Solid-State Welding Processes

Text Reference: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, K l kji & S h id 6/ 2010 T h l Kalpakjian Schmid, 6/e, Chapter 31

Solid State Solid-State Welding Processes

Joining takes p g place without fusion at the interface No liquid or molten phase is present at the joint Two surfaces brought together under pressure For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean:
No oxide films No residues No metalworking fluids No adsorbed layers of gas No other contaminants

Solid State Bonding g

Involves one or more of:

Diffusion: the transfer of atoms across an interface

Facilitated by heat
Friction Electrical-resistance Induction

P Pressure:
The higher the pressure, the stronger the interface May combine pressure & resistance heating

Relative interfacial movements

Create clean surfaces Even small amplitudes improve bond strength

Cold Welding
Pressure is applied to the workpieces through dies or rolls Plastic deformation R Requires at l i t least one ( f bl b th) t (preferably both) mating parts be ductile Prepare surfaces by pre-cleaning Best bond strength occurs with two similar g materials

FIGURE 31.1

Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding, process. process

FIGURE 31.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for making lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller as the sonotrode.

Ultrasonic Welding g
Process is versatile and reliable Used with wide variety of metallic & nonmetallic materials
Including dissimilar metals (bimetallic strips)

Useful for:
Joining plastics Packaging with foils Lap welding of sheet foil thin wire sheet, foil, Seam welding if one material is:
sheet, foil, polymer-woven material p y

Moderate operator skill

FIGURE 31.3 Sequence of operations in the friction-welding process:

(1) The part on the left is rotated at high speed; (2) The part on the right is brought bro ght into contact with the part on the left under an a ial force (3) The a ial ith nder axial force; axial force is increased, and the part on the left stops rotating; flash begins to form; (4) After a specified upset length or distance is achieved, the weld is completed. The upset length is the distance the two pieces move inward during p p g p g welding after their initial contact; thus, the total length after welding is less than the sum of the lengths of the two pieces. The flash subsequently can be removed by machining or grinding.

FIGURE 31.4 Shape of the fusion zones in friction welding as a function of the axial force applied and the rotational speed speed.

Inertia Friction Welding

A modification of Friction Welding The necessary energy is supplied by the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel

Linear Friction Welding

- Use linear reciprocating motion (not rotational) - Process suitable for welding square or rectangular parts - Metals or plastics

FIGURE 31.5 The principle of the friction-stir-welding process. Aluminum-alloy plates up to 75 mm ( in.) thick have been welded by yp p (3 ) y this process.

Resistance Welding (RW)

The heat required for welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across the two joining components Process does not require:
Consumable electrodes Shielding gasses Flux

Bond strength depends on surface roughness & cleanliness Requires specialized machinery (generally nonportable) Many facilities now automated Low operator skill level

FIGURE 31.6 (a) Sequence of events in resistance spot welding. (b) Cross section of a spot weld showing the weld nugget and the indentation weld, of the electrode on the sheet surfaces. This is one of the most commonly used processes in sheet-metal fabrication and in automotive body assembly.

FIGURE 31.7 Two electrode designs for easy access to the components to be welded.

FIGURE 31.8 Spot-welded (a) cookware and (b) muffler. (c) An automated spot-welding machine. The welding tip can move in three principal directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 0.55 m (88 22 in.) can be accommodated in this machine with proper workpiece supports.
Source: Courtesy of TaylorWinfield Corporation.

FIGURE 31.9 Test methods for spot welds: (a) tension-shear test, (b) cross-tension test cross tension test, (c) twist test (d) peel test (see also Fig 32.9). test, Fig. 32 9)

FIGURE 31.10 (a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes. (b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld. ( ) Roll spot welds ( ) pp g p (c) p and (d) Mash seam welding.

FIGURE 31.11 Two methods of high-frequency continuous butt welding of tubes tubes.

FIGURE 31.12 (a) Schematic illustration of resistance projection welding. ( ) A welded bracket. ( ) and ( ) Projection welding of nuts or g (b) (c) (d) j g threaded bosses and studs. (e) Resistance projection welded grills.

FIGURE 31.13 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b) and ( ) Typical p p ( ) (c) yp parts made by flash y welding. (d) and (e) Some design guidelines for flash welding.

FIGURE 31.14 The sequence of operations in stud welding commonly used for welding bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal g plates.

FIGURE 31.15 The relative sizes of the weld beads obtained by tungsten-arc tungsten arc and by electron-beam or laser-beam welding. electron beam laser beam welding

FIGURE 31.16 Schematic illustration of the explosion-welding process: (a) constant-interface clearance gap and (b) angular-interface clearance gap. ( ) Cross section of explosion-welded joint: titanium g p (c) p j (top) and low-carbon steel (bottom). (d) Ironnickel alloy (top) and lowcarbon steel (bottom).

Diffusion Bonding
A process in which the strength of the joint results from
diffusion (primarily), and plastic deformation of the faying surfaces

Diffusion is the movement of atoms across the interfaces Temperatures about 0.5 Tm (absolute) The bonded interface has the same physical & mechanical properties as the base metal Strength of bond depends on:
Pressure Temperature Time (duration) of contact Cleanliness of faying surfaces y g

Bonding may be facilitated by use of a filler metal at the interface , p y For some materials, brittle intermetallic compounds may form at interface
Prevented by electroplating the surfaces

Diffusion Bonding g
Use high pressure autoclaves for complex parts Suitable for joining j g
Dissimilar metals (most common) Reactive metals (e.g. Titanium, Beryllium) Metal matrix composite materials Metal-matrix

An important PM sintering mechanism Relatively slow process y p

To allow time for diffusion

Automation enables economic production in moderate volumes;

Aerospace, nuclear, electronics

Requires skilled operator q p

FIGURE 31.17 Aerospace diffusion bonding applications. p g pp

FIGURE 31.18 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of a structure by the diffusion bonding and superplastic forming of three originally flat sheets See also Fig 16 48 Sources: (a) After D Stephen sheets. Fig. 16.48. D. and S.J. Swadling. (b) and (c) Courtesy of Rockwell International Corp.

FIGURE 31.19 The Monosteel piston. (a) Cutaway view of the piston, showing the oil gallery and friction-welded sections; (b) detail of the friction welds before the external flash is removed by machining; note that this photo is a reverse of the one on the left.