Engineering Technion Israel Institute of Technology Haifa 32000, Israel

I. Weissberg
Aero Design & Development LTD Park Rehovot, P.O.B 565 Rehovot

TAE NO. 955

Abstract This document presents a theoretical model and an associated computer program, that are used to predict flutter of a propeller blade, operating in a subsonic incoming flow. The model is based on a two-dimensional unsteady strip theory in conjunction with a finite element structural model of the blade. A FEM structural software is used. The generalized aerodynamic forces are based on the two-dimensional subsonic theory of Theodorsen, and are applied in a strip theory manner with appropriate modifications.. Parametric studies are presented, illustrating the effects on flutter of the rotational speed, cruise Mach number and structural damping. The analysis is applied to the SR2EC propeller. This propeller includes eight straight blades and it was designed for a high Mach number cruise, up to Mach 0.8. The SR2-EC blade is characterized by large twist angles (between the root and the tip sections) and thin airfoil sections (especially at the tip of the blade).

List of Contents Subject Abstract List of Symbols List of Tables List of Figures 1. Introduction 2. Finite Element Model 2.1 The FEM Coordinate System 2.2 A Finite Element Modeling of the Blade 3. Aeroelastic Model 3.1 Equations of the Motion 3.2 Linearization of the Equations 3.4 Generalized Aerodynamic Forces 4. Flutter Analysis 5. Computer Code 5.1. Calculation of the Mode Shapes 5.2 Calculation of the Generalized Mass 5.3. Calculation of the Lift-Curve Slope 6. Results and Discussions 6.1. The SR2-EC Propeller 6.2 Results and Discussion 7. Conclusions References Appendix A: Explanation of Nonlinearities in the Basic Equation A.1. Introduction to Nonlinearities A.2. Stress Stiffening A.3. Spin Softening Appendix B: Matrices Appendix C: Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Acting on an Oscillating Airfoil Appendix D: Calculating the matrix [H ] Appendix E: Calculating the matrix [PA ] Appendix F: Calculating the matrix T 0 Page 3 5 9 9 11 13 13 13 15 15 16 23 28 31 33 33 34 35 35 38 50 51 52 52 52 53 54 56 61 68 71

[ ]

List of Symbols

[ ], [ ], [ ] generalized aerodynamic matrices

g ,0 g ,1 g ,2

A mc
a b [ C1 ] , [ C 2 ] , [ C 3 ]

coefficient of the distribution of the aerodynamic loads distance between the mid-chord and the point where h is measured semi-chord aerodynamic matrices defined in Appendix C viscous damping matrix lift coefficient matrix of the coefficients of a transformation
design lift coefficient chord, c=2b chord ratio of a blade cross-section drag force per unit span of the blade perturbation of the drag force propeller diameter lift curve-slope Theodorsens function, F( ) = () + iG( ) aerodynamic cross-sectional loads vector centrifugal force vector

[ Cd ]

CL Cn CLd c c/d D D d dC L d F ( ) { F ( u, u, u ) } { FCF }

[ ]

{FCF }

perturbation of the centrifugal force vector gyroscopic force vector perturbation of the gyroscopic force vector perturbation of the aerodynamic loads vector reduced modal matrix plunging displacement vector amplitude of the plunging motion identity matrix unsteady aerodynamic coefficients, defined in Appendix C total number of degrees of freedom of the FEM model of the blade advance ratio, J 0 = 60 V N d total number of degrees of freedom per each node index of degree of freedom, 1 k K stiffness matrix for the steady-state position
linear elastic stiffness matrix centrifugal (spin) "softening" matrix in physical coordinates nonlinear stiffness matrix in physical coordinates generalized stiffness matrix total number of nodes of the blade
5

{FGR } { FGR } { F ( u 0 , u , t ) }

[H ] {h }

[ ]
hh , h , h , J J0
K

0 hn

[K ]
0

[ KL ] [ K CF ] [K ({u})]

[K ]
g

L0

i L ln M0
g

[ ] [M ]
M Mc
mc N (1 N m ) m

index of degrees of freedom of the FEM model, 1 i P aerodynamic lift force per unit span of the blade strip length along the reference line physical mass matrix, see Appendix B

generalized mass matrix aerodynamic moment per unit span of the blade number of finite elements in the chordwise direction index of elements in the chordwise direction, 1 m c M c speed of propeller rotation, rpm parameter representing a distribution of the aerodynamic loads
number of nodes per a finite element index of considered nodes of the finite element, 1 n m N m total number of strips along the blade index of strips along the blade, 1 n N s number of degrees of freedom of the FE model of the blade matrix of the distribution of the aerodynamic loads over the blade matrix of the distribution of the aerodynamic loads over the strip aerodynamic nodal force vector steady-state aerodynamic nodal force vector unsteady aerodynamic force coefficients acting on the nth strip vector of the aerodynamic loads generalized aerodynamic force vector vector of the generalized coordinates amplitude of the motion described using the generalized coordinates radius of the propeller steady-state blade deflection at the grid points radial coordinate along the reference line total number of modes used in the analysis index of modes s=1, 2, 3, ,S general transformation matrix, usually [T ( u 0 )] is denoted [ T 0 ] transformation matrix for the nth strip of the blade, see Appendix F transformation matrix for the m c th finite element, see Appendix F transformation for n e th node, see Appendix F time thickness ratio of a blade cross-section. aircraft velocity linear displacements at the finite element node rotational displacements at the finite element node

Nm
nm

Ns
n P [ PA ] [ PM ] n

{P({u , u , u})} { P ( {u 0 } ) }
Pn , Qn , Rn , S n {Q } {Q g {t}}

{q}
q0 R u0 r S s

[ T ( u 0) ] [ T M ]n [ T F ]m [T ]n
c
e

t t0 c V ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w1 , w 2 , w 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w4 , w5 , w6

XYZ xyz x=r R

Greek Symbols

global coordinates system blade fixed coordinates system dimensionless radial coordinate of the blade cross-section

{}
0 n

effective angle of attack rotation deflections vector amplitude of the rotation perturbation Euler's angles of transformation blade pitch angle at the three-quarter radius of the blade real part of an eigenvalue imaginary part of an eigenvalue perturbation of the aerodynamic lift force perturbation of the aerodynamic moment perturbation of the aerodynamic nodal force vector vector of the perturbation of vibratory deflections Youngs modulus modal damping frequency of the blade oscillations reference frequency constant, 3.14159 air density blade material density reduced frequency, = b / V modal matrix of the FEM eigenvector phase angle matrix of the aerodynamic forces acting on the blade strip aerodynamic matrices eigenvalue matrix. angular speed, =2N/60 (rad/sec) frequency of the sth mode

0 , 1 , 2 0.75R L M { P ( u 0 ,u ,t ) }

{u (t )}
E0 s

0 o [ ] { }

[ ]
2

[ ], [ ], [ ] [ ]
n ,0 n ,1 n ,2

s Subscripts 0 CF RG g L n

steady state value centrifugal gyroscopic generalized (modal) linear n th strip of the blade 7

nm

n mth node of the finite element m c th finite element along the chord s th mode of the blade perturbations stiffness

mc s st
Superscripts G

()

global system coordinates transpose

List of Tables

Table 1. The geometry of a blade of the SR2-EC propeller Table 2. Equivalent material properties of the SR2-EC blade
List of Figures

37 37

Figure 1a. Coordinates System for a blade Figure 1b. Section A-A showing rigid plunging (h) and pitching ( ) motions for a strip Figure 2. Flow Chart Figure 3 .Global coordinate system for the SR2 blade Figure 4. The geometry of a blade of the SR2-EC propeller Figure 5. Mode shapes calculated with respect to the blade coordinates system: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm.

14 14 32 36 38 40

Figure 6. Variation of the angle of attack along the blade for various rotational speeds: 0.75R =55.4 deg, Mach number M=0. 41 Figure 7. Variation of the lift-curve slope along the blade for various rotational speeds: 0.75R =55.4 deg, Mach number M=0. 42 Figure 8. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0. Figure 9. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,002. Figure 10. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,02. Figure 11. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,2. Figure 12. Variation of the angle of attack along the blade for various Mach numbers: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm Figure 13. Variation of the lift-curve slope along the blade for various Mach numbers: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm. Figure 14. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the free-stream Mach number: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0.2. 9 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

Figure D1. 3D quadratic shell element Figure D.2. Matrix [ ] Components Figure E.1. The scheme of the numbering of the nodes of the finite element

63 67 69

10

1. Introduction

This document describes an extension of the static aeroelastic analysis of propeller blades that was described in Ref. 1 The major goals of propeller design are to maximize aerodynamic efficiency, minimize noise and assure structural integrity. Often aerodynamic and acoustic requirements result in designs with thin, swept, and twisted blades, having low aspect ratio and high solidity, compared to conventional propellers [2]. These blades operate in subsonic, transonic, and possibly supersonic flows. The above described properties of advanced blades add complexity to the understanding of aeroelastic phenomena and the development of appropriate aeroelastic models. Since the blades are thin and flexible, the influence of deflections due to centrifugal and aerodynamic loads cannot be ignored. The aeroelastic problem is inherently nonlinear, requiring the application of a geometric nonlinear theory of elasticity. As indicated above these blades have large sweep and twist, that couple blade's bending and torsion deflections. These structures are plate-like structures because of their low aspect ratio. These characteristics lead to using a finite element structural model that accounts for centrifugal softening/stiffening effects and possibly for Coriolis effects [36]. The centrifugal softening terms are important because of the large blade sweep and flexibility. Because of these unique features, it is impossible to use directly existing aeroelastic analyses of conventional propellers or helicopter blades. Classical flutter of propellers occurred, unexpectedly, during wind tunnel tests of a model (designated SR-5) with ten highly swept titanium blades [2]. Reference 2 presents experimental data of the SR-5 model and correlation of the data with theory. In the analysis of Ref. 3, the aerodynamic model is based on a two-dimensional unsteady theory, with a correction for blade sweep, while the structural model is an idealized swept beam. In Ref. 5, the model of Ref. 3 is improved by using blade normal modes, calculated using a finite-element plate model of the blade. The analytical results are compared with the data of the SR-5 model. The correlation between theory and experiment, in Refs.3-5, is varied between poor to good. Additional subsonic wind tunnel flutter results, obtained during the tests of another composite blade model, SR3C-X2, are presented in Ref. 7. A two-dimensional steady and unsteady aerodynamic theory for a blade having a subsonic leading edge, are presented in Ref. 8, and the theory is used for predicting the flutter speed of the wind tunnel model, reported in Ref. 7. The specific objectives of the research are: (1) To develop a flutter analysis method that uses a two-dimensional aerodynamic model. (2) To conduct parametric studies in order to understand the effect of steady airloads on the: frequencies, mode shapes and flutter speed. Also to study the effect of blade pitch angle and blade structural damping - on the flutter speeds. (3) To validate the analytical model by correlating calculated and measured flutter speeds. (4) To examine the limitations of a two-dimensional unsteady aerodynamic theory for the analysis of propellers. 11

In the present approach the unsteady flow is modeled as a small perturbation superimposed on a uniform steady flow. The unsteady non-linear aerodynamic equations are linearized about the steady flow [8], resulting in linear unsteady aerodynamic equations, that include the effects of the steady inertia and aerodynamic loading. The flutter analysis presented herein is based on the method of Ref. 4. It uses the elastic modes in conjunction with a two-dimensional aerodynamic theory in a stripwise manner. The flutter analysis is carried out in three steps: (1) A geometric nonlinear structural analysis of the rotating blade is performed using a finite element model. This analysis provides the steady-state deformed configuration of the propeller blade. (2) The natural frequencies and mode shapes of the blade, in its deformed state, are calculated, based on the results of step (1). (3) The unsteady aerodynamic loads and the stability characteristics of the propeller blade are calculated. To achieve the objectives, a computer program is developed. The computer code combines both, structural and aerodynamic models. The code is used to analyze a straight bladed propeller (SR-2), designed to operate at high Mach numbers.

12

2. Finite Element Model

The structural analysis is based on the use of a Finite Element Model (FEM) to determine the blade structural behavior. The blades experience deflections due to the action of centrifugal and aerodynamic loads. The blade FEM model is built by using three dimensional shell or other elements, and equivalent material properties in the case of composite materials. The computer program, which was developed during this study, builds the FEM of the blade.
2.1 The FEM Coordinates System A global coordinates system, shown in Fig. 1, is used for the description of the blade geometry and the calculations of the loads. This is a right-hand Cartesian coordinates system, where; The Z-axis is co-linear with the propeller axis of rotation and is positive in the direction of incoming flow. The Y-axis is in the plane of rotation. The X-axis is collinear with the pitch change axis, lies in the plane of rotation and points towards the blade tip. The blade pitch angle is denoted, 0, and it can be varied by rotating the blade about its pitch change axis. The angle 0 is usually specified at the tree quarters radius section. The propeller rotates about the Z axis with an angular speed 2.2 A Finite Element Modeling of the Blade

The blade is represented by its mid surface. Boundary conditions are defined at the blade root. The blade if affected by two types of loads: the inertia and aerodynamic loads. The inertia forces are treated directly by the FEM software. The aerodynamic loads are calculated using a two-dimensional aerodynamic theory in a strip-wise manner. A more detailed description of the aerodynamic model appears in what follows.

13

Figure1a. Coordinates System for a Blade

Section A-A Figure1b. Section A-A showing rigid plunging (h) and pitching ( ) motions for a strip

14

3. Aeroelastic Model Aeroelasticity deals with the interaction between the structural and aerodynamic behavior. The purpose of an aeroelastic analysis is to combine the formulation of the structural dynamics and aerodynamic models, in a consistent manner, in order to study the combined aeroelastic behavior. Two-dimensional aerodynamic strip theory is used in the present study in order to calculate the aerodynamic loads. The unsteady, twodimensional, aerodynamic loads in subsonic flow are obtained by using the theory of Ref. 8. 3.1. Equations of Motion The right hand Cartesian coordinates system used for deriving the equations of motion of a rotating propeller blade, is shown in Fig.1. The propeller rotates about the Z-axis which is aligned with the freestream direction. The Xaxis is aligned along the blade pitch-axis and the Y- axis is perpendicular to the Z-X plane. The structural model of the blade is presented by a FEM, as described in the previous section. The aeroelastic equations of motion of the blade can be written as [10]:

[ M ] {u } + [ C ] {u } + [ [ K ] [ K ] + [ K ( {u } ) ]] {u } =
0 d L CF

= { FCF } {FGR } + { P

( { u,u,u } ) }

(1)

{u }

the linear elastic stiffness matrix, [ K CF ] the centrifugal (spin) "softening" matrix, and [ K ( { u } ) ] the nonlinear geometrical (stress) stiffness contribution. { FCF }, {FGR } and { P ( { u, u, u } ) } are the force vectors related to the centrifugal, gyroscopic and aerodynamic loads, respectively. Note, that [ K CF ] and { FCF }are functions of 2 [see Eqs. B.2 - B.4], [ K L [ K CF ] are symmetric matrices [9], [ K L ] is positive definite in nature [9].

[ KL ]

represents the blade deflections at the grid points of the finite-element model, M 0 is the symmetric inertia matrix [9-11], , [ C d ] the viscous damping matrix,

] and

In what follows, for clarity, { u } , { u } , and { u } will be replaced by u , u , and u , respectively. The vector of aerodynamic loads can be expressed as:

{ P ( u, u, u ) } = [ T ( u ) ] [ PA ] { F ( u, u, u ) }

(2)

is the a transformation matrix that rotates the aerodynamic loads to the directions of the FE model, namely the rotation between the aerodynamic and global coordinates systems. [ PA ] is the matrix that describes the distribution of the resultant cross-sectional aerodynamic loads over the blade. { F ( u, u, u ) } is the aerodynamic cross-sectional loads vector, which is a function of the displacement vector u and its time derivatives, u and u .
15

[T (u ) ]

At each cross-section, n, there is a lift force, Ln , drag force, Dn , and an aerodynamic moment, M n , per unit span of the blade. These loads are functions of the displacement vector, u and its time derivatives u and u , Dn ( u, u, u ) , L n ( u, u, u ) , and M n ( u, u, u ) . The vector { F ( u, u, u ) } is defined as:

{ F ( u, u, u ) } = {D1 , L1 , M 1 ,

, D n , Ln , M n ,

, DN s , LNs , M Ns

(3)

where N s is the number of strip elements along blade ( 1 n N s ). In general, because of relatively large deflections, there is a need to use the geometric nonlinear theory of elasticity. Thus the strain and displacement relations are nonlinear. The stiffness matrix is a function of nodal displacements and, hence, is nonlinear. The level of the geometric nonlinear theory of elasticity that will be used here, as well as in the FEM software, is the one in which elongations and shears are negligible compared with unity. This explicit consideration of the geometric nonlinear theory of elasticity provides the additional geometric differential stiffness due to centrifugal stiffening terms. The displacement dependent centrifugal "softening" terms are included in the matrix [ K CF ] , which is linear [9]. 3.2. Linearization of the Equations Equation (1) is nonlinear and is used to calculate the: steady-state deflections, frequencies, mode shapes and flutter speed. An appropriate solution method includes a direct integration of the equations in the time domain, but it is computationally inefficient. Common practice is to perturb the equations about a steady state configuration. Consider the case of a propeller where the shaft rotates at a constant angular velocity ( = 0 ) and the incoming flow is in the opposite Z direction. As a result of loads acting on it, the blade deforms. This deformation is described by the vector u 0 . The applied loads are steady, thus u 0 is not a function of time. The purpose now is to derive the equations for small vibrations superimposed on these predeformations. If the small vibrations are described by the vector u(t ) , the resultant deformation vector, u(t ) , equals: u(t ) = u 0 + u(t ) (4)

It is assumed that the perturbations are small and so nonlinear terms of perturbations are neglected. Thus the nonlinear terms of Eq. (1) can be presented as:

[ K ( u ) ] u [ K (u 0 ) ] u 0 + [ [ K ( u 0 ) ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ] ] u [T ( u ) ] = [ T ( u 0 ) ] + [ T ( u 0 , u ) ]
16

(5) (6)

{ F ( u, u, u ) } = { F ( u 0 ) } + { F ( u 0 ,u, t ) } { P ( u, u, u ) } = { P ( u 0 ) } + { P ( u 0 , u , t ) }
Substituting Eqs. (6) and (7) into Eq. (2) and linearization, result in:

(7) (8)

{ P ( u, u, u ) } = [ [ T ( u 0 ) ] + [ T ( u 0 ,u ) ] ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 ) } +
+ [ T ( u 0 ) ][ PA

] { F ( u 0 ,u , t ) }

(9)

The steady state vector of the aerodynamic loads, is:

{ P ( u 0 ) } = [ T ( u 0 ) ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 ) }
The perturbation vector of the aerodynamic loads, is:

(10)

{ P ( u 0 ,u ,t ) } [ T ( u 0 ,u ) ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 ) } +
+ [T ( u0

) ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 , u , t ) }

(11)

In the present analysis, the term [T ( u 0 , u ) ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 ) } in the equation (11) will be neglected. This term is important in the case of divergence [1]. Based on the above assumptions, Eq. (11) may be written as:

{ P ( u 0 ,u ,t ) } = [ T ( u 0 ) ][ PA ] { F ( u 0 , u , t ) }
where the perturbation of the aerodynamic { F ( u 0 , u , t ) } , is defined as follows: cross-sectional loads

(12) vector,

{ F ( u 0 , u , t ) } = { D1 , L1 , M 1 , D2 , L2 , M 2 ,

, DN s , LN s , M N s (13)

Substituting Eqs. (4)-(9) into Eq. (1), leads to two sets of equations: Equations for the basic state, u 0 , and another set of equations for the perturbation , u :

[ [ K L ] [ K CF ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ]] u 0 = { FCF } + {P ( u 0 )}
and: 17

(14)

[M 0 ] u + [ C d ] u + [ [ K L ] [ K CF ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ] ] u = = { P ( u 0 , u , t )} + {FCF } { FGR }

(15)

The elements of the matrices [M 0 ], [ K L ] , [ K CF ], [ K ( u 0 ) ] , [ K ( u 0 ) ] , and [ T (u 0 ) ] are constants [9]. The matrices [ M 0 ] , [ K CF ], {FCF } , { FGR }, and [ T (u 0 ) ] are described in Appendices B and F. In what follows, for the sake of simplicity, the matrix [ T (u 0 ) ] will be denoted T 0 . In the present analysis, the terms {FCF } and

{ FGR } will be neglected

[ ]

The steady state solution, for a given rotational speed and Mach number, is obtained by solving Eq.(14). This solution was discussed in Ref.1. Once the steady state deflections are known, the natural frequencies and mode shapes are calculated by solving the homogeneous part of Eq. (15), assuming: that there are no damping and external forces. The equation of motion of an undamped system, expressed in a matrix form, using the above assumptions, is:

[M 0 ] u + [K 0 ] u = 0

(16)

The stiffness matrix [K 0 ] includes the regular elastic stiffness, differential stiffness due to centrifugal stiffening loads and steady-state aerodynamic loads:

[K 0 ] = [ [ K L ] [ K CF ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ] + [ K ( u 0 ) ] ]

(17)

For a linear system, that has J degrees of freedom, there are in general J natural modes and J natural frequencies. Since the system is undamped, the vibrations are harmonic. Thus, the solution of Eq. (16) is of the form:
u s = {}s e
i s t

( s=1, 2, 3, ..., J )

(18)

time and i = 1 . The vector { }s represents the corresponding mode shape. That is:

s is the natural circular frequency (radians per unit time) of the sth mode, t is the

{ }s =

1,s , 2 ,s , 3 ,s ,

, J ,s

(19)

Substitution of Eq. (18) into Eq. (16) produces a set of homogeneous algebraic equations: 18

( [ K ] [ M ] ) { } = {0}
0 2 s 0 s

(20)

For a nontrivial solution of Eq. (20), the following condition should exist, that yields the characteristic equation of the free vibrations:
det K 0 2 M 0 = 0 s

[[ ]

]]

(21)

Expansion of this determinant yields a polynominal in which the term of highest 2 order is s J . Equation (21) presents an eigenvalue problem. s are the eigenvalues, while { }s are the eigenvectors. If the eigenvalues of a system are known, the eigenvectors, namely mode shapes, may be calculated from the homogeneous algebraic equations (20). Because there are J eigenvalues, there will also be, in general, J corresponding eigenvectors. The eigenvectors are defined up to a factor that multiplies all the elements of the vector. For the eigenvectors (modes) the following relations exist [12]:

( )

{ }s2 [ M 0 ] { } s1 = 0
and:

s 2 s1

(22)

{ } [ K ] { }
s1 0

s2

=0

s1 s 2

(23)

Equations (22) and (23) represent orthogonality conditions of the natural modes of vibration. From Eq. (22) we see that the eigenvectors are orthogonal with respect to M 0 , and Eq. (23) indicates that they are also orthogonal with respect to [ K 0 ] .

For cases where s1 = s 2 , the following relationships hold [12]:

{ } [ M ] { } = M
s 0 s

gs

(24)

and

{ } [ K ] { } = K
s 0 s

gs

(25)

M g s and K g s are constants that depend upon the manner in which the eigenvectors { }s normalized. Assume that in order to analyse the problem one decides to use only S normal modes, ( 1 S J ). Then the perturbation can be expressed as a superposition of these normal modes:
u = [ ] q

(26) 19

where
1,1 = ,1 P,1 1, s
,s

[ ] P S

P, s

1, S ,S , P, S

(27)

Here, 1 P , P = L 0 K , [ ] is the matrix of eigenvectors, the dimension of which is P S . S is the number of modes used in the analysis, L 0 is the total number of nodes, K is the number of degrees of freedom at each node. The assembly of the elements of is shown in Appendix D

q is the vector of generalized coordinates, defined as follows:

q = { q 1 ,q 2 , ,q s , ,q S } Equation (20) can be written as: (28)

[ ] [ ] = [M ] [ ] [ ]
2 0 0

(29)

The matrix 2 in Eq. (29) is a diagonal matrix of order S:

2 1 0 2 =0 0

[ ]

0
2 2

0 0

2 3

[ ] [ ]

0 0

0 0 0 2 S

(30)

The matrix 2 is referred to as the eigenvalue matrix.

Multiplying Eq. (29) from the left by [ ] and using the relationships (24) and (25), result in:

[K ] = [M ] [ ]
2 g g

(31)

[ ] and [K ] are diagonal square matrices of order S, defined as:

g g

20

[ ]

M g 1 g =

Mg s

Mg S

(32)

and

[ ]

K g 1 Kg =

Kg s

Kg S

(33)

Hence,
2 K g s = M g s s

(34)

As indicated above, the vectors {

are defined up to a factor that multiplies all the

elements of the vector. It is convenient to choose these vectors such that:

[ ] [ M 0 ] [ ]= [ ]
where [ ] is an identity matrix of order S. It is clear that if Eq. (35) is satisfied, then:

(35)

[ ] [ K 0 ] [ ] = [ 2 ]

(36)

Damping plays a minor role in the response of a system to a periodic forcing function when the frequency of the excitation is not near a resonance [12]. However, for a periodic excitation with a frequency at or near a natural frequency, damping is of prime importance und must be taken into account. When its effects are not known in advance, damping should be included in a vibratory analysis until its importance is known. The equations of motion of our system, Eq. (15), may be written as:

[M 0 ] u + [ C d ] u + [K 0 ] u = { P ( u 0 ,u , t )}

(37)

Equation (37) can be expressed using principal coordinates, by the same transformation that was used for the undamped homogeneous system (29). Thus, using the principal coordinates, equation (37) becomes:

[M ] q + [C ] q + [K ] q = {Q }
g d g g

(38)

21

where the matrices M g and K g are given by Eqs. (32) and (33). The vector {Q g } is defined as:

[ ]

[ ]

{Q } = [ ] { P ( u ,u ,t )}

g
0

(39)

The symbol C g in Eq. (38) represents a damping matrix:

[ ]

[ C ] = [ ] [ C ][ ]

g d

(40)

The nature of damping in physical systems is not well understood. The simplest approach [14] consists of assuming that the equations of motion of the damped system are also uncoupled. In other words, the eigenvectors are assumed to be orthogonal not only with respect to [ M ] and [ K ] , but also with respect to [ C d ] , thus:

{ } [ C ] { }
s1 d

s2

=0

s1 s 2

(41)

For cases where s1 = s 2 , the following relationship holds [12]:

{ } [ C ] { }
s d

= Cg s

(42)

C g s is a constant that depends upon the normalization of the eigenvector { In the matrix form, Eq. (42) can be written as:

}.
s

[ ] [ C d ][ ]= [ C g ]

(43)

[ C ] is a diagonal square matrix of order S, defined as:

g

[ ]

C g 1 Cg =

Cg s

Cg S

(44)

. In order to make Eq. (37) analogous to a one-degree system [12], the following notation is introduced:
Cg s Mg s = 2 s s , Kg s Mg s
2 = s , and

Qg s Mg s

~ = Qg s

(45)

Finally the equations of perturbations become:

~ 2 q s + 2 s s q s + s q s = Q g s (s=1, 2, 3, ..., S )

(46)

22

Here, s s is the modal damping constant of the sth normal mode. s is the corresponding modal damping ratio. It is possible to obtain experimentally or to assume the damping ratio s for the natural modes of vibration [14].

3.4 Generalized Aerodynamic Forces

The problem of calculating the aerodynamic forces acting on a two-dimensional airfoil moving in a simple harmonic motion about an equilibrium position (of an incoming uniform flow-fixed wing), was analyzed by Theodorsen [8]. In [8] the lift and moment per unit span, due to blade motion, are linearly related to the displacements and their derivatives with respect to time. The drag force is ignored, that is D = 0 . The expressions for the lift perturbation, L , and moment perturbation, M , per unit span, are given in Appendix C and are derived for airfoil sections, using the airfoil system of coordinates. With the sign convention of both, the plunging and leading edge displacement due to pitching, positive upward (Fig. 1), the lift and moment, at the cross-section r of the blade, for a specified frequency, using the notation of reference 8, are:

h 2V 2V 2 V h L ( r,t ) = b 3 F ( ) + a + [ (2 a 1) F ( ) 1] 2 F ( ) b b b b b
a 21 V 1 M ( r,t ) = b 4 h + + a F ( ) h + a 2 + b2 b 8 b
V 1 V2 1 1 2 + a + 2 a F ( ) + 2 + a F ( ) 2 2 b 2 4 b

(47)

(48)

Here, a is the nondimensional distance between the mid-chord point and the point where h is measured.. = b V is the reduced frequency, is the circular frequency of oscillations, b is half chord of the blade cross-section and V is the velocity of incoming air flow The quantities h and represent the plunging and pitching displacements of the blade cross-section and are functions of time. The lift deficiency function, F ( ) , is defined in Appendix C.

Expressions (47) and (48) can be written in a matrix form as:

h h h L ( r,t ) = [ C1 ] + [ C2 ] + [ C3 ] M ( r,t )

(49)

The aerodynamic matrices [ C1 ] , [ C 2 ] , [ C 3 ] are defined in Appendix C. In the present aerodynamic analysis the blade is divided, in the spanwise direction, into N s strip elements. Each strip has two "aerodynamic" degrees of freedom: plunging displacement, h n , (motion perpendicular to chord), and a pitching (torsion) displacement, n .

23

As shown in Appendix C, the plunging and pitching motion of cross-section n, can be expressed as:
0 h n h n i t = 0 e n n

(50)

Then the lift and moment acting on the nth oscillating strip section can be expressed as:

L n 2 = [n ,2 ] + i [n ,1 ] + [n ,0 ] M n

) h

n
n

(51)

The matrices n ,2 , n ,1 and n ,0 are complex square matrices of order 2, defined in Appendix C. The plunging, h n , and pitching, n , displacements of the nth blade strip in equation (51), are expressed in terms of normal modes and normal coordinates, as:
h n = [ H n ] {q } n

(52)

where the matrix [ H n ] is defined as follows:

[ Hn ] 2 x S
Details about the matrix

h n,1 h n,2 ..........h n,S = n,1 n,2 ....... n,S

(53)

[ Hn ]

appear in Appendix D

M n ( t ) , due to blade motions h n and n , can be rewritten as:

After substituting Eq. (52) into Eq.(51), the lift, L n ( t ) , and the moment,

L n ( t ) 2 = ( [n ,2 ] + i [n ,1 ] + [n ,0 ] ) [ H n ] q ( t ) M n ( t )

(54)

Once the lift, L n ( t ) , and the moment, M n ( t ) , are known, the perturbations of the aerodynamic forces, Eq.(13), acting on the entire blade, can be expressed as:

24

{ F ( u 0 ,u , t )} = {0, L1 , M 1 ,

,0, Ln , M n ,

,0, LN s , M N s

(55)

By using Eq. (54), Eq. (55) can be written as:

{ F ( u 0 ,u , t ) } = ( 2 [2 ] + i [1 ] + [0 ] )
The individual matrices 2 , 1 , 0 and [ H ] are:
0 0 =

[H ] q( t )

(56)

0 1,2

[ 2 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0

0 n ,2

0 0

[ ]
N s ,2

(.57)

[ 1 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0 =

0 1,1

0 0

0 n ,1

0 0

0 N s ,1

(58)

[ 0 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0 =

0 1,0

0 0

0 n ,0

0 0

[ ]
N s ,0

(59)

The strip aerodynamic matrices n ,2 , n ,1 and n ,0 are presented in Appendix C by Eqs. (C.17), {C.19), and C.24).

25

The matrix [ H ] is defined as follows:

0 [H ] 1 0 [ H ] 3 NS S = [H ] n 0 [H ] N s

(60)

The method of calculating the elements of the matrix [ H ] is described in detail in Appendix D. oscillating blade, according to equation (12), can be written as:

The perturbation in the aerodynamic forces, { P ( u 0 , u , t ) }, acting on the

{ P ( u u , t ) } [P ] = [T ]
0, 0 PP A

P 1

P 3 N s

( [ ] + i [ ] + [ ] )
2 2 1 0

3 Ns 3 Ns

[ H ] 3 N S q S 1
s

(61)

The matrix [ T0 ] , is of order P P and expressed as:

[ T0 ] P P

[ TM =

] 1,1 [ TM ] n , n [ TM

] Ns , Ns

(62)

Expression for the matrix T M

[ ]

The matrix [PA ] can be expressed as follows:

n ,n

, ( 1 n N s ), appear in Appendix F.

26

[PA ] P 3 N

P M 1,1 = 0 0

[ ]

[P ]
M

n ,n

[ ]
[ ]
n ,n

0 PM N ,N s s
0

(63)

The matrix PA is of order P 3 N s . The matrices PM

The generalized aerodynamic force vector {Qg ( t )}, (Eq. (39)), can be written as:

[ ]

are defined in Appendix E.

{Q ( t )} = [ ] { P ( u
g

, u ,t ) }

(64)

{Q ( t )}:
g

Substitution of Eq.(61) into Eq.(64) gives the following expression for the vector

{Q ( t )} = [ ]
g

[ T ][ ] ( [ ] + i [ ] + [ ] )
2 0 A 2 1 0

[ H ] q (t )

(65)

Rewriting {Qg ( t )} in a compact matrix form, gives:

{Q ( t )}
g

S 1

= 2 g ,2

( [ ]
[ ]

SxS

+ i g ,1

SxS

+ g ,0

SxS

)q

S1

(66)

The matrices g ,2 , g ,1 and g ,0 are given by:

][

[ ] =[ ]
g ,2

S P

[ T ] [ ]
0 PP

A P 3Ns

[2 ] 3 N 3N [ H ] 3N S
s s s

(67)

[ ] =[ ]
g ,1 g ,0

S P

[ T ] [ ]
0 PP 0 PP

A P 3Ns

[1 ] 3N 3 N [ H ] 3N S
s s s

(68)

[ ] =[ ]

S P

[ T ] [ ]

A P 3Ns

[0 ] 3N 3 N [ H ] 3N S
s s s

(69)

27

4. Flutter Analysis The equations of motion of the blade (with the viscous damping matrix [ C d ] ) that were obtained in the previous section, can be written as follows (see Eqs.(38) ):

[ ]
g

S x S

q S + Cg

[ ]

SXS

q S + g

[ ]

S x S

q S = {Q g }S

(70)

The order of Eq. (70) depends on the number of modes which are used in Eq. (26). This number is determined by performing numerical experiments, as it will be explained later. Since the blades of the propeller are assumed to be identical, the same equation is obtained for each blade. In accordance with Eq. (66), Eq. (70) can be rewritten in following form:

[ ]

G g S x S

q S + Cg

[ ]

G S x S

q S + g
G

[ ]

G S x S

qS =

= 2 g ,2
G g

[ ]

b + i 0.75 g ,1 V SxS

[ ]
G

b + 0.75 g ,0 V SxS
G

[ ]

qS S x S
G

(71)

are the generalized mass, viscous Here, g , C g , g , g ,2 , g ,1 damping, stiffness and aerodynamic matrices, expressed in the generalized system of coordinates, (superscript G).

[ ] [ ] [ ] [
G

] [ ]

[ ]
g

= [ ] M 0

] [ ]

(72) (73) (74) (75)

[ ]
g g

= [ ] K 0
d

][ ]

[ C ] = [ ] [ C ][ ]
g

[ ]
g ,2

[ ]

[ T ] [ ] [ ] [ H ]
0 A 2 0 A 1

[ ]
g ,1 g ,0

[ ]

[ T ] [ ] [ ] [ H ]
[ T ] [ ] [ ] [ H ]
0 A 0

(76)

[ ]
0

[ ]

(77)

[ M ] is discussed in Appendix B In the present analysis [ C ] will be neglected and the structural damping will be
g

introduced as a fictitious damping proportional to the stiffness matrix [4]. 28

2 K gs = M gs s (1 + 2 i s ) , s=1,S

(78)

where s , s are the natural frequency of the sth mode and the structural damping ratio of that mode, respectively. Thus the generalized stiffness matrix, K g , becomes a diagonal matrix of size S x S that consists of the elements given by Eq.(78) and can be expressed in following manner:
2 M g 1 1 ( 1 + 2 i 1 ) 0 0 0 0 2 = 0 0 M g s s (1 + 2 i s ) 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 M g S S (1 + 2 i S )

[ ]

[K ]
g

(79) Assuming the solution for Eq. (71) is of the form:

0 q1 0 q = q s e i t , or q = q 0 e i t 0 q S

(80)

and taking into account that q = i q , q = 2 q , the flutter eigenvalue problem can be written as:
2 g g ,2
2

[ ] [

b + i 0.75 g ,1 V S x S

[ ]

b + 0.75 g ,0 V S x S

+ q = 0 (81) g 0 S x S

[ ]

where:
= b 0.75

If the following notation is used:

29

[A ] = [ ]
g g ,2

b + i 0.75 g ,1 V SxS

SxS

b + 0.75 V

[ ]

g ,0 S x S

Then the flutter eigenvalue problem can be written as:

( ( [ ] + [ ] )+ [ ] ) q
2 g g g

=0

(82)

Dividing expression (82) by a referenced frequency, 20 , after rearranging terms, Eq. (82) can be written as an eigenvalue problem in following standard form:
2 20
2
2 0

( [ ] + [ ] )+ 1 [ ] q
g g

2 0

=0

(83)

~ = ;

~ =i ; 0

(84)

~ [[ ] [ B] ] q

=0

(85)

where

[ ]=

1 Kg 20

[ ]

(86) (87)

[ B ] = [ M g ]+ [ g ]

It should be noted that this is the nonlinear eigenvalue problem since the matrix g

[ ]

is a function of . The solution of the above eigenvalue problem (85) results in S complex eigenvalues: (88) i = + i ; i = 0 + i 0 0 The real part of the eigenvalue ( ) represents the damping ratio, and the imaginary part ( ) represents the damped frequency; flutter occurs if 0 for at least one of the eigenvalues. The matrix g includes, in the general case, complex terms.

[ ]

30

5. Computer Code
The flutter analysis of propellers is based on the normal modes method. The flutter part of the code that uses two-dimensional subsonic unsteady aerodynamics will be used in the present investigation. The code is written in CI and is presented schematically in the form of a flow chart in Fig. 2. The input to the computer code and the steps involved of solving the flutter problem are shown in the flow chart. The input consists of the blade geometry described by the grid point's coordinates using the XYZ system (Fig.1) and the modal information - frequencies, mode shapes, and generalized masses. The main step, which is step No. 3 in Fig. 2, includes the calculation of the generalized aerodynamic matrix g , using normal modes and an aerodynamic strip representation of the

[ ]

blade. The blade is divided into a series of discrete aerodynamic strips, each strip having constant properties. Each strip experiences two motions: plunging, h , and pitching, , about an arbitrary reference line. h and are expressed in terms of the normal modes and normal coordinates by using Eq.(D.26). The lift and moment acting on the nth section are obtained by using Eq. (C.16). For calculating modal data, the equivalent material properties for each element are generated by using a preprocessor code of the FEM software. After the stiffnesses, masses, and actual or equivalent nodal loads for the elements are generated, they are used to form the system matrices using the direct stiffness method [12]. In this approach the contributions of all the elements are added to obtain stiffnesses, masses, and nodal loads for the entire system. Thus, by a summation along the chord one obtains:

[ K ]= [ K ]
n mc =1

Mc

mc

[M ]= [ M ]
n mc =1

Mc

mc

{Q }n

mc =1

{Q }

Mc

mc

(89)

where M C is the number of elements in the chordwise direction, mc=1, 2, 3,, M C . Note, that for the operations of Eqs. (89), is necessary the matrices or vectors on the right side are extended in size (using zeros) so that they will have the same size as the matrix or vector on the left side. In Eqs. (89) the symbols K n , M n and { Q }n represent the stiffness, mass

[ ] [

matrix and the nodal loads vector, respectively, for the nth strip of the blade. Then the undamped equations of motion, Eqs. (38), for the assembled system, become

[ M ] q + [ K ] q = {Q }
g g g

(90)

Equation (90) gives the system equations of motion for all nodal displacements. The frequencies, mode shapes and generalized masses are obtained as a result of a solution of the homogeneous Eq. (90).

31

Figure 2: Flow Chart

32

5.1. Calculation of the Mode Shapes:

The finite element method (FEM) to be used in this study involves assumptions concerning the displacement shape functions (see Appendix D) within each shell element. These functions give approximate results when the shell element is of a finite size and exact results at infinitesimal size. The shape functions define the displacements at any point as functions of the nodal displacements. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ From FEM we obtain, for each node, three linear displacements w 1 , w 2 , w 3 and ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ three rotary displacements w 4 , w 5 , w 6 corresponding to the X,Y,Z system of coordinates and to the frequency of natural oscillations. If we are interested in calculating the heave, h , and pitch, (see Appendix D): For bending oscillations
h n , s = ~ n , s sin 0 + ~ n , s cos 0 v2 v3 ~ n , s and ~ n s are defined as: v2 v3

(91)

1 ~ n , s = v2 Mc

m c =1

~ w

Mc

2 n , m c ,s

(92)

1 ~ 3n , s = v Mc

m c =1

~ w

Mc

3 n , m c ,s

(93)

s=1, 2, 3 number of modes, n=1, 2,, Ns are number of strips along the blade, mc=1, 2,, Mc are number of finite element along the chord. 1 v4 n , s = ~ n , s = Mc ~ w
Mc 4 n , m c ,s

(94)

m c =1

5.2. Calculation of the Generalized Mass

From ANSYS we obtain, for the nth strip of the blade, for its motion in the sth mode, the following value of kinetic energy, ( E n )s,
m

(E n )s = (E e )s
e =1

(95)

E e is thekinetic energy of eth finite element, m is the number of finite element , m=1, 2, 3. M C M S s , where M C and M S are the number of elements in chordwise and spanwise directions, respectively.
33

Note that in what follows the number of elements in the spanwise direction will be equal to the number of strips in same direction, namely M S = N S . In ANSYS the kinetic energy, by definition, is:

( E n )s = 1 (u n [ M n ] u n )s , (n=1, 2, 3,, Ns, s=1, 2, 3,..., S)

2 If one uses the notations:
un = [n ] q ;

(96)

u = q[ n ] n

(97)

the kinetic energy for the nth strip of the blade, for its sth mode, can be written as:

(E n )s

1 2 s 2

([ ] [ M ] [ ] )
n n n

(98)

Thus the generalized mass of the strip is

([ ] ) = ( [
g n s

] [ M n ][ n ] )s

(99)

Hence

([ ] )
g

n s

2 ( En )s
2 s

(100)

5.3. Calculation of the Lift-Curve Slope

A computer program which is based on NASA-TM-85696 [17] has been written. This code provides a comprehensive data base for the NACA 16-series airfoils. The geometry covered in the program is limited to cambers representing design-lift coefficients from 0.0 to 0.7 and thickness ratios from 4 to 21 percent. The data includes Mach numbers from 0.3 to 1.6, angles of attack from -4 to 8 degrees, and lift coefficients from 0.0 to 0.8. Extrapolation is used in order to obtain data for Mach numbers, angles of attack, and lift coefficients that are outside the above mentioned region. An additional subroutine was introduced [17] in order to account for the nonlinear behavior of lift coefficient beyond the stall angle. Essentially, the lift coefficient becomes a function of the angle of attack as well as of the Mach number, Reynolds number, and geometry. The drag coefficient is also calculated using this subroutine. After obtaining the angle of attack, the lift-curve slope is calculated.

34

6. Results and Discussions

For an initial verification of the aeroelastic code the SR2-EC propeller is chosen. This SR2 propeller has highly loaded thin blades that experience deflections that are larger than in the case of conventional propellers. There is an experimental data of this propeller, which can be compared with the numerical results
6.1. The SR2-EC propeller

The SR2-EC propeller was designed to maintain high propulsive efficiencies at high cruise speeds, up to Mach 0.8. The SR2-EC propeller has eight straight blades, each blade has a large twist with thin airfoil sections, to minimize compressibility losses [1]. EC in the title (SR2-EC), stands for Equivalent Composite. The SR2-EC was designed, fabricated and tested by Hamilton Standard (USA), under the NASA Advanced Turboprop Program (ATP). The propeller disk diameter is 2 ft (0.622m) with a design blade tip speed of 800 ft/sec (243 m/sec). The global coordinate system of the SR2 blade is shown in Fig. 3. The geometry of the blade is shown in Fig. 4 and is summarized in Table 1. A computer code was developed to construct the blade geometry and FEM, based on the above data. Table 2 presents the equivalent mechanical properties of the material, which are used during the analysis. `The blade FEM model includes 128 ANSYS SHELL 93 elements and 433 nodes as is shown in Ref. 1 (see Fig. 3.2). The boundary conditions at the blade root are chosen such that it is fully fixed, namely the six degrees of freedom along the blade root are restrained in the FEM, (see Fig. 3.2 in Ref. 1)

35

Figure 3: Global coordinate system of the SR2 blade.

36

Table1.The geometry of a blade of the SR2-EC propeller (the cross sections are NACA16 airfoils )
r/R 0.235 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 c/d 0.1440 0.1450 0.1460 0.1470 0.1490 0.1495 0.1500 0.1493 0.1490 0.1480 0.1460 0.1450 0.1410 0.1360 0.1260 0.1100 0.0580 t0 /c 0.2200 0.1400 0.1020 0.0700 0.0580 0.0500 0.0430 0.0360 0.0330 0.0250 0.0220 0.0210 0.0200 0.0190 0.0188 0.0186 0.0185 0 [deg] CLd

21.119 20.334 17.785 15.340 13.000 10.764 8.6330 6.6055 4.6823 2.8633 1.1486 -0.4617 -1.9679 -3.3698 -4.6674 -5.8608 -6.9499

-0.165 -0.132 -0.035 0.039 0.096 0.135 0.159 0.170 0.170 0.160 0.143 0.120 0.095 0.068 0.041 0.017 -0.001

Table 2: Equivalent material properties of the SR2-EC blade

Material Name Equivalent Composite

Density 0, [kg/m3] 1540

Youngs modulus 0, [GPa] 64

Poissons ratio 0 0.33

37

Figure 4: The geometry of a blade of the SR2-EC propeller

6.2. Results and Discussions

In what follows initial results of using the code are presented. Figure 5 shows the mode shapes used in the study, as calculated by ANSYS for =6000 rpm, 0.75R =55.4 deg. It can be seen from Fig.5 that the first mode is primarily bending, the second mode is bending-torsion and the third mode is primarily torsion. The presence of a torsion component in the first mode and a flexural component in the third mode is negligible small. At the same time the flexural and torsion components in the second mode are of similar importance The variations of the angle of attack, , the lift curve slope, dC L d , along the blade are presented in Figs.6 and 7, for 0.75R =55.4 deg, Mach number M=0 and rotational speeds that vary in the range, =2000 -10000 rpm. As shown in Fig. 6, the angles of attack are larger than 20 degrees for all the cross-sections of the blade for the entire indicates range. This indicates a stalled flow over the entire blade. The liftcurve slope along the blade is calculated in this case using NASA Code, [17], and is presented in Fig. 7. From Fig. 7 it can be seen that the slope increase sharply from 0 to 1.6 for angles of attack in the range 50 deg 35 deg . The slope increase from 1.6 to 2.25 for angles of attack the range 35 deg 20 deg . Figure 8 shows the variation of the damping and the frequency vs. the rotational speed. The calculations were carried out using NASA Code [17] to describe stall. The pitch angle equals 55.4 deg and the structural damping =0.002 for all the three modes. The mode damping is presented as damping ratio which is: 38

damping , where the critical damping is equal to 0.002 critical damping 100 From Fig. 8 it can be seen that the frequencies of oscillations of the first and second modes increase with an increase of the rotational speed. At the same time the frequency of the torsion oscillations, namely the third mode, decrease vs. the increase of the rotational speed. The damping ratio decrease significantly for the first bending and torsion modes and decrease slightly for second bending mode with increase of rotational speed. The damping ratio of the first bending mode is larger than the damping ratio for the second bending mode, but the damping ratio of the third mode (the first torsion mode) is larger than the damping ratio of the first bending mode. The effect of structure damping on the damping ratio and the frequency is presented in Figs. 9-11. As expected, the increase of structure damping leads to the increase of the damping ratio for all modes. Moreover, the damping ratios of the first bending and torsion modes get close by the increase of structural damping. The dependence of the frequencies on the structure damping is smaller than the dependence of the damping ratio. The variations of the angle of attack, , the lift curve slope, dC L d , along the blade are presented in Figs.12 and 13 for 0.75R =55.4 deg, rotational speed, =6000 rpm and various Mach numbers in the range 0 M 1.0 . As shown in Fig. 12,.the angles of attack are larger than 10 degrees for all the cross-sections for velocities in the range 0 M 0.2 . This indicates a stalled flow over the entire blade. The liftcurve slope along the blade is presented in Fig. 13. From Fig. 13, it can be seen that the slope is less than 5 for angles of attack in the range 10 deg . and Mach number M<0.4. This indicates a state stall. Figure 14 shows the variation of the damping ratio and the frequency vs. the Mach number. The results of the calculations are presented for the following case: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0. It can be seen that the damping for all modes decrease as the Mach number increases. At the same time the frequencies of the bending modes are almost invariable, but the frequency of first torsion mode is decreasing. The sequence of modes in this case is remained the same.

39

0.050 0.035 0.020 0.005 -0.010

Mode 1
Torsion Flap

0.0

0.2

0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.005

Mode 2
0.000 -0.005 -0.010 -0.015 0.0 0.2 0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.1

Mode 3
0.8 0.5 0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.2 0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 5.Mode shapes calculated with respect to the blade coordinates system: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm.

40

40

35

RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM

= = = = =

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

30

25

20 0.0 0.2 0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 6.Variation of the angle of attack along the blade for various rotational speeds: 0.75R =55.4 deg, Mach number M=0.

41

2.5

2.0

dCL/d

1.5

RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM

= = = = =

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

1.0

0.5 0.0 0.2 0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 7.Variation of the lift-curve slope along the blade for various rotational speeds: 0.75R =55.4 deg, Mach number M=0.

42

Figure 8.Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,

43

Figure 9. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,002.

44

Figure 10. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,02,

45

Figure 11. Variation of damping and frequency vs. the rotational speed: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =0,2.

46

40

30

20

M M M M M M

= = = = = =

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

10

-10

0.0

0.2

0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 12.Variation of the angle of attack along the blade for various Mach numbers: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm

47

dCL/d
4 3 2

M M M M M M

= = = = = =

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0 0.0 0.2 0.4

r/R

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 13.Variation of the lift-curve slope along the blade for various Mach numbers: 0.75R =55.4 deg, =6000 rpm.

48

Figure 14.Variation of damping and frequency vs. the free-stream Mach number: 0.75R =55.4 deg., =6000 rpm, =0.2.

49

7. Conclusions
The model is based on a finite element structural model of the blade and a twodimensional unsteady aerodynamic model of a cross-section of the blade, based on Theodorsen's model. The coupling between the two models, structural and aerodynamic, is described in the report. A computer code, based on the model has been assembled. The basic state of the blade is calculated using nonlinear aerodynamic data of the blade's cross-sections. Initial results of the code are presented in the report and include frequency and damping of the various modes.

50

References

1. Yadykin, Y., Tenetov, V., Weissberg, I., and Rosen, A.; Aeroelastic Analysis of Propellers, Part I - Static Analysis Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, TAE No.932, 2004 2. Mikkelson, D.C., Mitchell, G.A., and Bober, L.J., "Summary of Recent NASA Propeller Research," NASA TM-83733, 1984. 3. Kaza, K.R.V., Mehmed, O., Narayanan, G.V. and Murthy, D.V. "Analytical Flutter Investigation of a Composite Propfan Model," Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 26, No. 8, Aug. 1989, pp. 772-780 4. Reddy, T.S.R, Srivastava, R., and Mehmed, O. " ASTROP2-LE: A Mistuned Aeroelastic Analysis System Based on a Two Dimensional Linearized Euler Solver", NASA/TM-2002-211499, May 2002. 5. Elchuri, V., and Smith, G.C.C., "Flutter Analysis of Advanced Turbopropellers," AIAA Journal, Vol. 22, No. 6, June 1984, pp.801-802. 6. Turnburg, J.E., "Classical Flutter Stability of Swept Propellers, " AIAA Paper 830847, May 1983. 7. Mehmed, D., and Kaza, K.R.V., "Experimental Classical Flutter Results of a Composite Advanced Turboprop Model," NASA TM-88972, 1986. 8. Theodorsen, T., General Theory of Aerodynamic Instability and the Mechanism of Flutter, N.A.C.A. Report 496, 1935. 9. Gupta, K. K., Development of a Unified Numerical Procedure for Free Vibration Analysis of Structures, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 17, 1981, p.p.187-198. 10. Kosmatka, J. B. and Friedmann, P. P., Structural Dynamic Modeling of Advanced Composite Propellers by the Finite Element Method, AIAA Paper 87-0740, 1987, pp. 111-124. 11. Loewy, R.G., Rosen, A., Mathew, M. B., Application of the Principal Curvature Transformation to Nonlinear Rotor Blade Analysis, AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS, 27th Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Part 2, A Collection of Technical Papers, San Antonio, Texas, May 19-21, 1986, Paper 860843, pp. 55-76. 12. Weaver, J.R., Timoshenko, S.P., Young, D.H., Vibration Problems in Engineering, Fifth Edition, 1990 13. Foss, K.A., "Coordinates which uncouple the equations of motion of damped linear dynamic systems.," Jour. Appl. Mech., ASME, 25, 1958, pp.361-364. 14. Srivastava, R., Reddy, T.S.R. and Stefko, G.L., A Numerical Aeroelastic Stability Analysis of a Ducted-Fan Configuration, AIAA Paper 96-2671, 1996, pp.1-8 15. Ie, C.A. and Kosmatka, J.B., "Formulation of a Nonlinear Theory for Spinning Anisotropic Beams", Recent Advances in the Structural Dynamic Modeling of Composite Rotor Blades and Thick Composites, AD-Vol. 30, ASME 1992, pp.4157. 16. Bisplinghoff, R.L., Ashley, H., and Halfman, R., Aeroelasticity, Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola, New York, 1996. 17. Maksymiuk,C.M., and Watson, S., A., A Computer Program for Estimating the Aerodynamic Characteristics of NASA 16-Series Airfoils, NASA TM-85696, Sep. 1983. 18. Yadykin, Y., Tenetov, V., and Rosen, A., Aerodynamic Modeling of Propellers, Part 1 Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, TAE No.888, 2002.

51

Appendix A: Explanation of Nonlinearities in the Finite Element Analysis A.1. Introduction to Nonlinearities

This Appendix discusses the different geometrically nonlinear options within the ANSYS program including large strain, large deflection, stress stiffening, and spin softening. Only elements with displacements degrees of freedom (DOF's) are applicable. Geometric nonlinearities refer to the nonlinearities in the structure or component due to the changing geometry as it deflects. The stiffness [ K ] is a function of the displacements { u } . The stiffness changes because the shape changes and/or the rotations. The program can account for four types of geometric nonlinearities: 1 Large strain- Assumes that the strains are no longer infinitesimal (they are finite). Shape changes (e.g. area, thickness, etc.) are accounted for. Deflections and rotations may be arbitrarily large. 2. Large rotation- Assumes that the rotations are large but the strains (those that cause stresses) are evaluated using linearized expressions. The change in the shape of the structure is neglected, except for rigid motions. The elements refer to the original configuration. 3. Stress stiffening- Assumes that both, strains and rotations, are small. A 1st order approximation to the rotations is used to capture a few nonlinear rotation effects. 4. Spin softening- Also assumes that both, strains and rotations, are small. This option accounts for the radial motion of a structural mass as it is subjected to an angular velocity. Hence it is a type of large deflection but small rotation approximation. In what follows the effects of stress stiffening and spin softening are further explained:
A.2. Stress Stiffening

Stress stiffening is the stiffening (or weakening) of a structure due to its stress state. This stiffening effect normally needs to be considered for thin structures with small bending stiffness compared to their axial stiffness, such as thin beams. The effect couples the in-plane and transverse displacements. This effect also augments the regular nonlinear stiffness matrix produced by large strain or large deflection effects. The effect of stress stiffening is accounted for by generating and then using an additional stiffness matrix, hereinafter called the "stress stiffness matrix". The stress stiffness matrix is added to the regular stiffness matrix in order to give the total stiffness. Stress stiffening may be used for static or transient analyses. The stress stiffness matrix is computed based on the stress state of the previous equilibrium iteration. Thus, to generate a valid stress-stiffened problem, at least two iterations are normally required, with the first iteration being used to determine the stress state that will be used to generate the stress stiffness matrix of the second iteration. If this additional stiffness affects the stresses, more iterations need to be done to obtain a converged solution In some linear analyses, the static (or initial) stress state may be large enough that the additional stiffness effects must be included for accuracy. Modal analysis is linear analysis for which the prestressing effect can be included. Note, that in this case the 52

stress stiffness matrix is constant, since that the stresses computed in the analysis is assumed small compared to the prestress stress
A.3. Spin Softening

The vibration of a spinning blade will cause relative circumferential motions, which will change the direction of the centrifugal load which, in turn, will tend to stabilize or destabilize the structure. As a small deflection analysis cannot directly account for changes in geometry, the effect can be accounted for by an adjustment of the stiffness matrix, called spin (or centrifugal) softening. Spin softening is used during the modal analysis.

53

Appendix B: Matrices

The ANSYS code calculates the stiffness and mass matrices. Yet, in what follows expressions of these matrices, that were used for verification, are presented. Matrices M 0 , [ K CF ] , { FCF } , {F GR }, T 0 , and T 0 , that are presented in

[ ]
T

Eq.(15), are defined as follows [ 15 ]:

[ M ] = (
0 A

m1

m1

+ m2

m2

+ m3

m3

)dy dz

(B.1)

[ K CF ] = 1 ( [ K S ] + [ K S ] )
2

(B.2)

2+ 2 y z [ K s ] = + 2 + 2 x z A 2 2 + x + Y

( ( (

) ) )

m1 m2 m3

m1 m2 m3

T T T

2 y z m 2 2 x z m 1 2 x y m 1

m3

+ T m 3 + dy dz T m2
T

(B 3)

( 2 + 2 )(h t ) m 1 x ( y (h c ) + z (h n ) ) m 1 + y z 2 {FCF } = + ( x + 2 )(h c ) m 2 y ( z (h n ) + x (h t ) ) m 2 + dy dz z A 2 2 n t c + ( x + Y )(h ) m 3 z ( x (h ) + y (h ) m 3 )

x m 2 m 3 T m 3 m 2 T + y m 3 m1 [ F GR ] = 2 T T T A m 1 m 3 + z m 1 m 2 m 2 m 1

(B.4)

dy dz

(B.5)

Here m1
T

= [1,0,0,0, z, y ], m 2

= [0,1,0,z,0,0] ,

m3

= [ 0,0,1, y,0,0 ]

(B.6)

The components of the rotational velocity vector are [15]:

(
[ K s ] =
A

, y , z ) = (0, 0, ) [ T

]T

(B.7)

Hence the matrices can be written a follows:

{ ( [T
{ ( [ T
A

]T )

(m

m1

m2

m2

)}dy dz

(B.8)

[ FCF ] =
A

]T ) (( h t )
2

m 1 + ( hc ) m 2 m2
T

) }dy dz
m1
T

(B.9)

[ F GR ] = 2 { [ T 0 ]T (

m1

m2 54

)}dy dz

(B.10)

0 1 0 cos [T 0 ] = 0 0 sin 0

sin 0 , cos 0 0

(B.11)

0 is the pitch angle of the cross-section of the blade.

0 0 1 0 (sin ) (cos ) , [ T0 ] = 0 0 0 (cos 0 ) (sin 0 )

(B.12)

In two-dimensional case [ T
M X FY = [ T F Z

] = [ T3 ]
0 M sin 0 D cos 0 L

0 M 1 cos 0 0 ] D 0 L 0 sin 0

(B.13)

55

Appendix C: Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Acting on an Oscillating Airfoil

The problem of calculating the aerodynamic forces acting on a two-dimensional airfoil moving in simple harmonic motion about an equilibrium position (of incoming uniform flow-fixed wing), was analyzed by Theodorsen [8]. In [8] it was assumed that the lift and moment per unit span, due to blade motion, are linearly related to the displacements and their derivatives with respect to time. In the present analysis the influence of the drag force will be neglected, namely D = 0 . In the future it will be possible to replace it by more complicated models. Following Theodorsen, we consider a chordwise-rigid airfoil. The airfoil motion is described by a vertical translation h(t ) and rotation about axis OX at Y = ab , through an angle (t ) . The positive direction of these variables is indicated in Fig. 2. Theodorsen determined the forces and moments acting on an oscillating airfoil section, in an incompressible flow. The expressions for the lift, L , and moment , M , are derived using the airfoil system of coordinates. With the sign convention of both, the plunging and leading edge displacements due to pitching, positive upward (Fig. 1), the lift and moment, at the cross-section r of the blade, for a specified frequency, using the notation of Ref. 8, are:

2V 2V 2 L ( r,t ) = b2 h+ F ( ) F ( ) h ab + V [1 + (1 2 a) F ( )]+ b b
V 1 1 M ( r,t ) = b3 a h + (1 + 2 a ) F ( ) h b + a 2 + V a + b 8 2 V2 1 + + a 1 2 a F ( )V + F ( ) b 2

(C.1)

(C.2)

Here, a is the nondimensional distance between the mid-chord point and the point where h is measured.. = b V is the reduced frequency, is the circular frequency of oscillations, b is half chord of the blade cross-section and V is the velocity of incoming air flow The quantities h and represent the plunging and pitching displacements of the blade cross-section and are functions of time. The lift deficiency function, F ( ) , is a function of the reduced frequency, , and is expressed by Hankel functions, or separated into real and imaginary parts and expressed in terms of Bessel functions of the first and second kind:
F ( ) = ( ) + i G( ) ,

(C.3)

where

( ) =
and

J 1 (J 1 + Y0 ) + Y1 (Y1 J 0 )

(J1 + Y0 )2 + (Y1 J 0 )2

(C.4)

56

G( )=

(J1 + Y0 )2 + (Y1 J 0 )2

Y1Y0 + J1 J 0

(C.5)

The function F ( ) is worth a short discussion, since it plays a roll in the analysis of not only harmonic oscillations but also other unsteady cases [16]. The argument of all the Bessel functions is the reduced frequency, , which is regarded as the best measure of the unsteadiness of oscillations in an incompressible flow. An idea of the roll of F ( ) comes from an examination of the simplified lift and moment expressions used by aeronautical engineers when dealing with low-reduced-frequency unsteady motions. In the simplified case it is assumed that all aerodynamic loads are obtained from steady-state formulas except that the angle of attack is replaced by the instantaneous inclination between the resultant velocity vector and the chordline. In the case of h and motions, this procedure would lead to [16]:

L 0 2 b V h + V M 0 L 0 b (0.5 + a )
Note, that Eq. (C.6) can be rearranged as:
h 2 21 + CL ( ) M 0 V b + a 2 V 2 h L 0 V 2 b 2 + CL () V

(C.6)

(C.7)

where, according to the linear theory:

CL ( ) = 2

(C.8)

The expression (2 ) in equations (C.7)-(C.8) is the theoretical value of the lift curveslope, dC L d , [16]: Using the lift curve-slope, dC L d , equations (C.1) and (C.2) may be expressed as:

V dCL () (1 2 a) dCL () F ( ) h b a + 1 + F ( ) V h+ 2 d b d L ( r,t ) = b2 (C.9) 2 V dCL () + F ( ) d b

57

 (1 + 2 a ) dCL ( ) F ( ) V h b 1 + a 2 + V a 1 + M ( r,t ) = b3 a h + b 2 d 2 8
2 1 V dCL ( ) 1 (1 2 a ) dCL ( ) + + a F ( ) F ( ) V + 2 b d d 2 2

(C.10)

Expressions (C.9) and (C.10) can be written, in a matrix form, as:

h h h L ( r,t ) = [ C1 ] + [ C 2 ] + [ C 3 ] M ( r,t )

(C.11)

Where, the aerodynamic matrices [ C1 ] , [ C 2 ] and [ C 3 ] are:

[ C1 ] = 3b

b3a

b a

0.125 + a
2

(C.12)

(2 a 1 ) dCL ( ) 1 dCL ( ) F( ) F( ) 1 d 2 [ C2 ] = b2 V b d dCL ( ) 0.25 a 2 dCL ( ) F ( ) ( 0.5 + a ) b a 0.5 + F ( ) d d

(C.13)

[ C3 ] = V 2 b d CL ( ) F ( )
d

0 0

1 b ( 0.5 + a )

{C14)

During the present aerodynamic analysis the blade is divided into N s strips in the spanwise direction (see Fig.D.2). Each strip has two "aerodynamic" degrees of freedom: a plunging displacement, hn , and a pitching displacement, n . Since the motion is harmonic, a circular frequency is defined. The plunging and pitching motions of the nth cross-section ( 1 n N s ) can be expressed as: h n = n h 0 it n 0 e n

(C.15)

0 0 h n , n are the plunging and pitching amplitudes at cross-section n.

After substituting Eq.(C.15) into Eqs. (C.11), the lift and moment acting on nth oscillating strip of the blade, are given by: 58

 L n 2 = ( [n ,2 ] + i [n ,1 ]+ [n ,0 ] ) M n

h n n

(C.16)

The matrices n ,2 , n ,1 , n ,0 are complex square matrices of order 2 x 2, defined as:

[ ]= b
n ,2

Pn, 2 Qn, 2 Rn, 2 S n, 2

(C.17)

1 3 2 2 Pn,2 = bn l n , Qn,2 = bn l n a , Rn,2 = bn l n a , S n,2 = bn l n a 2 + 8

(C.18)

[ ]= b
n ,1

Pn,1 Qn,1 Rn,1 S n,1

(C.19)

Pn,1 = 2 bn ln
V bn

dC L ( ) V F ( n ) bn 2 d
(1 2a ) dC L ( ) F ( ) n 1+ 2 d

(C.20)

2 Qn,1 = bn ln

(C.21)

2 Rn,1 = bn ln

V ( 1 + 2 a ) dC L( ) F ( n ) bn d 2

(C.22)

3 Sn,1 = bn ln

1 (1 + 2 a ) dC L () V F ( n ) a 1 2 d bn 2

(C.23)

[ ]= b
n ,0

Pn, 0 Qn, 0 Rn, 0 S n, 0

(C.24)
V 2 dC ( ) F ( n ) d

Pn ,0 = 0

Qn,0 = ln

Rn ,0 = 0

S n,0

V 2 1 dC() F ( n ) = bn l n + a 2 d

(C.25)

Here, b n , n , l n , are, respectively: half chord, reduced frequency (based on b n ), length of the strip, and air density.

59

The aerodynamic matrices, [2 ] , [1 ] and [0 ] for the entire blade, are a diagonal matrices of order 3N s 3N s , given by: 0 0 = 0 1,2

[ 2 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0

0 n ,2

(C.26)

0 0

[ ]
N s ,2

[ 1 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0 =

0 1,1

0 0

0 n ,1

0 0

0 N s ,1

(C.27)

[ 0 ] 3 N x 3 N
s

0 0 =

0 1,0

0 0

0 n ,0

0 0

[ ]
N s ,0

(C.28)

The aerodynamic matrices n ,2 , n ,1 and n ,0 are defined by Eqs.(C.17), (C.19), and (C.24) respectively.

60

Appendix D: Calculating the matrix [H ]

According to Eq. (25) of the main text:

u (t ) = [ ] q (t )

(D.1)

u is the displacement vector. If we use a finite element code, then u k denotes the

kth displacement (displacement related to the kth degree of freedom) of the Thus the vector u becomes:
2 u = u 1 , u 1 , 1 k u 1 ,

th

node.

u 1 ,

u k 1 , u k , u k +1 ,

u K ,

u 1 0 , L

u k 0 L

u K0 L (D.2)

where:
1 L0 ,

1 k K

(D.3)

L 0 is the total number of nodes, K is the number of degrees of freedom at each node.

q is the vector of generalized coordinates, defined as follows:

q = { q 1 , q 2 , q s ,, q S }
(D.4)
P S , where S is the

[ ] is the matrix of eigenvectors, the dimension of which is

number of modes used in the analysis:
1,1 = i ,1 P ,1 1,s i ,s P ,s 1,S i ,S P ,S

[ ]PS

(D.5)

and:
P = L0 K , 1 i P

(D.6)

~ If w k,s denotes the kth displacement (displacement related to the kth degree of

freedom) of the

th

node, of the s th mode shape, then:

1 ) K + k ] , s

~ w k,s = [ (

(D.7)

where 1 L 0 , 1 s S, 1 k K (D.8)

The blade is divided into N s strips. In each strip there are Mc elements. The element (n, 1) is the leading edge element of strip n, while the element (n, Mc) is the trailing edge element of that strip. Each element has I e nodes. The perturbation of the 61

displacement which is related to the kth degree of freedom, of node i, of element mc of strip n, is denoted: ~ ~ w k , m c ,i n
1 k K ; 1 n N s ; 1 mc M c ; 1 i I e

(D.9)

It is convenient now to define a vector w n ,m c of dimensions N e where: N e = Ie K (D.10)

The vector w n ,m c describes the displacements at the nodes of the element (n, mc) and is defined as follows: ~ ~ ~ ~ w m c = w 1 , m c ,1 , w 1 , m c , 2 , n, n n ~ ~ ~ ~ , w 1 , m c ,Ie , w 2 , m c ,1 , n n ~ ~ , w 2 , m c ,Ie , n ~ ~ , w k , m c ,i , n ~ ~ , w K, m c ,Ie n

(D.11) For further derivations it is convenient do define a vector w of the perturbation displacements of all the elements, the dimensions of which is N0, where: N0 = Mc Ne The vector w is defined as:
w n = w T,1 , w T, 2 , n n

(D.12)

, w T, m c , n

w T, M c n

(D.13)

It is possible, based on the finite element scheme, to write down the following relation:

w n = [A ] N 0 P u( t )

(D.14)

The elements of the matrix [A ] are either one (1) or zero (0), depending on the finite element structure of the blade. For a three-dimensional shell element as shown in Fig. D.1, k=1, 2, 3 correspond to the linear displacements in the directions X, Y, Z, (respectively) of the global system of coordinates, k=4, 5, 6 refer to the rotations about the axes X, Y, Z, respectively, K is equal to 6.

62

Figure D1. 3D quadratic shell element

Let us return to the element (n, mc). The kth displacement over the element depends on the kth displacements at its nodes and is given as a function of the element coordinates r, s and t {see Fig. D.1}. Thus
Ie ~ ~k ~ w n , m c = N i ( r , s, t ) w k , m c , i n i =1

(D.15)

where N i (r, s, t ) are the element shape functions. In the present analysis Shell 93 element is used (see Fig.D.1). In this case I e = 8 and the functions N i (r, s, t ) are reduced to N i (s, t ) where: N1 = N3 = N5 = 1 (1 s )(1 t )( s t 1) , 4 1 (1 + s )(1 + t )(s + t 1) , 4 N2 = N4 = 1 (1 + s )(1 t )(s t 1) , 4 1 (1 s )(1 + t )( s + t 1) , 4

1 (1 s 2 )(1 t ) , 2 1 N 7 = 1 s 2 (1 + t ) , 2

N6 =

1 (1 + s ) (1 t 2 ) , 2 1 N 8 = (1 s ) 1 t 2 . 2

(D.16)

The indeces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 correspond to the nodes I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P of the finite element (Fig. D.1 ) At the point s = t = 0, namely the middle point of the element Shell 93, the values of the shape functions are: 1 N1 = N 2 = N 3 = N 4 = , 4 The representative kth N5 = N 6 = N 7 = N8 = 1 2 (D.17)

~ ~ displacements of element (n, mc), w k , m c , will be the n

displacements of the middle point of the element. For the element Shell 93, it is given by:

63

 1 ~ w k , m c = n 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 2

1 2

1 2

~ ~ w k ,m ,1 n ~ c ~ w k , m , 2 n ~ c ~ w 1 , m c ,3 n ~ 1 w k ~ n ,mc , 4 ~1 2 ~ w n ,m ,5 ~ k c ~ w n ,mc ,6 ~ w 1 ~ ~ n ,mc ,7 ~ w k , m c ,8 n

(D.18)

For aerodynamic calculations the representative values of the displacements of the n th strip are required. ~ n is the representative k th component of the displacement vk ~ of the n th strip. It will be chosen as the average of all the w k , m c over the strip, namely: n ~k w n,1 ~ k w n, 2 ~ k = 1 1, 1, ,1 (D.19) v n ~ k Mc w n, m c ~ w k M n, c

It is convenient now to define a vector v n of order K as follows:

v = ~ 1n ,~ n , v v2 n

, ~ k , vn

~ K vn

(D.20)

Based on Eqs. (D.11), (D.13), (D.14), (D.18), (D.19) and (D.20) it is possible to write, for the n th strip of the blade, the following expression:

vn = B n wn
where the dimensions of the matrix B n are K N 0 .

[ ]

(D.21)

[ ]

The displacements which are important for the present aerodynamic calculations are: 1) 2) The plunging displacement, h, (motion perpendicular to chord). It is measured along the reference line The pitching displacement, . It indicates the rotation of the cross-section about the reference line.

64

The numerical steps for computing the plunging displacement, h n , of the nth strip and the rotation, n , are listed below: (1) The tangent unit vector , that is a radial vector at the middle chord (tangent t to the reference line), is computed . (2) The chord unit vectors of the strips are computed next. The cross-section plane of the strip is defined, perpendicular to the tangent unit vector at the middle chord point. The points of intersection of this plane and the blade leading and trailing edges define the chord. A chord unit vector is drawn along the line c that joins these points.

(3) The normal unit vectors are computed next. The chord unit vector is c at this point is translated to the middle chord point. The normal unit vector n the vector cross product of the tangent and the chord unit vectors at the middle chord point:
n = ct

(D.22)

(4) The plunging displacements in the direction of the normal vector at a middle chord point, denoted h n , is the dot product of the normal vector and the corresponding displacement vector:
~ 1 vn ~ 2 v n ~ 3 v n

h n = {n x , n y , n

z n

(D.23)

(5) The pitching displacements about the tangent vector, at the middle chord point, represented by n , is the dot product of the tangent vector and the corresponding rotation vector
v 4 n 5 v n 6 v n

n = {t x , t y , t

(D.24)

Based on the geometry of the problem it is possible to write:

h n = C 1 ~ 1 + C 2 ~ 2 + C 3 ~ 3 vn vn vn n n n

(D.25)

where h n is the plunging motion of the nth blade's strip. C 1 , C 2 , and C 3 are n n n coefficients of the transformation. In a similar manner to Eq. (D.25) it is also possible to write: 65

 n = C 4 ~ 4 + C 5 ~ 5 + C 6 ~ 6 vn vn vn n n n

(D.26)

where n is the pitching motion of the nth blade's strip and C 4 , C 5 , and C 6 are n n n coefficients of the transformation. Based on Eqs. (D.25) and (D.26) one can write:
hn = [ Cn ] vn n

(D.27)

[ C n ] is a matrix of the coefficients of the transformation, defined as follows:

[C ] = C
n

1 n

C2 n 0

C3 n 0

0 C4 n

0 C5 n

0 C6 n

(D.28)

Substitution of Eqs. (D.1), (D.14) into Eq. (D.21) and then into Eq. (D.27), result in:
h n = [ Hn ]q n

(D.29)

where

[H n ]2 S = [ C n ] 2 K [ B n ] K N [A n ] N P [ ]P S
0 0

(D.30)

66

Figure D.2: Matrix [ ] Components.

67

Appendix E: Calculating the matrix [PA ]

The matrix [ PA ] is the matrix that describes the distribution of the resultant crosssectional aerodynamic loads over the blade. In the present analysis of it is assumed that the aerodynamic loads can be calculated using steady-state formulas while the angle of attack is given by the instantaneous angle between the resultant velocity vector and the chordline. If the cosines of small angles are taken equal to unity, then the lift and pitching moment acted on the nth strip of the blade are:
b b b M n = p (y ab ) dy = L n b (0.5 + a ) b

L n = p dy = V dy = Vn

(E.1)

after using the flat-plate chordwise loading [16]:

= 2V

by b+y

(E.2)

the lift force can be described as follows:

L n = 2V 2
b

by dy = 2 b V 2 b+y

(E.3)

where y = b cos and:

b

by dy = b b+y

(1 cos ) d = b 0

(E.4)

Dividing the interval of integration by a number of segments that is equal to number of chordwise finite elements, Mc, (see Fig. E.1), the integral (E.7) is written as:
Mc b 2 M c b 2
M c 1 b 2 M c 2 b 2

by dy = b+y
b

M c b 2

f (y)dy +
+

M c 1 b 2

f (y )dy f (y)dy +
b

+ f (y )dy
0

Mc 1 b 2

Mc 2 b 2

f (y )dy + f (y)dy = b
Mc 1 b 2

Mc b 2

(E.5)

where f (y ) =

by describes the distribution of the aerodynamic forces, b+y

Mc b = b are the limits of integration and b is the chordwise length of the FE. 2

68

If it is assumed that Eq. (E.5) describes also the unsteady aerodynamic loads, then:

V dCL () h + b d F ( ) h b a + L ( r, t ) = b f (y) dy (E.6) 2 (1 2 a ) dCL () V dCL () Mc 1+ b F ( ) F ( ) V + 2 d 2 d b

Mc b 2

M ( r, t ) = b 2

Mc b 2

M c b 2

f (y )dy a h +

(1 + 2 a ) dC L ( ) F ( ) V h b 1 + a 2 + +
2 d b 8

2 1 V dC L ( ) 1 1 (1 2 a ) dC L ( ) + V a + + a F ( ) V + F ( ) (E.7) d 2 b d 2 2 2

Figure E.1. The scheme of the numbering of the nodes of the finite element The matrix [PA ] can be described as follows:
P M 1,1 = 0 0
s

[ ]

[PA ] P 3 N

[P ]
M

n ,n

[ ]

0 PM N ,N s s 0

(E.8)

[P ] is of order P 3 N (E.5), the matrix [P ]

A M

, where P = K N m M c N s . In accordance with equation (which is of order K N m M c 3 ) can be presented as

n ,n

follows:

69

([P ] )

M n ,n 6 M N 3 C m

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = bn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M c 1 b n 2

0 0

M c b n 2

f (y ) dy
0 0 0 0 0
mc

M c 1 b n 2

M c b n 2

f (y ) dy ( A )
0 0 0 0 0
Mc

Mc b n 2

Mc 1 b n 2

f (y ) dy (A )
0 0 0

0 Mc 1 b n 2 f (y ) dy ( A 1 ) M c b n 2 0 0 0 0 0 M c 1 b n 2 f (y ) dy A m c M c b n 2 0 0 0 0 0 Mc b n 2 f (y) dy A Mc Mc 1 b n 2 0 0 0 0

(E.9)

The coefficient A m c are defined as follows

A m c =1

(N )
m

mc

(E.10)

(1 N )
m

mc

is a parameter representing a uniform distribution of the aerodynamic loads

over the N m nodes (which are defined in Fig.E.1) of the m c th finite element

70

Appendix F: Calculating the matrix T 0

The transformation matrix, [ T order P P :
[ TM =
0

[ ]

],

for the entire blade, is a diagonal matrix of

] 1,1 [ TM ] n , n [ TM

[ T0 ] P P

, P = K N m Mc Ns ] Ns , Ns

(F.1)

([ T ] )
M n, n

K N m M c K N m M c

[TF =

]1,1 [TF ] m
c , ,mc

[TF ] M c , M c

(F.2)

([T

]m

c , ,m c

K N m K N m

T 0 0 T 1,1 =

T 0 0 T nm , nm

T 0 0 T Nm , Nm

(F.3)

[ T ] is obtained by using the Euler angles 2 , 1 , 0 .

[ T ] = [ T1 ][ T2 ][ T3 ]

(F.4)

0 0 1 cos 1 0 sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 0 0 cos , [T ] = 0 , T = sin cos 0 [T1 ] = sin0 2 1 0 3 2 2 0 0 sin0 cos0 sin 1 0 cos 1 0 0 1 (F.5)

[ ]

71

Finally the matrix [T ] n

,nm

is:
cos 1 sin 2 sin 0 sin 1 sin 2 + cos 0 cos 2 cos 0 sin 1 sin 2 sin 0 cos 2 sin 0 cos 1 cos 0 cos 1 nm , nm sin 1

[T] n

m , nm

cos 1 cos 2 sin 0 sin 1 cos 2 = cos 0 sin 2 cos 0 sin 1 cos 2 + sin 0 sin 2

(F.6)

where 1 n m N m . Note, that for the two-dimensional case 1 = 2 = 0 , T = [ T1 ] , then:

[ ]

T 0 0 T nm , nm

0 1 0 cos 0 0 sin 0 = 0

0 sin 0 cos 0

0 1 0 0 cos 0 0 sin 0

0 sin 0 cos 0 n

(F.7)

m , nm

72