Introduction

What is Energy? Before getting into knowing what are energy sources we must know what energy is. Energy is the ability to do work. Energy helps in powering business, manufacturing and transportation of goods and services. There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us can be stored, converted, and amplified for our use. Energy comes in different forms heat, light, thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical and nuclear energy. We all use energy for our daily work like when we walk, jump, eat food, drive car, play, transportation etc. Energy is stored in different ways and can be transformed from one type to another. So, the energy sources from which we gain energy are classified broadly into 2 groups namely: Renewable and Non-Renewable (Fossil Fuels) Non-Renewable Sources Non-Renewable Sources include fossil fuels (Coal, Oil and gas) and Nuclear energy. They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Fossil fuels are relatively easy to use to generate energy because they only require a simple direct combustion. However, a problem with fossil fuels is their environmental impact. When used on a larger scale they may deplete from the earth after some years and also cause the great deal of air pollution. Coal is crushed to a fine dust and burnt. Oil and gas can be burnt directly. Although very large amount of electricity can be produced at one place, it has a lot of disadvantages. The major drawback is the pollution which in turn causes greenhouse effect which may lead to global warming. Also, coal fired power stations need huge amount of fuel. With the large drawbacks of fossil fuels, scientists across the world are moving there focus from fossil fuels to Nuclear energy. Non-renewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fussion) to create heat and ultimately electricity. Most of the nations have started building nuclear reactors in order to avoid using fossil fuels which contribute to global warming. Some military ships and submarines even have nuclear power plants for engines. Nuclear power produces around 11% of the world's energy needs, and produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel, without the pollution that you'd get from burning fossil fuels. Nuclear power is reliable and does not produce smoke or waste but if anything goes wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster. People all across the globe use these energy sources to generate electricity for homes, business, factories and schools. We use this energy to light bulb, run computer, refrigerators, washing machines and air conditioners etc. We use energy to run our cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars, and the diesel fuel used in our trucks are made from oil. Since, renewable sources are not used on much wider scale and use of Non-renewable sources cause pollution to the environment and may extinct if used in a hazardous manner, so the need of the hour is to conserve these resources,
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use them in an efficient manner to minimize the wastage, use of renewable on wide scale and making this planet a better place to live in. Renewable Energy sources Renewable Sources include solar, wind, geothermal, biomass and hydropower. Solar energy is the energy that we get from the sun. It is the major source of energy among all the nations. However, there are major drawbacks related to limited production as well as high costs that don't allow people to use it in a wider scale. Solar energy is responsible for growth of plants and indirectly, the existence of all animal life. Wind energy is used in large farm fields where they can use windmills to provide power for the accomplishment of agricultural tasks has contributed to the growth of civilization. This apart from solar is another clean and renewable source of energy. The major drawback is that it can be used only in the coastal regions and can be noisy too. Geothermal energy is the energy stored inside the earth. The center of the earth has temperature about 6000 degrees F. The heat that is stored inside the earth is used to produce steam, which is then used to drive electrical generators. The main advantage of it is that it does not cause any pollution and no fuel is needed. However, hazardous steams and gases may come out from bottom that may cause harm to mankind. Biomass energy is the enrgy that we get from the organic materials. Biomass is simply the conversion of stored energy in plants into energy that we can use. Thus, burning wood is a method of producing biomass energy. "Bioconversion" uses plant and animal wastes to produce "biofuels" such as methanol, natural gas, and oil. It in turns causes pollution when you burn them but is relatively cheap and freely available. Hydroelectric energy is the use of running of water to generate electricity. To trap this energy a dam is built usually in a river or lake and water is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam to turn the turbines and thus drive generators. No waste or pollution is caused and power can be generated through out the year but if the dam is built it may cause the flood in the large area and therefore getting the suitable site may be difficult. [1]

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Chapter - 1

Renewable energy
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and bio-fuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity (including small hydro) and 3% from new renewables (like modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and bio-fuels) which are growing very rapidly. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in three distinct areas: power generation, hot water/ space heating, transport fuels. Power generation-Renewable energy provides 18 percent of total electricity generation worldwide. The share electricity generation is around the 15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables. Heating- Solar hot water makes an important contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GW). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a requirement of the hot water. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a requirement of the water heating needs of over 85 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well as the direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly. Transport fuels- Renewable bio-fuels or bio-ethanol have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption. The 93 billion lit of bio-fuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion lit of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production.[2]

1.1 Low-entropy way of using energy The first law of thermo-dynamics says that the total amount of energy on our planet remains constant. The second law states that as forms of energy are expended they become less easily available. That is entropy: the slow winding down of available energy. When we burn coal, gas or oil you rapidly convert a relatively easily available, concentrated source of energy into a much less available form: dispersed exhaust gases. A highly concentrated energy source, built up over millions of years quickly gone up in smoke! So, burning fossil fuels is a high-entropy way of using energy.

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Using renewable energy however merely taps into a natural flow of energy, sunlight, moving water, wind, biological- or geothermal processes. These are part of natural cycles. Their energy is truly renewable as it remains available to the same degree and is not depleted any more than it otherwise would by using it. [3]

1.2 Benefits: 1. The advantage of renewable resources includes their inability to produce carbonbased warming and polluting agents into the atmosphere. The financial cost of its applications is not always cheap but if the environmental costs of using fossil fuels are accounted for, renewable energy wins. 2. We can use it repeatedly without depleting it. 3. No contribution to global warming, 4. No polluting emissions 5. Low operating cost [4]

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Chapter - 2

Hydro-energy
Hydro power is considered the largest and most mature application of renewable energy. The installed capacity worldwide is estimated at 630,000 MW, producing over 20 percent of the worlds electricity. Hydropower is by far the most significant renewable energy resource of energy exploited to date Hydropower (from hydro meaning water) is energy that comes from the force of moving water. The fall and movement of water is part of a continuous natural cycle called the water cycle. Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because the water on the earth is continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water cycle continues, we wont run out of this energy source.[5] Energy conversion principals Hydro-electric energy concern with the efficient and economic conversion of energy freely available from a supply of water deposited at suitable head by the action of the cycle of evaporation and rain fall produced by the effect of solar radiation . an essential requirement is, therefore , that the water should be at suitable height above a lower reference point to where the water could flow and be discharged. The difference in levels between the water and the discharged point represent the potential energy that would become available for used should be allowed to flow between the two levels. Hence, The power supplied to the turbine , p kW is given by the product of the rate of mass flow Q (tonns per second) and of net head across the turbine H(net)(meters) correspondind to this flow : P=9.81Q H(net) Where is specific mass (tonne per cubic meter) and Q is the volumetric discharge (cubic meter per second). Power output is, therefore, a function of head and flow[6]

2.1 Hydropower plant As people discovered centuries ago, the flow of water represents a huge supply of kinetic energy that can be put to work. Water wheels are useful for generating mechanical energy to grind grain or saw wood, but they are not practical for generating electricity. Water wheels are too bulky and slow. Hydroelectric plants are different. They use modern turbine generators to produce electricity, just as thermal (coal, oil, nuclear) power plants do, except that they do not produce heat to spin the turbines. 2.1.1 Head and flow The amount of electricity that can be generated at a hydro plant is determined by two factors: head and flow. Head is how far the water drops. It is the distance from the
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highest level of the dammed water to the point where it goes through the power-producing turbine. Flow is how much water moves through the systemthe more water that moves through a system, the higher the flow. Generally, a high-head plant needs less water flow than a lowhead plant to produce the same amount of electricity 2.1.2 Storing energy One of the biggest advantages of a hydropower plant is its ability to store energy. The water in a reservoir is, after all, stored energy. Water can be stored in a reservoir and released when needed for electricity production. During the day when people use more electricity, water can flow through a plant to generate electricity. Then, during the night when people use less electricity, water can be held back in the reservoir. Storage also makes it possible to save water from winter rains for summer generating power, or to save water from wet years for generating electricity during dry years. 2.1.3 How its work Water from a river is diverted and a lake is created by building a large dam. This water is allowed to fall from the lake behind the dam into the power plant. This water is directed to several turbines with blades that are pushed by the force of the water (think of a water wheel turned on it's side). The turbine turns a shaft which is connected to the generator. The electrical charge created is collected and transformers convert it into useable electricity. This power is sent out over the power grid. Power lines carry it to all the cities and towns. Transformers in each town convert the power into different kinds of electricity for different uses: some for factories and some for homes. Power is there ready for you to use whenever you flip the switch!

Fig. :- 2.1 conventional impoundment dam

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Hydro plants are more energy efficient than most thermal power plants, too. That means they waste less energy to produce electricity. In thermal power plants, a lot of energy is lost as heat. Hydro plants are about 95 percent efficient at converting the kinetic energy of the moving water into electricity.

2.1.4 Pumped storage system Some hydro plants use pumped storage systems. A pumped storage system operates much as a public fountain does. The same water is used again and again. At a pumped storage hydro plant, flowing water is used to make electricity and then stored in a lower pool. Depending on how much electricity is needed, the water may be pumped back to an upper pool. Pumping water to the upper pool requires electricity so hydro plants usually use pumped storage systems only when there is peak demand for electricity. Pumped hydro is the most reliable energy storage system used. Coal and nuclear power plants have no energy storage systems. They must turn to gas and oil-fired generators when people demand lots of electricity. They also have no way to store any extra energy they might produce during normal generating periods. [7] 2.2 Turbines There are two main types of hydro turbines: impulse and reaction. The type of hydropower turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing water referred to as "head" and the flow, or volume of water, at the site.

Fig. 2.2 types of tubines

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2.2.1 Impulse Turbines The impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and discharges to atmospheric pressure. The water stream hits each bucket on the runner. There is no suction on the down side of the turbine, and the water flows out the bottom of the turbine housing after hitting the runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high head, low flow applications. 1. Pelton A pelton wheel has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space and impinging on the buckets of a runner. Draft tubes are not required for impulse turbine since the runner must be located above the maximum tail water to permit operation at atmospheric pressure. 2. Cross-Flow A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular-section nozzle directed against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. It resembles a "squirrel cage" blower. The cross-flow turbine allows the water to flow through the blades twice. The first pass is when the water flows from the outside of the blades to the inside; the second pass is from the inside back out. A guide vane at the entrance to the turbine directs the flow to a limited portion of the runner. The cross-flow was developed to accommodate larger water flows and lower heads than the Pelton. 2.2.2 Reaction turbine A reaction turbine develops power from the combined action of pressure and moving water. The runner is placed directly in the water stream flowing over the blades rather than striking each individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head and higher flows than compared with the impulse turbines. Propeller A propeller turbine generally has a runner with three to six blades in which the water contacts all of the blades constantly. Picture a boat propeller running in a pipe. Through the pipe, the pressure is constant; if it isn't, the runner would be out of balance. The pitch of the blades may be fixed or adjustable. The major components besides the runner are a scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube. There are several different types of propeller turbines: Bulb turbine

The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly in the water stream. Straflo The generator is attached directly to the perimeter of the turbine. Tube turbine The penstock bends just before or after the runner, allowing a straight line connection to the generator.

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 Kaplan Both the blades and the wicket gates are adjustable, allowing for a wider range of operation Francis A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed buckets (vanes), usually nine or more. Water is introduced just above the runner and all around it and then falls through, causing it to spin. Besides the runner, the other major components are the scroll case, wicket gates, and draft tube [8] 2.3 Economics of hydropower Hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity today. No other energy source, renewable or non-renewable, can match it. Today, it costs about one cent per kWh (kilowatthour) to produce electricity at a typical hydro plant. In comparison, it costs coal plants about four cents per kWh and nuclear plants about two cents per kWh to generate electricity.

2.3.1 Hydropower and Environment Hydropower dams can cause several environmental problems, even though they burn no fuel. Damming rivers may permanently alter river systems and wildlife habitats. Fish, for one, may no longer be able to swim upstream. Hydro plant operations may also affect water quality by churning up dissolved metals that may have been deposited by industry long ago. Hydropower operations may increase silting, change water temperatures, and lower the levels of dissolved oxygen. Some of these problems can be managed by constructing fish ladders, dredging the silt, and carefully regulating plant operations. Hydropower has advantages, too. Hydropowers fuel supply (flowing water) is clean and is renewed yearly by snow and rainfall. Furthermore, hydro plants do not emit pollutants into the air because they burn no fuel. With growing concern over greenhouse gas emissions and increased demand for electricity, hydropower may become more important in the future. Hydropower facilities offer a range of additional benefits. Many dams are used to control flooding and regulate water supply, and reservoirs provide lakes for recreational purposes, such as boating and fishing. [7]

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2.4 Tidal energy The tides rise and fall in eternal cycles. The waters of the oceans are in constant motion. We can use some of the oceans energy. Tidal energy is the most promising source of ocean energy for today and the near future. Tides are changes in the level of the oceans caused by the rotation of the earth and the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Near shore water levels can vary up to 40 feet, depending on the season and local factors. Only about 20 locations have good inlets and a large enough tidal rangeabout 10 feetto produce energy economically. Tidal energy plants capture the energy in the changing tides. A low dam, called a barrage, is built across an inlet. The barrage has one-way gates (sluices) that allow the incoming flood tide to pass into the inlet. When the tide turns, the water flows out of the inlet through huge turbines built into the barrage, producing electricity. The oldest and largest tidal plantLa Rance in Francehas been successfully producing electricity since 1968.

Fig.2.3 -: the way of producing tidal energy

Today, the electricity from tidal plants costs more than from conventional power plants. It is very expensive and takes a long time to build the barrages, which can be several miles long. Also, tidal plants produce electricity less than half of the time. The seasons and cycles of the moon affect the leveland the energyof the tides. The tides are very predictable, but not controllable. On the other hand, the fuel is free and non-polluting, and the plants are easy to maintain. Only two operators are needed to run the La Rance plant at night and on weekends. And the plants should run for a hundred years with little up-keep. Tidal power is a renewable energy source. The plants do affect the environment, though they produce no air pollution. During construction, there are major short-term changes to the ecology of the inlet. Once the
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plants go into operation, there can be long-term changes to water levels and currents. The plants in operation have reported no major environmental problems. [9] 2.5 Wave energy There is also tremendous energy in waves. Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. In many areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and force to provide continuous waves. The west coasts of the United States and Europe and the coasts of Japan and New Zealand are good sites for harnessing wave energy. There are several ways to harness wave energy. The motion of the waves can be used to push and pull air through a pipe. The air spins a turbine in the pipe, producing electricity. In Norway, a demonstration tower built into a cliff produces electricity for about four cents a kWh using this method. The wail of the fast-spinning turbines, however, can be heard for miles.

Fig 2.4 -: schematic dig. of wave energy setup

Another way to produce energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow channel, increasing their power and size. The waves then can be channeled into a catch basin, like tidal plants, or used directly to spin turbines. There arent any big commercial wave energy plants, but there are a few small ones. There are wave-energy devices that power the lights and whistles on buoys. Small, on-shore sites have the best potential for the immediate future, especially if they can also be used to protect beaches and harbors. They could produce enough energy to power local communities. Japan, which must import almost all of its fuel, has an active wave-energy program.[10]

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Chapter- 3

Wind energy
simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earths surface by radiant energy from the sun. Since the earths surface is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the suns energy at different rates. Water usually does not heat or cool as quickly as land because of its physical properties. An ideal situation for the formation of local wind is an area where land and water meet. During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air above water. The warm air over the land expands, becomes less dense and rises. The heavier, denser, cool air over the water flows in to take its place, creating wind. In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created because the land near the equator is heated more by the sun than land near the North and South Poles. Today, people use wind energy to make electricity. Wind is called a renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines. [11] 3.1 Wind speed It is important in many cases to know how fast the wind is blowing. Wind speed can be measured using a wind gauge or anemometer. One type of anemometer is a device with three arms that spin on top of a shaft. Each arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin the shaft. The harder the wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device inside counts the number of spins per minute and converts that figure into mphmiles per hour. A display on the anemometer shows the speed of the wind. Good wind speed data is critical to determining the economic feasibility of a wind project. Prime sites have average wind speeds greater than 7.5 metres/sec (27 km/hr). 3.2 Wind turbine Like old-fashioned windmills, todays wind turbines use blades to capture the winds kinetic energy. Wind turbines work because they slow down the speed of the wind. When the wind blows, it pushes against the blades of the wind turbine, making them spin. They power a generator to produce electricity. Most wind turbines have the same basic parts: blades, shafts, gears, a generator, and a cable. (Some turbines do not have gearboxes.) These parts work together to convert the winds energy into electricity.
Wind is

Fig. 3.1 -: wind mill

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1. The 2. The

wind blows and pushes against the blades on top of the tower, making them spin. turbine blades are connected to a low-speed drive shaft. When the blades spin, the shaft turns. The shaft is connected to a gearbox. The gears in the gearbox increase the speed of the spinning motion on a high-speed drive shaft. 3. The high-speed drive shaft is connected to a generator. As the shaft turns inside the generator, it produces electricity. 4. The electricity is sent through a cable down the turbine tower to a transmission line. The amount of electricity that a turbine produces depends on its size and the speed of the wind. Wind turbines come in many different sizes. A small turbine may power one home. Large wind turbines can produce enough electricity to power up to 1,000 homes. Large turbines are sometimes grouped together to provide power to the electricity grid. The grid is the network of power lines connected together across the entire country. Wind turbine components Blades: Most wind turbines have three blades, though there are some with two blades. Blades are generally 30 to 50 meters (100 to 165 feet) long, with the most common sizes around 40 meters (130 feet). Longer blades are being designed and tested. Blade weights vary, depending on the design and materialsa 40 meter LM Glasfiber blade for a 1.5 MW turbine weighs 5,780 kg (6.4 tons) and one for a 2.0 MW turbine weighs 6,290 kg (6.9 tons). Controller: There is a controller in the nacelle and one at the base of the turbine. The controller monitors the condition of the turbine and controls the turbine movement. Gearbox: Many wind turbines have a gearbox that increases the rotational speed of the shaft. A low-speed shaft feeds into the gearbox and a high-speed shaft feeds from the gearbox into the generator. Some turbines use direct drive generators that are capable of producing electricity at a lower rotational speed. These turbines do not require a gearbox.

Fig. 3.2 -: turbine components

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Generators: Wind turbines typically have a single AC generator that converts the mechanical energy from the wind turbines rotation into electrical energy. Clipper Windpower uses a different design that features four DC generators. Nacelles: The nacelle houses the main components of the wind turbine, such as the controller, gearbox, generator, and shafts. Rotor: The rotor includes both the blades and the hub (the component to which the blades are attached). Towers: Towers are usually tubular steel towers 60 to 80 meters (about 195 to 260 feet) high that consist of three sections of varying heights. (There are some towers with heights around 100 meters (330 feet)).[12] 3.3 Wind farms Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines used to produce electricity. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind turbines scattered over a large area. Choosing the location of a wind farm is known as siting a wind farm. The wind speed and direction must be studied to determine where to put the turbines. As a rule, wind speed increases with height, as well as over open areas with no windbreaks. Turbines are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing wind. Placing turbines too far apart wastes space. If turbines are too close together, they block each others wind. The site must have strong, steady winds. Scientists measure the winds in an area for several years before choosing a site. The best sites for wind farms are on hilltops, on the open plains, through mountain passes, and near the coasts of oceans or large lakes. The wind blows stronger and steadier over water than over land. There are no obstacles on the water to block the wind. There is a lot of wind energy available offshore. Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow waters off the coast of major lakes and oceans. Offshore turbines produce more electricity than turbines on land, but they cost more to build and operate. Underwater construction is difficult and expensive. The cables that carry the electricity must be buried deep under the water.

Fig. 3.3 -: wind farm

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Wind Production Every year, wind produces only a small amount of the electricity this country uses, but the amount is growing every year. One reason wind farms dont produce more electricity is that they can only run when the wind is blowing at certain speeds. In most places with wind farms, the wind is only optimum for producing electricity about three-fourths of the time. (That means most turbines run 18 hours out of 24.) Wind energy offers many advantages, which explains why it's the fastest-growing energy source in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the challenges to greater use of wind energy.[13] 3.4 Advantages Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses. Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which can't be used up. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the earth's surface irregularities. Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today, costing between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending upon the wind resource and project financing of the particular project. Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of the land. Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the use of the land.

3.5 Challenges Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis. Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm may or may not be cost competitive. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind farm to the city. Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land and those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation. Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and sometimes birds have been killed by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved or
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greatly reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.[14]

Wind power is not the perfect answer to our electricity needs, but it is a valuable part of the solution. It is called a renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines.

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Chapter-4

Bio-fuels
Bio-fuels derived from plant-based feed-stocks, such as corn and sugarcane, are considered renewable and are an environmentally clean energy source, and they have potential to significantly decrease fossil fuel consumption. Bio-ethanol and biodiesel can be used in the form of a gasoline/diesel blend. Besides, biogas which is produced at most biological treatment plants has been considered as one of the most important renewable energy sources. Anaerobic biotechnology has been reported as a sustainable alternative to current disposal strategies because the volume of the organic waste is reduced and stabilized, a residue (compost) that can be used for soil conditioning is produced, and energy in the form of methane is recovered Bio-fuels is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is gaining attention of the world. Its primary advantages are that it is one of the most renewable fuels currently available and it is also non-toxic and biodegradable. It can also be used directly in most diesel engines without requiring extensive engine modifications. Types of bio-fuels Bio-methane(bio-gas) Bio-diesel Bio-ethanol

4.1 Bio-methane The bio-methane (or bio-natural gas) extracted from biomass can replace fossil-based natural gas. It can in this way abate the emissions from green house gases, and thus achieve an important contribution to a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy\economy. CO2 emissions resulting from the burning of fossil-based energy sources are known to be a primary cause of global warming. Natural energy sources like bio-methane release only as much CO2 as is absorbed from the atmosphere by plants as they mature. Thereby, the ideal circumstances of climate-neutral energy consumption become conceivable. The utilization of agricultural waste by biogas generation can make a further contribution to climate protection. The fermentation of liquid manure and the subsequent output in the field reduces the potential of global warming. This positive consequence is unique to biogas production. It is for this reason that biogas and bio-methane can be seen as having a more positive influence on the global climate balance than other forms of biomass currently in use.

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4.2 Bio-diesel Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is gaining attention of world the after reaching a considerable level of success in Europe. Its primary advantages are that it is one of the most renewable fuels currently available and it is also nontoxic and biodegradable. It can also be used directly in most diesel engines without requiring extensive engine modifications. In simple terms, biodiesel is a renewable fuel manufactured from methanol and vegetable oil, animal fats, and recycled cooking fats. It usually made from soybean oil, it is renewable because we can grow more plants in a short time to make more bio-diesel. Biodiesel works in engines as diesel fuel. It is a better fuel, though it is more expensive. Burning biodiesel dose not produced as much air pollution as burning petroleum fuels. This means the air is cleaner and healthier to breathe when biodiesel is used. Biodiesel is non-toxic , it is not dangerous to people or the environment and it is safe to handle .if the biodiesel spills , it is biodegradable, it breaks down quickly into harm less substance. Biodiesel can be used instead of diesel fuel or it can be mixed with diesel fuel. It is usually mixed with diesel fuel as two percent (B2), five percent (B5) or 20 percent (B20) biodiesel blends. Pure biodiesel is called B100. That means it is 100 percent biodiesel. Biodiesel contains no sulphur, so it can reduce sulfur levels in the nations diesel. If you remove sulfur from petroleum based diesel fuel it losses it lubrication. Adding only one or two percent biodiesel can restore the lubricating properties of diesel fuel when the sulfur s removed this the most important characteristic of biodiesel

Vegetable and biodiesel Now we can start to deal with biodiesel. As we know, biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils. The major components of vegetable oils are triglycerides. Triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain acids, commonly called fatty acids. In the formation of esters from acids and alcohols, an ester can react with another alcohol. In that case, the new alcohol is derived from the original ester is formed and the new ester is derived from the original alcohol. Thus, an ethyl ester can react with methanol to form a methyl ester and ethanol. This process is called transesterification.

The transesterification reaction

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Transesterification is extremely important for biodiesel. Biodiesel as it is defined today is obtained by transesterifying the triglycerides with methanol. Methanol is the preferred alcohol for obtaining biodiesel because it is the cheapest (and most available) alcohol (where R-is corresponding to CH3). Why are vegetable oils transesterified to produce biodiesel? Vegetable oil methyl esters have lower viscosities (resistance to flow of a liquid) than the parent vegetable oils (think of honey or syrup, which have high viscosities and flow with difficulty, vs. water or milk, which have low viscosities and flow easily). Compared to the viscosities of the parent vegetable oils, the viscosities of vegetable oil methyl esters are much closer to that of petrodiesel. High viscosity causes operational problems in a diesel engine such as poor quality fuel injection and the formation of deposits.

Batch process for mfg. of bio-diesel Feed-stocks Used in Biodiesel Production The primary raw materials used in the production of biodiesel are vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled greases. These materials contain triglycerides, free fatty acids, and other contaminants depending on the degree of pretreatment they have received prior to delivery. Since biodiesel is a mono-alkyl fatty acid ester, the primary alcohol used to form the ester is the other major feedstock. Most processes for making biodiesel use a catalyst to initiate the esterification reaction. The catalyst is required because the alcohol is sparingly soluble in the oil phase. The catalyst promotes an increase in solubility to allow the reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate. The most common catalysts used are strong mineral bases such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. After the reaction, the base catalyst must be neutralized with a strong mineral acid. Typical proportions for the chemicals used to make biodiesel are: Reactants Fat or oil (e.g. 100 kg soybean oil) Primary alcohol (e.g. 10 kg methanol) Catalyst Mineral base (e.g. 0.3 kg sodium hydroxide) Neutralizer Mineral acid (e.g. 0.25 kg sulfuric acid) Fats and Oils: Choice of the fats or oils to be used in producing biodiesel is an economic decision. With respect to process chemistry, the greatest difference among the choices of fats and oils is the amount of free fatty acids that are associated with the triglycerides. Other contaminants, such as colour and odour bodies can reduce the value of the glycerin produced, and reduce the public acceptance of the fuel if the colour and odour persist in the fuel. Alcohol: The most commonly used primary alcohol used in biodiesel production is methanol, although other alcohols, such as ethanol, isopropanol, and butyl, can be used. A key quality factor for the primary alcohol is the water content. Water interferes with transesterification reactions and can result in poor yields and high levels of soap, free fatty acids, and triglycerides in the final fuel. Unfortunately, all the lower alcohols are hygroscopic and are capable of absorbing water from the air. Other issues such as cost of the alcohol, the amount of alcohol needed for the reaction, the ease of recovering and recycling the alcohol, fuel tax credits, and global warming issues influence the choice of alcohol. A base catalyzed process
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typically uses an operating mole ratio of 6:1 mole of alcohol rather than the 3:1 ratio required by the reaction. The reason for using extra alcohol is that it drives the reaction closer to the 99.7% yield we need to meet the total glycerol standard for fuel grade biodiesel. The unused alcohol must be recovered and recycled back into the process to minimize operating costs and environmental impacts. Methanol is considerably easier to recover than the ethanol. Ethanol forms an azeotrope with water so it is expensive to purify the ethanol during recovery. If the water is not removed it will interfere with the reactions. Methanol recycles easier because it doesnt form an azeotrope. Catalysts and Neutralizers: Catalysts may either be base, acid, or enzyme materials. The most commonly used catalyst materials for converting triglycerides to biodiesel are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sodium methoxide. The catalyst is required because the alcohol is sparingly soluble in the oil phase. The catalyst promotes an increase in solubility to allow the reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate. Most base catalyst systems use vegetable oils as a feedstock. Neutralizers are used to remove the base catalyst from the product biodiesel and glycerol. If you are using a base catalyst, the neutralizer is typically an acid, and vice-versa. If the biodiesel is being washed, the neutralizer can be added to the wash water. While hydrochloric acid is a common choice to neutralize base catalysts, as mentioned earlier, if phosphoric acid is used, the resulting salt has value as a chemical fertilizer. Process The simplest method for producing alcohol esters is to use a batch or stirred tank reactor. Alcohol to triglyceride ratios from 4:1 to 20:1 (mole:mole) have been reported, with a 6:1 ratio most common. The reactor may be sealed or equipped with a reflux condenser. The operating temperature is usually about 65C, although temperatures from 25C to 85C have been reported. The most commonly used catalyst is sodium hydroxide, with potassium hydroxide also used. Typical catalyst loadings range from 0.3 % to about 1.5%. Thorough mixing is necessary at the beginning of the reaction to bring the oil, catalyst and alcohol into intimate contact. Towards the end of the reaction, less mixing can help increase the

Fig. 4.1- Batch process

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extent of reaction by allowing the inhibitory product, glycerol, to phase separate from the ester oil phase. Completions of 85% to 94 % are reported. Some groups use a two-step reaction, with glycerol removal between steps, to increase the final reaction extent to 95+ percent. Higher temperatures and higher alcohol:oil ratios also can enhance the percent completion. Typical reaction times range from 20 minutes to more than one hour. Fig. shows a process flow diagram for a typical batch system. The oil is first charged to the system, followed by the catalyst and methanol. The system is agitated during the reaction time. Then agitation is stopped. In some processes, the reaction mixture is allowed to settle in the reactor to give an initial separation of the esters and glycerol. In other processes the reaction mixture is pumped into a settling vessel, or is separated using a centrifuge. The alcohol is removed from both the glycerol and ester stream using an evaporator or a flash unit. The esters are neutralized, washed gently using warm, slightly acid water to remove residual methanol and salts, and then dried. The finished biodiesel is then transferred to storage. The glycerol stream is neutralized and washed with soft water. The glycerol is than sent to the glycerol refining section.[15,16,17]

Biodiesel offers full blending potential with conventional diesel, a high octane number giving improved combustion in compression ignition engines, and low emissions of sulphur and particulates. Biodiesel is the fastest growing biofuel but from a lower base than ethanol. Global production passed from 2.1 bnl in 2004 to 3.9 bnl in 2005 and it can be increase upto 20 bnl in 2015.

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4.3 Bio-ethanol Ethanol is one of the most important renewable fuels contributing to the reduction of negative environmental impacts generated by the worldwide utilization of fossil fuels. Ethanol has been described as one of the most exotic synthetic oxygen-containing organic chemicals because of its unique combination of properties as a solvent, a germicide, an antifreeze, a fuel, a depressant and especially of its versatility as a chemical intermediate for other organic chemicals. Since the energy crisis of the 1970, the development of low-cost, sustainable and renewable energy sources such as ethanol has been a major focus in scientific research. Biologically produced ethanol represents such a renewable fuel with various environmental and socio-economic merits, which is already being used in significant quantities in different countries. According to F.O. Licht data, in 2008 total world production of ethanol was about 40700 million litres, of which 73% were used as vehicles fuel, 17% for production of beverages and 10% for other industry needs. Since ethanol contains 34.7% oxygen (against 0% in gasoline), it generates full combustion resulting in less generation of harmful carbon mono-oxide. Ethanol has a higher detonating resistance than gasoline resulting in higher compression ratio. It has got higher Research Octane Number (RON) 108 against gasoline (from 88 to 98). It also helps in boosting agriculture sector and more economic opportunities for rural India and reducing country's dependency on fuel imports. Subsequently, the Government had decided on 9.10.2007 to make 5% blending of ethanol with petrol mandatory with immediate effect and optional blending of 10% ethanol with petrol from October 2007 and thereafter mandatory blending from October 2008. An increasing number of spark ignition, 4-stroke internal combustion engines use ethanol blends worldwide. Environmental concerns as well as the need for renewable energy sources have driven the government to encourage the use of ethanol blends. The reality is that the majority of the engines that use low percentage ethanol blends are designed to run on gasoline. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of ethanol blending on the performance and emissions of internal combustion engines that are calibrated to run on 100% gasoline. Experimental tests were performed on an engine using pure gasoline, 10% ethanol and 20% ethanol blends. The results of the study show that 10% ethanol blends can be used in internal combustion engines without any negative drawbacks. The fuel conversion efficiency remains the same, while CO emissions are greatly reduced. 20% ethanol blends decrease the fuel conversion efficiency and brake power of an engine, but still reduces CO emissions. Fermentation processes from any material that contains sugar can derive ethanol. The many and varied raw materials used in the manufacture of ethanol via fermentation are conveniently classified under three types of agricultural raw materials: sugar, starches, and cellulose materials. Sugars (from sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses, fruits) can be converted to ethanol directly. Starches (from grains, potatoes, root crops) must first be hydrolyzed to fermentable sugars by the action of enzymes from malt or molds. Cellulose from wood, agricultural residues, waste sulfite liquor from pulp and paper mills) must likewise be

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converted to sugars, generally by the action of mineral acids. Once simple sugars are formed, enzymes from yeast can readily ferment them to ethanol. 4.3.1 Ethanol from sugarcane molasses Molasses differs from other feedstocks for alcohol production such as corn and potatoes in that these plant products contain carbohydrate stored as starch. As a result, these feedstocks must be pre-treated by cooking and enzymatic action to hydrolyze starch into fermentable sugars. In contrast, the carbohydrates in molasses are already in the form of sugars and need no pretreatment. Basic sugar chemistry The simplest form of sugar is glucose, It has the formula C6H12O6 and is made up of molecules with a single ring structure (Figure 1). Very slight rearrangements of the atoms in the molecule can give other sugars with distinctly different properties.

For instance, if the end groups are rotated it becomes galactose, which is not readily fermentable by normal yeasts (Figure 2). Alternatively, by rearranging the ring structure, it becomes the fermentable fructose. There are many other simple sugars, but only glucose and fructose will be considered here. Glucose does not exist extensively in the free state in nature. It is mostly polymerized as starch or cellulose, in which long chains of glucose units are formed. Glucose also exists in combination with fructose to form the disaccharide (two sugar molecules) or common table sugar. Sucrose is the principal sugar contained in molasses and is readily fermentable either directly, or as its glucose and fructose components. Blackstrap molasses production In the production of cane sugar, the cane is crushed in a mill to squeeze out the juice. The juice is heated, clarified by filtration and the addition of lime (to remove cane fibers and sludge) and then evaporated to concentrate the sugar and cause it to crystallize. The syrup containing the crystals is then centrifuged to separate the crystals and the syrup residue (which still has a high content of sugar). The residue is referred to as .A molasses.. It is evaporated and centrifuged again to recover more crystalline sugar; and the syrup residue is now referred to as .B molasses.. The process may be repeated to yield more sugar and a .C molasses. as residue. Sugar mills normally evaporate and centrifuge a maximum of three times, but the number of treatments will depend on marketplace economics.

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When sugar prices are high, a fourth processing may be practiced with production of a .D molasses., which has lost most of its available crystallizable sugar. On the other hand, when sugar prices are low, the .A molasses. may be sold directly. Repeated evaporation and centrifugation decreases the sugar content of molasses and increases the viscosity and concentration of salts and other impurities. The result is thick, viscous, brown liquid which is very heavy. The concentration of molasses is normally measured in degrees Brix. The Brix scale is the same as the Balling scale, which is a measure of what the sugar content of a liquid would be if all the dissolved and suspended solids were sugar. Expressed another way, it is the sugar content of a sugar solution with the same specific gravity as the sample. Fermentation of molasses Pre-treatments Blackstrap molasses at 80o Brix will not ferment without dilution as the sugars and salts exert a very high osmotic pressure. It is therefore necessary to dilute the molasses to below 25o Brix. Yeast will not start fermenting rapidly above this point; and contamination may develop before the yeast become established since molasses is laden with contaminating bacteria. When diluting molasses, it must be remembered that the Brix scale measures on a weight % basis and all calculations must be based on weight and not volume. 80o Brix molasses has a specific gravity of 1.416, therefore a gallon weighs about 11.8 lbs and a ton contains about 169.5 gallons. When the molasses is diluted to 25o Brix the sugar content is only about 14.3% (Calculated: 25 x 46/80 = 14.3). This is only sufficient to yield 7-8% v/v of ethanol in the fermented beer. Distilleries generally need a higher final ethanol content to economize on energy for distillation; but the fermentation cannot begin at a much higher Brix without running into problems of slow starts and bacterial contamination. Some distilleries overcome this problem by diluting the first portion of molasses going into the fermenter to about 18o Brix, which allows the yeast to get established very rapidly. When the Brix reading in the fermenter is down to about 12o Brix, molasses diluted to around 35o Brix is added. This allows beer ethanol levels of around 10% to be attained. This procedure is the first step toward what is known as incremental feeding. Calculation for diluting the molasses

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Nutrient use in molasses fermentation In blackstrap fermentations it may be necessary to add some nitrogen and phosphorus to obtain optimum results. Nitrogen should not be in the form of ammonium sulfate as it will add to the scaling problem by forming calcium sulfate. Likewise, liquid ammonia is undesirable as it tends to raise the pH and encourage bacterial contamination unless it is counteracted with acid additions. (Some plants using liquid ammonia either use sulfuric acid to balance the pH, which introduces the undesirable sulfate anion, or use phosphoric acid, which generally introduces more phosphate than necessary. Urea may be used to supply nitrogen in molasses fermentations for fuel ethanol production, but its use for beverage alcohol production should be approached with caution. Urea usage may lead to the production of carcinogenic ethyl carbamate, which is unacceptable in alcoholic beverages. If phosphorus is deficient in the molasses, diammonium phosphate may be added with a corresponding reduction in urea or other nitrogenous nutrient. Generally, blackstrap molasses requires no other added nutrients for fermentation.

Microorganism contamination of molasses The most employed microorganism is Saccharomyces cerevisiae due to its capability to hydrolyze cane sucrose into glucose and fructose, two easily assimilable hexoses. Aeration is an important factor for growth and ethanol production by S. cerevisiae. Although this microorganism has the ability to grow under anaerobic conditions, small amounts of oxygen are needed for the synthesis of substances like fatty acids and sterols. The oxygen may be supplied through the addition to the medium of some chemicals like urea hydrogen peroxide (carbamide peroxide), which also contributes to the reduction of bacterial contaminants. Other yeasts, as Schizosaccharomyces pombe, present the additional advantage of tolerating high osmotic pressures (high amounts of salts) and high solids content. Among bacteria, the most promising microorganism is Zymomonas mobilis, which has a low energy efficiency resulting in a higher ethanol yield (up to 97% of theoretical maximum).[19] The fermentation unit aims at producing a beer at 9% (vol.) ethanol. Fermentation operates in a continuous mode and comprises two successive steps : (1) the pre-fermentation of a fraction of the molasses, to produce the required amount of yeasts for fermentation, (2) and, the fermentation itself, aiming at converting the sugars into ethanol by means of the yeasts. The fermentation process lasts for 72-76 hours. The sample was fermented to different pH values between 1.0 and 8.0 to obtain maximum yield of bio-ethanol by adding lime or sulphuric acid. The samples were kept in anaerobic condition for a period of 3-4 days and the fermented solution was analyzed for every 12 h intervals. The test shows that the bio-ethanol concentration gradually increases along with the increase in pH and reaches a maximum percentage of bio-ethanol production when pH is equal to 4 and later it starts declining due to the lesser activity of yeast. The temp. is maintained in between 35-40 0C because ethanol production reaches maximum value at this temperature. Further increasing in temperature reduces the percentage of ethanol production and it is mainly due to the denature of the yeast cells.[18] The fermentation is carried out in absence of oxygen in fermentation process the carbon dioxide produced pushes out air and automatically creates an anaerobic atmosphere. The reaction being exothermic thus it not required external heating provision. In a first stage the Sucrose (disaccharide) is converted to glucose or fructose (monosaccharides) by the ation of enzymes through the following hydrolysis reaction:
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C12H22O11 + H2O Sucrose Water

2C6H12O6 Glucose

Then Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of these monosaccharide sugars according to the following reaction: C6H12O6 Glucose 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Ethanol

The reaction is exothermic and liberates 1200 kJ/kg of ethanol.

Fig. 4.2- flow sheet for production of ethanol Distillation The distillation unit aims at producing a hydrated ethanol at up to 93% (vol.). The unique distillation column operates at low temperature and in vacuum, in order to avoid possible clogging problems. As opposed to the corn process, the stillage is sent directly, as such, to the pre-concentration unit, without a clarification/separation stage. The distillation is coupled, in terms of energy use, to the pre-concentration unit, in order to reduce the global energy consumption. Hence, the distillation column is heated by direct injection of the steam produced in the first evaporator effect of the pre-concentration unit.

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Pre-concentration The pre-concentration unit aims at concentrating the produced stillage by evaporation. The evaporation is realized in a double-effect counter current unit, each effect comprising a group evaporator-separator with forced recirculation. The second effect is heated by steam coming from the boiler, and the evaporation steam, in turn, heats the first effect. The evaporation steam of the first effect (as it was mentioned previously) provides the heat for the distillation stage by direct injection. The net consumption of plant steam in pre-concentration, and hence the concentration of dry matter at the exit, depends directly on the quantity of steam necessary at the distillation stage (therefore indirectly also on the ethanol concentration of the fermented mash). Dehydration The dehydration of the hydrated ethanol (93% vol.) coming from the distillation unit is done by means of molecular sieves with regeneration by difference of pressure. The dehydration stage may not coupled with the distillation stage, in which case, the production of fuel-ethanol is not dependent upon the operating discontinuities of the distillation unit, themselves related to the availability of the feedstock. The hydrated ethanol is overheated prior to dehydration, in order to avoid any risk of condensation in the adsorbers. The dehydration stage is performed in vapour phase, in a cyclical and sequential way : adsorption, desorption. The alternation of cycles makes the production of anhydrous ethanol continuous.[20]

The bio-ethanol demand will grow very fast till 2015. Indian demand of fossil fuels amounts to 4.0 EJ (diesel,83%; gasoline, 17%). India imported 90 millions tones of crude oil and imports will continue to increase fast causing a significant burden on the balance of trade and energy security. Wide scale introduction of bio-ethanol as fuel for automotive will improve the diversity of Indian energy supply.

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Chapter- 5

Solar energy
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is solar energy. Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by the sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth. The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process that converts about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process creates heat and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in all directions. Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced reaches the Earth. The radiation that does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used today. Even fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once living plants and animals whose life was dependent upon the sun. Much of the world's required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More still can be provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as well as the benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently applied to will be noted. Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to have a functional solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and a storage unit. The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and converts a fraction of it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or heat alone). The storage unit is required because of the non-constant nature of solar energy; at certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be received. At night or during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy produced by the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess energy produced during the periods of maximum productivity, and release it when the productivity drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added, too, for the situations when the amount of energy required is greater than both what is being produced and what is stored in the container. Methods of collecting and storing solar energy vary depending on the uses planned for the solar generator. In general, there are three types of collectors and many forms of storage units. The three types of collectors are flat-plate collectors, focusing collectors, and passive collectors. Flat-plate collectors are the more commonly used type of collector today. They are arrays of solar panels arranged in a simple plane. Focusing collectors are essentially flatplane collectors with optical devices arranged to maximize the radiation falling on the focus of the collector. These are currently used only in a few scattered areas. Solar furnaces are examples of this type of collector. Passive collectors are completely different from the other two types of collectors. The passive collectors absorb radiation and convert it to heat naturally, without being designed and built to do so.[21] 5.1 Flat plate collectors The Photovoltaics The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric effect discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface. Photovoltaics offer the ability to generate electricity in a clean, quiet and reliable way. Photovoltaic systems are comprised of photovoltaic cells, devices that convert light energy directly into electricity.
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Because the source of light is usually the sun, they are often called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from photo, meaning light, and voltaic, which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the photovoltaic process is producing electricity directly from sunlight. Photovoltaics are often referred to as PV. We are probably familiar with photovoltaic cells. Solar-powered toys, calculators, and roadside telephone call boxes all use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the semiconductor material Silicon (Si). As the second most abundant element in earth`s crust, silicon has the advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities, and additionally processing the material does not burden the environment. One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of crystal: Monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous. To produce a monocrystalline silicon cell, absolutely pure semiconducting material is necessary. Monocrystalline rods are extracted from melted silicon and then sawed into thin plates. This production process guarantees a relatively high level of efficiency. The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this process, liquid silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. During solidification of the material, crystal structures of varying sizes are formed, at whose borders defects emerge. As a result of this crystal defect, the solar cell is less efficient. If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a so-called amorphous or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1m (thickness of a human hair: 50-100 m), so the production costs are lower due to the low material costs. However, the efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower than that of the other two cell types. Because of this, they are primarily used in low power equipment (watches, pocket calculators) or as facade elements.
Material Level of efficiency in % Lab Level of efficiency in % Production

Monocrystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon

approx. 24 approx. 18 approx. 13

14 to17 13 to15 5 to7

The majority of solar cells fabricated to date have been based on silicon in monocrystalline or large- grain polycrystalline form, the reason is that the silicon it is an elemental semiconductor with good stability and well balanced properties set of electronic, physical and chemical properties, the same set of strength that have made silicon the preferred material for microelectronics.

Fig. 5.1-: Polycrystalline silicon cell

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5.1.1 A solar cell Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the devices which directly convert sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary building block of the photovoltaic technology. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. One of the properties of semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. For instance, in the fabrication of a photovoltaic solar cell, silicon, which has four valence electrons, is treated to increase its conductivity. On one side of the cell, the impurities, which are phosphorus atoms with five valence electrons (n-donor), donate weakly bound valence electrons to the silicon material, creating excess negative charge carriers. On the other side, atoms of boron with three valence electrons (p-donor) create a greater affinity than silicon to attract electrons. Because the p-type silicon is in intimate contact with the n-type silicon a p-n junction is established and a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side).

Fig. 5.2 -: construction of solar cell

When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. However, the diffusion of carriers does not occur indefinitely, because the imbalance of charge immediately on either sides of the junction originates an electric field. This electric field forms a diode that promotes current to flow in only one direction. At the p-n junction, an interior electric field is built up which leads to the separation of the charge carriers that are released by light. Through metal contacts, an electric charge can be tapped. If the outer circuit is closed, meaning a consumer is connected, and then direct current flows.

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The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m. The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity of light is converted into useable electrical energy. To increase their utility, dozens of individual PV cells are interconnected together in a sealed, weatherproof package called a module. When two modules are wired together in series, their voltage is doubled while the current stays constant. When two modules are wired in parallel, their current is doubled while the voltage stays constant.

Fig. 5.3 -: Photovoltaics cells, modules and array

To achieve the desired voltage and current, modules are wired in series and parallel into what is called a PV array. The flexibility of the modular PV system allows designers to create solar power systems that can meet a wide variety of electrical needs, no matter how large or small. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination. There are two main types of photovoltaic system. Grid connected systems (on-grid systems) are connected to the grid and inject the electricity into the grid. For this reason, the direct current produced by the solar modules is converted into a grid-compatible alternating current. However, solar power plants can also be operated without the grid and are then called autonomous systems (off-grid systems). More than 90 % of photovoltaic systems worldwide are currently implemented as grid-connected systems.[22]
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5.1.2 Efficiency of solar cell The energy of the photon that strikes the cell must be contents in a definite range in order to allow the transformation from solar energy to electric energy. In fact if the energy is too low the electrons are not free and the holes do not move. When the photons energy is more than the required amount, the execs of energy is lost by heating the cell. Because of that, the efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is quite low. Efficiency can be defined as:

Pout = Electrical ratio power PR = Radiation power Usually efficiency of commercial available solar cell is around 14%-17%. Others restrictions limit the efficiency. 5.1.3 Capital cost Solar PV has one of the highest capital costs of all renewable energy sources, but it has relatively low operational costs, owing to the low maintenance and repair needs. For a solar PV power plant, the approximate capital cost per MW is approximately Rs. 16 crores the precise cost depends on scale. This includes the cost of panels, the balance of systems, the cost of land and other support infrastructures. Table : Break-Up for the Capital Expenses per MW Component Solar panel arrays Inverter Balance of system Installation Others Amount (in Rs crores) 8 2 2 1.6 2.5 % of total 50 12.5 12.5 10 15

5.1.4 Investment of Solar PV in India Many investors see Indias potential in tapping solar energy as even greater than wind, given that its sunny days are around 93% of the year and can be more easily distributed. Both equity-based and debt-based investments into solar PV power plants in India are expected to accelerate dramatically in 2010 owing to the National Solar Mission and similar thrusts provided by the state governments for solar PV investments. Some prominent examples of investments into solar PV that have taken place until Mar 2010 are provided below: 1. Azure Power 2. Moser Baer Photovoltaic (for solar PV cell production) 3. Titan Solar 4. KPCL 5. Clover Solar
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Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL) has so far invested Rs 120 crore on setting up two solar PV power plants, 3 MW each in Kolar, Belgaum and Raichur districts. In Jun 2010, the solar PV plant located at the Yalesandra village in Kolar district was formally launched. The will provide energy to 500 pumpsets of 10 HP each and benefit about 1,000 farmers. While the Belgaum power plant is also operational, the Raichur PV power plant is expected to become operational before end of 2010. [23] 5.1.5 Useful sectors for investing in PV systems 1. Villages that have no grid connectivity 2. Companies that use diesel generator sets as a power backup 3. Mobile telecom towers in many parts of India that have little access to the utility grid, and other stand alone commercial and industrial ventures.

5.1.6 Merits 1. A high growth industry with significant future potential. 2. Sunlight is available in sufficient quantities in many regions. 3. Technology proven, with low operation and maintenance costs, and scalable. 4. Availability of soft loans and government incentives for growth and expansion 5.1.7 Demerits 1. Solar PV systems have high capital costs. 2. Owing to high capital costs, the business needs external incentives to be economically feasible, thus increasing dependence on governmental policies. 3. The capital intensive nature of the business might favour larger businesses over smaller ones. 4. The distributed and intermittent nature of solar energy makes it difficult for utilities to rely on solar PV for their base load. 5.1.8 Threats 1. Technology innovation is high, so there are risks of obsolescence. 2. Off-peak seasons reduce cash flow. 3. Industry is new, so finding skilled workforce could be a problem. 5.1.9 Opportunities 1. Opportunities exist all along the solar PV business value chain, not just for power plants. 2. Entirely new opportunities could open up as the there is high innovation in technology and the technology could prove to be a disruptive business, especially with reductions in costs in future.

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5.2 Solar Thermal Electricity

Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called concentrated solar power (CSP), use solar energy to produce electricity, but in a different way. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam, which heats a liquid. The super-heated liquid is used to make steam to produce electricity in the same way that coal plants do. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s, and the 354 MW CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world and is located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (100 MW), both in Spain. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. 5.2.1 Central receiving system Central receiver systems(concentrating linear fresnel reflector) contain an array of Fresnel reflectors (heliostats) with two axes of rotation. The common focus is stationary, located on a solar tower (Figure 14b). The two-axis tracking enables a higher concentration ratio and the higher operating temperatures and power conversion efficiency than those of the line focus configuration. However, as the system size increases, the optical efficiency (the ratio of sunlight capture to incident sunlight) declines.

Fig 5.4(a) -: central receiving system

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5.2.2 Line Focus Systems. In line focus systems, incident sunlight is folded from a plane to a line. In most cases, the optical configuration is that of a trough tracking the sun from east to west and a target that rotates accordingly (Figure b).

Fig 5.4(b) -: line focus system The main inherent advantage of the system is its compatibility with large engines (i.e., steam turbines of hundreds of megawatts). The main inherent disadvantage is the low operating temperature, limited to less than 750K by the relatively low concentration and long tubular receiver configuration.

Lower temperatures reduce the efficiency of the heat transfer to the fluid located in the tubular receiver; this fluid provides the thermal energy to drive electricity generation cycles. The current systems range from 350 MWe to newer small-scale 1-MWe systems.

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5.2.3 On-axis Tracking Systems. On-axis systems, such as parabolic dish concentrators (Figure c), provide the highest optical efficiency of all the concentrating solar systems. Their main drawback is the concentrator size, which is limited by practical structural consideration. Recent progress in the development of small Brayton engines provides the option of using a dish/Brayton system as an alternative to the dish/Stirling system.

Fig 5.4(c) -: Stirling system

Estimates of large-scale (>50-MW) dish/Stirling facility costs are about $2.5/W (Stoddard et al. 2005), although the current costs, based on several demonstration systems, are three to four times higher. A recent research indicates that new developments in current areas of research can reduce cost by more than $0.5/W. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light (as explained above). In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[24]

5.3 Photobiological hydrogen Photobiological hydrogen technologies use certain photosynthetic microbes that produce hydrogen from water in their metabolic activities using light energy. However, it is possible to modify conditions such that the reducing end of the photosynthetic process is coupled to a hydrogen-evolving enzyme, as hydrogenase (e.g. in green algae) or nitrogenase (e.g. in cyanobacteria). Photon-tohydrogen conversion efficiency under ideal conditions
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approaches ~10%, and recently 7.5% was obtained in green algal photosynthesis. A major difficulty is that the algal systems saturate at solar irradiances above ~0.03 suns, where the photon absorption rate exceeds the rate at which photosynthesis can utilize them, resulting in dissipation and loss of the excess photons (up to 95% of absorbed photons as fluorescence or heat). Thus, genetic engineering is required to reduce the size and/or effectiveness of the lightharvesting antenna chlorophyll pool to allow greater solar conversion efficiencies and higher photosynthetic productivity. Another problem concerns the stability of hydrogen evolving enzymes in the presence of oxygen. Because oxygen is produced along with the hydrogen, the technology must overcome the limitation of oxygen sensitivity of the hydrogen-evolving enzyme systems. Researchers are addressing this issue by screening for naturally occurring organisms that are more tolerant of oxygen, and by creating new genetic forms of the organisms that can sustain hydrogen production in the presence of oxygen. Practical applications of biological systems for hydrogen synthesis are still far away since the current understanding of biological processes is too limited. More fundamental research is required to understand, among others, molecular mechanisms, the structure and functionality of enzyme catalysts, and the kinetics of biological hydrogen metabolism.[24]

Solar energy has great potential for the future. Solar energy is free, and its supplies are unlimited. It does not pollute or otherwise damage the environment. It cannot be controlled by any one nation or industry. If we can improve the technology to harness the suns enormous power, we may never face energy shortages again.

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Chapter-6

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the earths natural heat available inside the earth. This thermal energy contained in the rock and fluid that filled up fractures and pores in the earths crust It originates from radioactive decay deep within the Earth and can exist in the form of hot water, steam, or hot dry rocks, can profitably be used for various purposes. It is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and home-grown (making us less dependent on foreign oil). Geothermal energy provides an affordable, clean method of generating electricity and providing thermal energy. Geothermal power plants tap certain high-temperature resources (above 190F) to generate electricity with minimal or no air emission. Geothermal energy originates from the earths molten interior and the decay of radioactive materials. Heat is brought near to the surface by deep circulation of groundwater and by intrusion into the earths crust of magma. On average, the temperature of the earth increases by about 3 oC for every 100 meters of depth. Each and every year, more than 10000 TWh of heat energy is conducted from the earths interior to its surface. Two challenges for geothermal energy are that resources are difficult to locate and tend to be found in rural areas. The fact that they are found in remote areas constrains generation and direct use development. Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the Earth's surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications.

Heat energy from inner Earth Billions of years ago our planet was a fiery ball of liquid and gas. As the earth cooled, an outer rocky crust formed over the hot interior, which remains hot to this day. This relatively thin crust floats on a massive underlying layer of very hot rock called the mantle. Some of the mantle rock is actually melted, or molten, forming magma. The heat from the mantle continuously transfers up into the crust. Heat is also being generated in the crust by the natural decay, or breakdown, of radioactive elements. The crust is broken into enormous slabs tectonic plates that are actually moving very slowly (at the rate your fingernails grow) over the mantle, separating from, crushing into, or sliding (sub ducting) under one another. The edges of these huge plates are often restless with volcanic and earthquake activity. At these plate boundaries, and in other places where the crust is thinned or fractured, rising magma can travel up the many cracks and fissures. Sometimes the magma emerges above ground where we know it as lava. But most of it stays below ground where, over time, it creates large regions of hot rock.
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Geothermal reservoirs Rainwater and snowmelt can seep miles underground, where it absorbs heat from the hot rock. This water can get really hot. It can reach temperatures of 500 F (260C) or higher way above boiling. Sometimes this hot water will work its way back up (hot water is less dense than cold and so tends to rise). If it reaches the surface it can form hot springs, steam vents (fumaroles), mud pots, or geysers. If it gets trapped deep below the surface, it can form a geothermal reservoir of hot water and steam. A geothermal reservoir is an underground area of cracked and porous (permeable) hot rock saturated with hot water. The water and steam from these superheated reservoirs are the geothermal energy resources we use to generate electricity. Hot locations The edges of the continents that surround the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire) are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes and have some of the best geothermal resources in the world. This includes the western part of North, Central, and South America; Japan; the Philippines; and Indonesia. Some of the other prime geothermal locations include Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, the Rift Valley of Africa, and Hawaii.[25] Fig.-6.1 Worldwide installed capacity in early 2008

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Geothermal electricity generation Geothermal power plants use the earths heat in the form of underground steam or hot water to spin a turbine and generate electricity. Wells hundreds to thousands of feet deep are used to deliver the hot fluid to the power plant on the surface, where the heat is converted to electrical energy. Nearly all the water is returned to the reservoir through injection wells to be reheated. Currently, geothermal electricity production is limited to certain western states where the hottest resources are closer to the surface. Advances in drilling and energy conversion technologies could make it possible to expand the use of geothermal power plants to other states. The three types of commercial geothermal power plants are : 1. Direct steam plants (that use resources of pure steam), 2. Flash steam 3. and Binary cycle plants 6.1 Direct (or dry) steam plants A very few geothermal reservoirs are filled naturally with steam, not water. This means that the wells will produce only steam. The steam drives a turbine and generates power. However, these resources are rare; only five such fields have been discovered to date. Though dry steam reservoirs are rare, they have been important to the development of geothermal power, especially in California, Italy, and Japan. Direct-steam power plants are used at vapour-dominated (or dry steam) reservoir. Dry, saturated or slightly superheated steam is produced from wells. The steam carries noncondensable gases of various concentration and composition. Steam from several wells is transmitted by pipe line to the power house where it is used directly in turbines of the impulse/reaction type. Between each wellhead and the plant one finds in-line centrifugal cyclone separator situated near the wellhead to remove the particulates such as dust and rock bits, drain pots (traps) along the pipelines to remove which forms during the transmission, and final moisture remove at the entrance of the power house. Fig.6.2 - flow dig. of dry steam power

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6.2 Flash steam power plant The most common steam plant today is the flash steam plant. The technique produces electricity from hot and high pressure liquid-dominated reservoirs by flashing the entering liquid into steam by reducing the pressure. The steam is then piped directly to a steam turbine. Fig.6.3 Flashed steam power plant

Flash steam plants use really hot geothermal reservoirs of about 350F or higher. From the well, high-pressure hot water rushes up pipes into a separator, where the pressure is reduced. This causes more of the water to vigorously flash to steam, the force that drives the turbine generators. After the steam does its work, it is condensed back into water and piped back down into the geothermal reservoir so it can be reheated and reused. Most geothermal power plants in the world today are flash plants

6.3 Binary power plant This rapidly expanding technology uses geothermal resources with temperatures as low as 190F. Rather than flashing the geothermal fluid to produce steam, this type of power plant uses heat exchangers to transfer the heat of the water to another working fluid that vaporizes
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at lower temperatures. This vapour drives a turbine to generate power, after which it is condensed and circulated back to the heat exchangers. This type of geothermal plant has superior environmental characteristics compared to the others because the hot water (which tends to contain dissolved salts and minerals) is never exposed to the atmosphere before it is injected back into the reservoir. Fig.6.4 Binary power plant

In moderate-temperature geothermal reservoirs, the water is hot (over 200 F, or 93C), but not hot enough to produce steam with the force needed to efficiently turn a turbinegenerator. Electricity is generated from these reservoirs, however, using binary (bi means two) power plants. In the binary process, the geothermal water is used only for its heat, not to produce steam. In a heat exchanger, the heat transfers to a second liquid, which having organic compound with a low boiling temperature (commonly propane or isobutane), and the resulting organic vapour then drives a turbine to produce electricity. Once used, the geothermal water is pumped back into the reservoir. Binary geothermal plants have no emissions because the organic fluid is continuously recirculated in a closed loop, and the entire amount of produced geothermal water is injected back into the underground reservoir. A higher conversion efficiency is required to economically use lower-temperature water for electrical production, and the binary equipment has a higher capital cost to achieve this greater efficiency.[26,27]

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6.3.1 Binary cycle plants are useful: - When the water in a liquid-dominated resource is not hot enough for efficient flash steam production - For making use of the heat remaining in water separated from steam in flash steam plants - For saline brine that cannot be flashed because of the resulting deposition of scale - When the content of dissolved non-condensable gases in the geothermal fluid is high

6.3.2 The advantages with binary cycle systems are : - they enable utilization of moderate-temperature resources which exist at accessible depth almost everywhere in the world - problems with corrosion and scaling are almost avoided - environmental problems are minimized when using a closed-cycle system with reinjection of the geothermal fluid - the conversion efficiencies are often higher than for flash steam plants wherefore smaller amounts of geothermal fluids are required per unit of electricity generated - this is due to the fact that binary power plants use all the water that is brought up from the geothermal well, whereas a typical flash power plant uses only the steam and discards up to two thirds of the fluid from the reservoir.

6.3.3The disadvantages with binary cycle systems are : - they have to rely on external cooling (water or air) because of the lack of steam condensate. - the working fluid can be harmful to the environment in case of leakage. It is therefore important to consider the environmental properties, for example poisonousness and potential as greenhouse gas.

Moderate-temperature reservoirs are more common than high-temperature reservoirs, so the use of binary power plants is expanding worldwide.

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Conclusion
The deployment of renewable technologies for energy production at a large scale requires the involvement of both political and economical players, but also further improvements in the conversion efficiency and reduction of manufacturing cost. A large ongoing research effort aims to find innovative solutions to overcome these barriers. Both fundamental research and technical development are critical requirements for these technologies to become more efficient, stable, and reliable. Solar energy has a large potential to be a major fraction of a future carbon-free energy portfolio, but technological advances and breakthroughs are necessary to overcome low conversion efficiency and high cost of presently available systems. The bio-ethanol and other renewables demand will grow very fast till 2015. Indian demand of fossil fuels amounts to 4.0 EJ (diesel,83%; gasoline, 17%). India imported 90 millions tones of crude oil and imports will continue to increase fast causing a significant burden on the balance of trade and energy security. Wide scale introduction of renewable energy, bio-ethanol as for the generation of electricity and fuel for automotive will improve the diversity of Indian energy supply.

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References

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