More about Polynomials

7 Contents

7.1 Polynomials and Their Operations

7.2 Division of Polynomials

7.3 Remainder Theorem

Home
7.4 Factor Theorem and Its Applications
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7.1 Polynomials and Their Operations
A. Polynomials in One Variable

In general, a polynomial in one variable x can be expressed as

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + ... + a1 x + a0 ,
where n is a non - negative integer and an , an −1, , a1 , a0are real
numbers with an ≠ 0. Also , n is called the degree of the polynomial .

Remarks:
1 1
1. Expression such as x − 2 , x , x + and are not polynomial s.
x x +1
Home
• A polynomial in one variable x can be regarded as a function of x.
Content
• A polynomial with a non-zero constant term a0only is of degree 0. A
polynomial consisting of 0 only is called the zero polynomial and
has no degree.

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7.1 Polynomials and Their Operations

B. Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication of Polynomials

Example 7.1T

Add x 3 + 7 x 2 − 2 and 1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 .

Solution:

( x 3 + 7 x 2 − 2) + (1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 )
= x 3 + 4 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 3x 2 + 2 x − 2 + 1 Group the like terms to
= 5 x 3 + 10 x 2 + 2 x − 1 calculate the coefficients.
Home

Content

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7.1 Polynomials and Their Operations

Example 7.2T
Subtract x 3 + 7 x 2 − 2 from 1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 .

Subtract A from B means

Solution:
B – A.
(1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 ) − ( x 3 + 7 x 2 − 2)
= 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 − x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2
= 4 x3 − x3 + 3x 2 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 1 + 2
= 3x3 − 4 x 3 + 2 x + 3
Home

Content

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7.1 Polynomials and Their Operations
C. Equality of Polynomials

Two polynomials f (x) and g(x) are equal for all real values of x if the
coefficients of like powers of x in the two polynomials are equal.

Also, we can write f ( x) ≡ g ( x) to denote two identical polynomial s

f ( x) and g ( x).

f (x) ≡ g(x) means that f (x)

and g(x) are equal for all real
Home values of x.
Also, we can say that f (x) is
Content identical to g(x), or f (x) ≡
g(x) is an identity.

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7.2 Division of Polynomials
A. By Monomials

For example, we divide 2 x 2 + 3 x − 4 by − x. The polynomial 2 x 2 + 3 x − 4 is

called the dividend and the polynomial − x is called the divisor.

When a polynomial is divided by a divisor, we get a quotient and a

remainder. We can write

dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder

Home where the remainder is zero or the degree of the remainder is less
than that of the divisor. It is known as the Division algorithm of
Content polynomials.

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7.2 Division of Polynomials
B. By Linear Binomials

Consider 2 x 2 + 3 x − 4 divided by x − 2.

The first term 2 x in the quotient is

Step 1: 2x
obtained by dividing 2 x 2 (in the dividend)
x − 2 2 x 2 + 3x − 4
2x2 2x2
by x (in the divisor), that is, = 2 x.
x

Home Step 2: 2x
x − 2 2 x 2 + 3x − 4 2x2 – 4x is obtained by multiplying x – 2
Content and 2x. Then 2x2 – 4x is subtracted from
2x2 − 4x
7x − 4 the dividend 2x2 + 3x – 4 to give 7x – 4.

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7.2 Division of Polynomials

Step 3: 2x + 7
x − 2 2 x 2 + 3x − 4 The second term + 7 in the quotient is
2x2 − 4x obtained by dividing 7 x by x (in the
7x − 4 7x
divisor), that is, = 7.
7x x

2x + 7
Step 4: 7x – 14 is obtained by multiplying x – 2
x − 2 2 x 2 + 3x − 4
by 7. Then 7x – 14 is subtracted from
2x2 − 4x 7x – 4 and the remainder is 10. We
Home 7x − 4 stop here since the degree of the
7 x − 14 remainder is less than the degree of
Content the divisor.
10

We can also write 2 x 2 + 3 x − 4 = ( x − 2)(2 x + 7) + 10.

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7.2 Division of Polynomials
C. By Quadratic Polynomials

Example 7.7T

Find the quotient and the remainder when 2 x 3 + 11x − 3 is divided by

1 + 3x + x 2 .

Solution:
• To start with the method
2x − 6 of long division, we need
x 2 + 3 x +1 2 x 3 + 0 x 2 +11x − 3 to rearrange the terms of
2 x3 + 6 x 2 + 2 x the dividend and the
Home divisor in descending
− 6x2 + 9x − 3
powers of x.
− 6 x 2 − 18 x − 6 • The procedure stops when
Content
27 x + 3 the degree of the remainder
∴ quotient = 2 x − 6 is less than the degree of the
divisor.
remainder = 27 x + 3

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7.2 Division of Polynomials
Example 7.8T

Find the quotient and the remainder when 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 7 x + 5 is divided by

1 + x + x2.

Solution:
2x + 5
x 2 + x +1 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 7 x + 5
Since the remainder is 0,
2 x3 + 2 x 2 + 2 x the polynomial
5x2 + 5x + 5 2x3 + 7x2 + 7x + 5 is
5x2 + 5x + 5 divisible by 1 + x + x2.
Home 0

Content ∴ Quotient = 2 x + 5
Remainder = 0

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7.3 Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x – a, a quotient Q(x) and a

remainder R is obtained. P(x) can be expressed in terms of x – a, Q(x) and
R as
P( x) = ( x − a ) × Q( x) + R.....................(*)

By putting x = a into (*), we have

P(a) = (a − a ) × Q(a ) + R
= 0 × Q(a ) + R
= 0+ R
=R ∴ R = P(a )
Home

Content Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x – a, the remainder R is equal
to P(a).

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7.3 Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial P(x) is divided by px – q, the quotient Q(x) and the

remainder R are obtained. Then we have

P ( x) = ( px − q ) × Q( x) + R.....................(**)
q
Similarly, (**) is also an identity. By putting x = into (**), we have
p
q  q  q
P  =  p  − q  × Q  + R
 p   p   p
q
= 0 × Q  + R
 p
Home =0+ R
=R
Content
q
∴ R = P 
 p

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7.4 Factor Theorem and Its Applications
A. Factor Theorem

Factor Theorem
If P(x) is a polynomial and P(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of P(x).
Conversely, if x – a is a factor of a polynomial P(x), then P(a) = 0.

q
If P(x) is a polynomial and P  = 0, then px – q is a factor of P(x).
 p
q
Conversely, if px – q is a factor of a polynomial P(x), then P  = 0.
Home  p

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7.4 Factor Theorem and Its Applications
B. Applications of the Factor Theorem

Example 7.12T

Let P( x) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3 x − 4.

• Factorize P(x).
• Solve the equation P(x) = 0.

Solution:

Home (a) P( −1) = ( −1)3 + 2 × ( −1) 2 − 3 × (−1) − 4

= −1 + 2 + 3 − 4
Content =0
∴ x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
By the method of long division, P ( x) = ( x + 1)( x 2 + x − 4).

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7.4 Factor Theorem and Its Applications
Example 7.12T

Let P( x) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3 x − 4.

• Factorize P(x).
• Solve the equation P(x) = 0.

Solution:

(b) P ( x) = 0,
( x + 1)( x 2 + x − 4) = 0
Home x + 1 = 0 or x 2 + x − 4 = 0
− 1 ± 12 − 4 × 1 × (−4)
Content x = −1 or x =
2 ×1
− 1 ± 17
=
2

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