-

Fril
' ' ,
There are 2

t'vr,

r:.-

CHAPTER

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

the internatand erternatenvimnme.tofa ivingorganism happen aI the time. Theorganismsare abietosensethe changes and respondto

The changes in

. . . . .

Stihull : the changes which trigger responses

Receptors:
h gh y

in the trody spe.ia ised sensorycelts that recetve stimuti from ihe env ronment

tpes

ot stimui :

Efiectors : cafy olt flie res Heslonse :the wayan organtsm reacrs coordination : ensure the activities ofa tivingorganism .urd on as normat

lntemalstlmutt
'changes ln blood osmoric presure 'changes in blood Etucose tevel

siini,ii / ----. ." ",. -- deGct nga.d respoidingtoclranges " """-.:":'"1:"", lf

in

e@

Externar srimuri

changes in right intensi9, touch,

the inlernatand exrerna env ronoenr.

tefrperature, pressure and sornd

8lli""-Tl,?l

ji:;"""""j'"rr\n''--..

'Temperature sensltve ce s in the hypotha amLrs.

B ffffii::T::li:"."#"."
n the senso ry system.

lHlil: i";, ",""

sentthrolgh the n.rve

They

detectan externa

sumulus (the sound of lre door bell). UsLra ly, one type of receptor detects
on y one typ

the

ntegrat

ne.eftrc.

ofst mu !s,

aii-.rcnt f-ar!cs to

Llrc

(-Dn
0"fl'""v

?
'}-]J

q}'*
-.*.r

&
I
I
err"t.nr

:::lfillJ' f

The nessage from integraton centre is then re ayed

mt'wur
bmin and spinatcord

alongthe efierent pathwayto the efiectors. rhe efterent pathwaytransm ts the mpu ses through efierent nerves to ihe effectors. Examptes of the effectors are the
smooth m!scles ofthe arrerioles, ihe erector muscles olthe sk n, the sweat gands. the adrena g ands, the thyrold gands an.r the sketeratmlsctes
The etiector initiates

\-\/:

centrarne oussystem(cNS)

3l lhe b,arn rnrern,cr< g L" n",u.,rpurt".

s! table
responses.

lil"*l -+ F"ill +
0PNr[rnitM)sdn Bid.(s546eo-H)

Receptors in sensory organs

E fectors

s-@131

---l

! .

connectthe sense organs

' and muscles of

the head. .

neck and vlscera andj send nerue 'mpulsesto from the biain

ffi{
. . '
dc ver nformalion belw,.-.f
thc se rsory receptors. the orgafs.nd e ecto s

PNSwillllnkthe recepiors and

effectors to the CNS Then, PNS relaysthe signa s between theCNS and the other body Parts

Spinal Nerves

t
\ {

cont.o s reflex act o.s lhaldo nol rvolve br!

cNs

i)
Sympathelic system

Perlpheral narvous systn

. .

{PNS) catr es

outlhe responses
responses

carYoltthe

,l,

732

c;"d,,i- )
,
contro s

volunlaryactons,
and mostcomplex partofthe brain
ha ves:
:

processes s gnals rece ved from the sense organs and re ays sensory lnformation to ntegrates the information from the sensory receptors enhances certain signa s and b ocks otherslgnals gives !s the awareness of

main coordinating centre

ior activities regulation

' '

the Largest

divided

inioiwo

press!re, s eep and thirst

sneezing, !orniting and

(al eit cerebral hem sphere

contros movements on tlre rightside oftlre

lbl

right

cerebra hemisphere:

contro s rnovments on tire eit side ofthe

mpulses ike touch, pa n

rcelves coord

the sensory lnputafd carries out

ntegrat ve

iunctons

' '.

natesthe actvites of the other brain parrs sends commands to the muscles erarnpes: movement. hearingand tasiing

works as important nervous s!tem and

ffi,
, . . ,
a

ffi\ f'',.5-

Medulla
Skull

Lr

(l
,

' . .

controls involuntaryand
acts as the refex centre eg: vomiting, coughing,

1l
respons ble for body ba ance and body

structure wlth manyloids ncreases the surlace area

-9:t'iC .

vol!ntary mlscle movements that res!lt in a sensory perception responsibefor menta I a bilities, eg: learnlng, mmorzingand
directs

receives nformaiion frorn ihe sensory

receptors on ihe poston ofdiffereni

:W
,ro
lf.ll

GI

&$
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133

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s

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et

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'a

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134

Comparison Between Various Types ot Neurones

Structure

From receptor to centratnervous systein. (brain an.t sptnat cor{t) in dorsa I root gangtion

From aiferent neurones ro

From the centratnervous system

ln grey matier Brain and centralneruous system

Dishibution
Receives and sends impulses

to brain and spjiatcord.

Sends impulses between the afierent neurones and efierent

Sends impulses to the tjssles and organs in the body.

!
tutra

Sensory ne!ronesare

r.yelinated so thatthe transmission is raprd. Carriesthe informations about the changes n the externa and internat environment.
b rh. sdc
H)

' . .

Delivers nerve irnp!tses between the vaiols parts of the blain and spinarcord. lransmlts nerve irnputses between the brain and spinat

. .

l\4otor neurones are

myelinated and form the blrtk

ofthe ventrat root of the spinat Stim! ates ortnhibitsrhe

contraction or secretion.

1 Rd{ lri

I o.s,i m;.

lntegrates mitions of messages constant y through the CNS.

'itffi;*a

r.um (M)sdn 8rrd.(5546e0

il:ii;,r,"

".,,,"",

",,,..

."

Dendron or

Dendrites
b.dJ-

dendronisa

g.",,1,/
conta

w,the.ene libres oonduct nrpllsest.uardslhe.e

branchesofnerveribres

ongnervelibrewhledendrleisashortandine

@]
'

Mvetin

streatn

i".F*.**,*l

'i)i'."
of

thlck aye.softattysubstancethatencosesthenervfibres a.las.i iisu at ng ayer

p.oteclsthe axon and he pstospeed up the pro pse

I
I I I
I I

lheyprovdealargesurfacearatoreceiveinformaton nerveimpLlsesrransmssion t dendrf.s ofarrcr.nl i.lrnns riave specdrore flrr: re rrowevei some axons \) arapraronsto prodL c. sa..rs ii reslor se gp

'I

fs

we

J ;:m
or

i.Uk__"""..,",,." g_:::,:;":::":.-"
frcmrh;.etbod! usua v bund edtoeethe, to fo,m "",".; thecommunicaton.ouieberweenthe ce0bodvandlheaxoitermnab
ooJvtnat L,arsn ts riour.es

deveroped

itgrves rise loa iumberorrine

ca led

nervefbres
e

nuce processes nerve

a*a,

!,

alttot

td,n mc,rtrrane Pn..se.rsaes ansm I e ect cal signa sto

integratesthe

eclric. slgnas

impuseswhichtravelalonglhdndritesand
coordinatethe metabolic

llre mls.le. ls, gand cellsorthe dndrrs orother neurone iervelhpusesarc ansmffcn

activlrles

alo.gtlre arcn before reach

ynaptic term na s

ng

The Tronsmission Pothri

The nerve impulses pass from the afferent ne!rones to the interneurones . the bra n.

@
rlnging.Ihen, the

E\:^r""nj
qructuro
D.tlq
Df a

,X

lupioalneurone
[4!Dao <]larlrril.l

CarridAI

&".'\"
the efferent neurones

4iar{n'ih - 4gnaptic rarminal!

(D

lil:,iJ"#,[T:":i,"'""*''

,..

ltn*"o
136

o ilfri*i.:ilffr1"i
response and escape lrorn

,*,r**q
B.yond

lermrna from the

lhesyfaprcrermina,lhere sa natro\!sp.celg!pseraratnglrr.syiaptc defdrite.fa r..eviig ne!ro.e, a ruscece oreand.e lrris chnicat

gap s ca ..1asynaptic cleft.

synapliclransnisso.: Elociric:t
Thefunctionsof synapse: iat c.frrols and nlegrates
slimu at.d recepbrs

Etectrical

->

!'r.s r.r!',r,!ai

iir ..s lri, ! , r!

1l

1r

,*-.6;;;o

Th.tr.nsmiss on of impL s.

.. r!.ft.
5

ern

: etrr

n.. s r:fercnn.r
s nr..rr!

rt

ecl

ir:

re ease and Cen.rale eiergylor the transnr sson ol n.rve nrpu ses

reconverts ihe chern ca sign! s nto erectric. s gi. s arthe postsynallc

'F "")
Aron terminal

PGtsynaptlc m6mbltlne
Synaptc vesi.les conta fing neurotransn tter nrove tolvards lhe pr.synapt c m-anrbrafe. The ves..s rlse w th lhe

O*__w
in smalland clustere.t

Tlretr!nsmissof process of nerve

inpu ses across syn.psc rertuires

enera/ ri5 dn active pr.ccss.

rn., t 'r
I

i s u,r

r..r

!t 3 rsi |., hi,

1!

r*src.

Neurotransmitters are released lnto the synaptic

The neurotransm

tGr wlll

a baff rto the direct passage offie w:ve oldetoa zation from pre synaptc to post

snaJiLic lerm na and

N--r iotra rs

n tr-.r:r

,,r":"'
Exa

I iir,!.

th. synnfl .,r --ii ir d at..ir t. tie e.e!tri

.r.
oss

tes or t rc p.sts!...1r e rrLrr!n. Th-o e.errt! !

!.sls\ ipt. ir.nb..-p

np cs of feurotransnriners

mpu se restarts on the nexl neurone (propagat on of impLrlse) aiierthe b nding of the neurotransm tters to the receptors. A new e ectrical signa wt L cont nue to another neurones. The eiieci of ncurotransmitter s bref and or-ac se
oPN xemon 1M)Sdi.3rrd.(5541190 Hr

Dld.r tll! sf rs 11 ..rl.( riI sJirlr.,,5, srtr rr _r r. r.i

rg

rc.r:T,t!1s..(

ior...ltr., Lr..;,..r

737

Under the

controlofthe wil

Not under the controlofihe

wll

Cerebral codex orthe cerebrum

Aware of action

beingtaken

Unaware of act on be ngtaken

Card ac or smooth muscles

\iur

r!u!h6 !idobjd

,+,,fi;'-*-)

Sneezing

D Oulk\r ruri inr. n'i

Sweat ng

The Direclion of The Flow of The Nerve lmpulses

l

usua

y, ref exes involves 3 types

ol

{Eflector neu6ne} aion

t(D lii :"""# ti'i:L?.-i,H:'#:il: J"-"Quadriceps

The knee-jerk reflex,/ patellar reflex .:r. .t( ,eri!fse lype or r!. L nrirf
the s mplest ne!ralcncuit as n invo vs on y two kinds of ne!rones: allereit

ieuroneand efferent ne!rone

The
rL

bb.r

ia Nr I

ts

x
lopu ses tave ngba.r alonCl
Prerer r,noror eurones.ndr@ calsc the nuscle to conrra.r,
f

r{D

atilired drornd a n!s.. rbe,,.nr ieddel r 1r ra

e-,

!\rrr.i 1lr,! len'lon ofthe kree 6 rapp.d,llr. q!a.jr ( errs

mr

s.

e is

str.1.h.d,..ti!r1.9
a

ihe r.ept.rand g.n.r.t.e

Tgd
The

lmportantto act as an
automatic response in which we are notaware and over
which we have no control

importonce of retlexes

Gvea means foran instant vtlrdrawal from harmf!l

and

dangercusstimu i.

\--.-

the dangers

and risks.

P\{
,rffi
means for a response to be excreted even before the pain is realised ata

Reflex
invo

Examples ot Reflex Actions

ved

r:

renex act on

rn" oooy.r,ru","

'

nvo ves

conmunicat of

btweei the neurones the perJrhera nervo!s systm and the spina

:).

I
I

0
After the eife.ent feurone

imP!lses, itwillcarrythe impulses to the eflector

fromrhespinalcod. Then.

awayioh

the fire instantly.

i'una

"

pur

"a

$s
n the

spina cord,lhe nerve

impu ses are re ayed to an interneurone from the atferent neurone to contjnue the p.ocess.

After the nerye impulses passed through lhe interneubne, the nerve ihpu ses are sent to an

t-

Thepu ingawayofli.gersfrom a lrorfre invoives 3qpesofneuro.e: lhe allerent neurone. iitemeuroneand effrent neuro e.

gPM c,.,I

osdl:

Receptor

r+ Eiiector +

Afferent neurone
Efferent neurone
139

system

oPN NeuDnlM)sdf.Brid /5s4690

Ht

Contrcs nvoluntaryactions.
Links the Prepares the body ior iraumat c situation n wh chthe responses are related to fight and light. lncreases the b o.d pressnre Du se ra1eand breathing rate Redlces the rate ol the d gesrive system so ihat more lr ood is available to t6f sport oxygen to the vita orEans such asthe brain.

nedlr..b..C.L..id

hyrior ra

amustottre
Preparesthe bodyduring ordina.ysituations and br ngs on the resp o nses associated
Decreases tlre b oor prssure pu se rate and breatr ng1e Acuvates the digestive sy$em

Regulates the

iniehalbody proce$esthatdo not need

to continue digestingthe

food.

pupil dilates

/'!h..
inhibits
\YJ opens

constricts pupil
eye

stimulates salivary gland constricts bronchi heart stimulates churning stomach

rJ0
. il:t l

tK
inhibits churning stimulates glucose release stimulates
secreiion

Qr,.

a,'

adrenal gland

inhibits mobility
relaxes

stimulates mobility

contracis bladder

Parkinson's disease
An acce erat CNS

Ways

Alzheimer's disease
A f eurologica disorder which

fgdisorderofthe

thattypically affecis victims around the age of 60 yea6 old a.d

Due io rlre low levelof dopami.e (a neurotransmitter) in the brain, efiects ol Pa.k nson's disease:

to
-a

affectsvictims

handle

around rheageof60years od and

Ma

t.r v

(al
(bl

lremo6 ortrehbring ofrhe

arms,jaws, and face difiic!tyln maintaining a formal postures and causes mpa red balance and coordinalion resl ls in weakness of the
140

cenerc aE,ne ".! '[1 4q'' -}f orocess do errect. l' ',' inc,eas ns ross or.e.o,y una \
butothe,tucto,s rire envrcnmentaland

cause orthisdisease

6st rrnrno"n,

ab@e. -.-

#f

(a)

contused and iorgetful

ose the

(c)

abilityto.ead,

wrne, eat, walk and talk

Cerebml

co(ex of cerebrum

lntegratjng centre Nledulla oblongata and hypothatamus

Giands, cardiac musctes ofrhe heart,

smooth muscres ofthe inrernal organs such as the intestines

Rernoving hand from a hor stove, knee-jerk rer ex

ior

Reguiates the inrerna I environ rnenr, xa mple : body temperaru re afcl

consists ofa giant network of nerve cels or neurones rhat tmnsport information

consists of a number ofglands that

controls voluntaryand invotuntaryactions electrical signals (nerve tmpuises) messages are conveyed via neurones
Type of

.
! '

'

slgnal

. . . . '

controls involu nta ry actions chemica slgnats (horrnones) messagesare conveyed via btoodstream

carried to speciic tocations temporary and short-term response

carried tovarioLrs destinations

long astrng response I nevers bte)

f,.t rn"4dlrdm-qr-oo". in Humans

Stimulus aifects endocrine thrcugh secreting cells in the endocrine gland so that it secretes hormones
A lrormone is a chemlcal

prodlced in one part ofan organism which is conveyed throughout the organ sm and prcduces a specilic
response n target ce ts.

Getorgan

with the original

F-@
disvibuted througho!t rhe body by the b oodsrream

(b) Growth

The homones are conveyed in the btood to all parts ofthe body. Receptors on the membranes ofthe targer organ tecognise, the circu lating homone motecutes. This ensures that onlythe specinc target organ can respond to the hormone.

Hormone and main

. . . . ' '

Te

,.fd enlli !r!5r.r1.J Drs'rsg.rlsrr.l..n.n

Ihyroid st mlr at ng

gaids are lhe ducrless gands that produce honrones drectry i.lo the inlerslilia nlid and the boodstream. The .ircu at ng b ood wll transpodtlrelrormonerlrroughoutthe
The endo.rine

Nornonswhiclr are no lonCer usefulare neutralised bythe ver and excreted by the k dreys

hornrone (FSH)

l)rg.,r!,rrr.rr 111r. r r.,nr.i.sn.t !p.n are.a cdtargel

A rrormone may

hasa f.wraraeloreafs

lLlli

ir':
,r_'.:

,'
,

. . .

(GF)
PRL

)"t

t
Thesize ofpituitarygland isvery sma ,lust ke the size ola pea. lt secretes several hormones that can regularerhe acrlvtes of other endocrine syslem and
many bodylLncllons.

(ADH)

r . .

Hormone released : Thyroxine Target organ : thetissles The princ palllnctons:

(a) controlsthe bodymetabolism (b) conrrolsrhe phFcaland menta

(c)
(d)

Crowlh ncreases the body tenperatLre reEUlates Arowth rnd deve opmeftofthe body

cels

Pancteas

,tr",""*-t

Ovary ( Female only)

Adosreron (Adrenalcorter), adrena n and noradrnaline lAd.ena nedu a) oestroEen and progeslerone

Iargetorgan:Gonads

a dosterone s th

----->

a drena lne and noradrena

kdney ne

-----t

card ac and othcr

1at oestrogen contro

deve opment of secondary sexua charader stics in

. .

The princ pa

functons:
n

(a) secretesadrena
respond

(b)

Proge$erone prohotes re grow|r of the uierus wa s and inhibirs ovuration

(b)

n lvh ch preparesthe bodyto an emergency snuanon increasesthe reabsorption of h nera salts in kdieys

Functonotadosterone:

o o\dif

'

16

---l
endocrine glands
Target fi.ee ma I categores based oi theirfunctonssuch as reproducton. lromostasisand groMh Trr.s..rr.. !:'ror ro res ia! stIL .t.1r. r'ortrirrC.fs.rre
l-lornrones ca r bc d v ded nlo o gans

0rgans
activates the thyroid gland to re ease

b!] -r

trr.,

..

,e

fefrr nlrbtthl-d.i[n!or.lije

llowevr ou. bodya so h.vesom gands wth a eramPe. tlre salivary g atrd !vh Thseglandssccrelevaroushormones
phys ological pr.cesses. rr. t n, t; !ir

stimulates the deve opfirent offollic es in females ovares ard spermatogeresis in

Noved
rd

..rl

reo!!.ton dcvelopnrerit.l .orpL s !t-A! f.nd sc.rctron ot.estrog-Af and P'og--sler re n rcna.s.s,e a3 se.rel.. !l L-Asr.stei.n. r nr..s
.ls i
stim uiates the adrenal cortex to release

tr.r l .s tr. iiet,r'rr 'lisas. (l: fdr!otre .r...ri.{;

frtre

,l@trq

\r!t-t-

st mulates prole n synthess, groMh and st mu atesthe milk synthessiiom

stifiulates kidneysto reabsarb water frorn sl nru ates tlre (rrrr aclons olth. dter.e nrus.es a.d lhe r-A e.se.l m k frofl nan.r.rv glands . ieDrLes.tter.ri.l

..rse:rsDts .l..tof i| r:

es

Thyroid Gland

Target organ : Live(

lloroone reeased: ns! in and glucagon hlsclesandthe adiposetssues

(a) prodlces insu n andglucagon in approprate quantity (b) fsllin converts excess g lcose ro gr}toCen and

lc)

decreases b ood glucose leves. The gly.ogen is stored in liver afd musclecels gucagon breaks down ihe glycogen afd reteases glucose intorhe blood. Thjs wlllincrease blood

Functionsofadrena ie and
increase lhe leve s ol sugarandlatyacids in

Adrenal Gland

lil::::[],:ffii"..",
Gonads,

resris(Mareonrv)

skn hlscles afd

activ ty,

llie .at and

secondarysex!a
characrerisiics n males spermatogenesls

fcrase the melabo c rate and constr ctthe

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ot

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(i!

A light oriight situation, forexampe,

when you see a big snake approachesvou, the hypothalam!s wil send outthe nerve mp!lses d recuy to the adrenal med!lla.

gland
Xidney
This stirnulatesihe cel s

:lferts ol adrena ine and rioradrenal nc secr-cr o. lal An ncrease in the heartbeat and breath ng

ofthe adrena med!lla

to Produce adrenaline

to plmp more

oxygen to the brain ro be

highlyaledto mobillse the various parts oi the body inro mmed ate acton

rj Ar .creas-A I lirc b ood Fr-ass! e, bkrod gnr..se lele dnd rnctalrol. a.r v 1!.

'

EDinephrine l.d e ra ircl Norpinephrine lnon.irena ine)

From the adrenal

to pump a Iargeramount ofg Lrcose to the

med!lla

to make the mlsces more energsed and enable a person tolight oif an attacker or r!n away mmed ately from danger

{the nnernrost region of

H.s n.rrr.ncs fr.m

autonomic nervo!s
The

nervo!s and endocrlne

togetlrerto bring out an

in fght or f ight

once th danger s over. the internal changcs that

k ldney

@
Adrenalgland

The neurones from the

occ!tred

wi rel!m t. normil

neruous system ln the

l.t.,",*r

jgqyllglyy4-'i,9"9's9/
. ' . . r . . .
an:bnorma increase
in the length of

bo.esand

. . . . r . . . .

causes gigantism dur.g chi dhood the bons, hands fet, cheeks andtawsthicken afd olher tissues eniarge caus fgacromegary an increase inthe merabolic rate

retardaton of bonegroMh and caLsesdwarlism dlring growlng years. the perso. iaits to grow and ihe size ot bodysti the organs ofthe person also fa rio grow

ofthe body

causesnryr.dcm. inadulthood
slows down heart rate,low bodytempeEture, hlgh sensitivity to co d, generalletharev and a tendencyto gain weight eas ty causes severe m enta i reta rdation (crertn sm) duringch tdhood lack otiod ne reducesthesecretion of thyroxine

excessve sweating, heat intoleGnce, netuousne$, increased bowet fr ovements, rapid heart raie and weight oss enlarge oirhe thyroid crand (coirrc)

causes an abnorma ly low blood (hypoglycaemia)

leveloig ucose

in the

eads to diabetes merrrlus ( high evets of slgar or

gtu.ce

in

fatigue, menta contusion, lnsomnid, nervousne$, faintinC spells, mood swifgsand

severe hypoglycaemia can cause convulsonsand

causes b! lding up oiglucose in bloodstream an ifcreased trequency ofurination, excessivethkst, numbness or buhingsensation in the ieet, anktes ard legs,,

blJred o'poo'\ cron, dno slow he8,rgofsol.os calse diabetes inslpldus (a largevo ume ofurine s excrered)

causes

h gh

retention or water in the body

p.t ents usualythirstand often wanrtodrinka otofwater

severe diabetes nslpidus may tead to death due to dehydratjon
oPNrNtu.oi lM)sdn Bhd 155a6s0
H)

iz

t
j2

,8". :]P :e: -e" !;F P: ! i "^:LZP .?"P5 ,9pi fl F ;y

I n:
r6;cqE zP i iEt

-d ,-E

! i: E;t E:::l !t
2r=Er &.

r:i

dEx= --;H ib!rI

:jl :!
!ir '!;;
-9

.". i; e-. !;

;il ::

I
I I I I

= E

3.
I

9F;" ,-:e: ! : P ;i 3 e F ii: ;i9 ii -; q-ii -.

!alr9:

yi,t=sp

'6
.E

:.;F ! :: r.= P E;s : =.;E9 !

0

:99

:
e t

P!Pi;
:

E"

i " i:,-.2
99
E

n9:

:;=!= H::=; !!:_ ! 5 r- i:; r:

1-==z
6

-[:iL.7"r:
",

d
E

G1: tEt!
151

; td

E
G

o q
E

,11

9:
P6

:6t E Fi !i 6

;a 6d
;c6

(!<r:o: n0? ,!

>.o
: !
-9

E::E;
:9!e:
'E

H.; e Ei; 6::9

9

b 3
146

.99

3.e GO

:B

EB

'
,

Nephron ls
A

tlref!nctonal!nit

ot a

nephron.orrprses3 najor parrs la) the gornerul!s and assocated

(b) the Bowman s capsLr e

lcl the rena t!b!le

(a tong, narrow

Fenaltlbule is made up ot

iJ

proximar convorlred tubu e

liii) dlstalconvo utd rub!l-.

Wtb n the I dney ea.h neph on ssuppred r'rh b ood by an afterFnt artrote whtrh rs
a

Peritubular capit aries or the

bran.h ofthe

ren. .rterv.

capi aryfetworkwil eventLaly]oin

togeiher into the renatvein.

Rma'|T.;'

. ;".;;;";";;;", ",.

",";..... nto a network olcap llary wh ch s known as gomerutus.

Formed bythe reunion ol capi aries ofthe g/omerurus.

Peritubular capillary/

. . .

Made

upor2 a'rsofLe

s.

Celstharmake upthe innerwa ofBowhan scapsL e. Adhere c oselyto rhe endothe at

1..............
\,,. /////

@E

fil'llitilir E

Loop or Hente

r
I
L

A6cendine timb

, '

De.cendine timb Long, hanp n shaped reeon ofrhe neohron. Descefds intothe medu a and then retlrnsrothe.onex
Bhd. 15545e0 H)

t
141

0rMreudiiM)sdtr.

Ultratillration in the Bow'nan's capsule

Efre.enl arteriole (narrow)

. . ' . .

{vide}

l
liltrat

The endothe iL'rn and the podocttes orthe Eonrerulusfornr aiiliraiion membraneThe membrane a lowsthe passage of watr and soluteslrom ihe blood intothe caps! arspace. Hlgh hydrostatc pressure forces smal mo ecu es into Bowman s capsu e. The presslre s nra ntained and enhanced as the affercnt arteriole has a larger diameterthan the ef f erent arteriole. As blood enters the g omeru !s, ultraf tration takes p ace when the high pressureforces f['id through the liltration membrane and into the capsular space. Th liltrate contains no protein and b ood ce ls asthey are too large...'

-.."

-.' wh.h enlerslhe

.....

Thenutd

"6';":,,..
.
Occurs by passive diffusion and active transport.

Medulla

. .
a0,",,,,"'

Seoctcd s!bsta res ca. - hydrogen ions ( N') potass um ions ( K')

o.s oisecreton : (a) elminates and lncreasesthe raie

FLrn.t

or waste disposa

Therc is about 20% of the plasma leaving ihe blood vessels a nd enters the tena tu b! res. Secretion is a process in which wastes and xcss substancesthal are not nitialy fi tered are produced intothe rena t!bule.

tbt

.onLrois th-. b ood evel ot certa

n ors

l4a

l@ _

neatsorntion

. <,aa,.\a pdb.orpion|ofa\pld,pshpns-b\td,e,
move acrossthe walls ofthe renalt!bule intothe capiliary network.lt occurs at the proximal convoluted tub!le.

which is low in salt

80%

waler

Collectlng

(osmosis)

I
.
(diftusion)

the bodv

a\ N

Na'and Cl ionsare
activeiy pumped out.

. . . .

Tlre !rine (the processed iitrated)moves lurtherdown the colecting

ATP

are generated byan

abundance of m tochondria n proxima convoluted tubu e.

The

. . '

constituents of urine: The ne normaiy s clear and ranges

pa frorn'r eto deep ye low in colour. Urine s sllghtlyacidicContents ofsubstances ln urine:

!rea d filses olt lnto the sutroundingll! d and blood because of ts smal Eventua ly, abolt 45% ofthe oriEinalurea is left in the colect nEduct to be excreted in the urine. ln collectingduct, lf ADh increases, the reabsorption process of water w llincrease. lf ADH decreases, ihe reabsorption process oi water wil decrease.
However, some

Ith",**t

oP[] Neum(M)sdi. Bhd.is5a6e0

H)

regulate the exchange ol carbon dioxide and oxygen

controls heat exchange {thermoregulation)

regulates the level of solutes in blood

skre 6e

supplies the constant pressure that is needed lo deliver blood

dit{etrB beNetr ieglrjYe

regulate the level ol sall and waler (osmoregulationl

supply water and soluble loods
z = nujd ln
rtre

urinary bt.ddtr

ntrstta fuid and btood ntrstt. fuid.nd broo.r pasma that conslanllysuiround the ce s. so, r s importantto regularerhe physica and chemlca co.d tons inlhe iterna env ronmeni or lrre bodylo function opt malty The physicai factors:blood pressure, osnotic pressure ard bodytemperalure. Thechemm tactors:sars sugar eve,parri! pressureof oxygenandcarboi
The interna env ronmenlconsistsof ne rnterna ronmenlconsisrsof

imPoftance of homostas s:

forthecellstofuncrof

opt nra y preparestolerable nritfor humafs to survive ens!res the enzymarc and orhe6 metabo c processesorreactiois nthebodytofuncton

Negative Feedback Mechanism

. . .

Whenevr a change occurs n a system, tr cha.ge necra.rsm wh ch reversestheoriCinalchange and

auto

at cat y in rates

a.. .cr'e

brings$e system backto norma

NEGATIVE

Oppositeeffectsthat restore tlre env ronmentto its or g nat norma levet. Homeoslasis s achieved bythe negatve feedback mechan sm

r'
Value

n contrast. a positvefeedback mc.hanism produces a rsponsthat Th postvefeedback hechan sm is usua y hanniu aid rare Th responsewi keepto prodeed n thesame direction asrhe n talsiimu

us nstead ofreurning

L.

.oieexampeofapostveleedbackmechansminthehlnranbodysthereeaseofrheox!,to.n (hornoie)tostimuatafd nte.siliesUrecontrccrof orutrned!ringtabou(

the chanCe to the normalvd ue.

,1oo,,,,

FEEDBACK

150

osmoregulation by the Kidneys

Water content ts too high examp e:when a pe6on

. '

haintainingrhe water content ofthe conslant evet. lsachieved by regu aunAthevotumeof urine produclion and excrerion fromthe kidneys. lo maintain the blood osmot c presslre.
blood

The process of

at.

Water conient ls too row exampe: when a Derson sweab ioo much durl.g hot wearher or dr nkstoo litre water a decre.sc
in blood volume

wil occurdueto

s_,

, \r , c' r A
'w """

i -"\ a fl::#:"" I
de(.eases

I I

betow rhe no,ma range.

haehotrhage or severe dehydratiof

;.6,

Hypothatahus

a::"*"':"ffi!x?"

r,
\\

Osmore(eptor ce s rn the hypotha amus monitorthe change in blood osmotic

osmorecepio.ce s n rhe hyporhatamus detectthe ncrease in blood.sm.ri.

secrete more ADH into the blood

Osmoreceptor cel s n rhe hypothatamus are ess stimLlated. Hence,lessADB s secrered from the pituitary gland.

' )il):llii:",:il't'j;i*'*E

@ Hl":llg

il
'
stiff
u

Sma vo ume ofconceftrated ur

s Droduced. Urine becomes

ne

m.rp

Negative feedback
Throughth fegarive feedback, the tower osmotic

ad vity of the hypoihalamic osmoreceptor ce s a.d stop

atingthe pituitary gtand
H)

Urinecontains more

and s lighlr in cotour

oPN N4m!(M)sdn.8hd 15546s0

t
j
E

1 -2r r!'=-i1 t ! :: -i;.:= !: : = aa-'1!,2e====: j:: ii B-= :

-' g5 ;t i i- ..7 =-ii-.

E'r!,

--3 P; 22

p1

o: 69
-:

.. ;

= orl :

.9

iEj -==. "". "

o9
-.: i6 !l:
_g

95

o:
co

o9,E

fp
b!

:it

2F.

J ''EEi;
s -q:

*: A $;;

I !fi

z*
aq

st : ls3 +o bt b t53 al a IeE

;=

+q8

-5o

>>
P=:

Y;--

cii
b,
bn

.S 5n

B
G B

&

tit

.s

^9 { 56q o;3 g 6aH :gb 3gs6 EY9 .;: gi E ! :- i- = !'. ?. I

A:.011

:!!

TE
!-3?tj 9F

16

69 ;c
|El

o o 0 o

qo5
.9

oog
!i
EO o= -ct

9ys
E3
.g

g X
E
B -!.

:F "!
iY

:&

.>

,q

9b

=-E-i
o o

83 oo

;E
Hb

I s r6fi 9-.eq
.E

:5sD> lDP Y 6";t >> 5H= :iF 6

(5r

=i:olt >l :9o! Fc3 0 !,t 6;;;r

e;E (E!l!l

iFe^ dd

qi3 SF- Er.g-u ri

152

lil :

:. t

3EE-s;6i;;=EtPEg

HE EgE ..::n rip{!i"= 5i;l:E;

ieP

,l';.1
,

;l!; .R;

;; eo
E

. .oE s E i. e E: " i iE : 33:is-*Ebj;F;5=3 it;;Hr!ii*:.eEI. g

E

339 l+:: ! ! RE iP; F E;5 8l'," =

rt' - -

: ; 3i

-6 E

s E E E .&

hFc Y ;*;EF

'ts;;:g;!-: E9PE;EE5:

:- E
E,C:

iE

!2

:A::E e:6HeEg* E:;CCt+:::g!:::

body tehperature decre.ses

gEF-* ;:!";TEi

vr, !^

EZ

E;;*EreaFiitl:
.!
6
bodytemp.rature incr6ases

=r-F, :pt !E;:

.li

.6:eE:;5t::!gpE;e

ilE ts
E .9

:a" Ir'

E
3F :E

9.

e,9

EE

:s

!s

-.e 3 -.

lEr
39
9

63
R !t
!;';

::6 9_o-

3a

E;3E qe;&
;::
o-

:\ :
ti'
zZ

-:;E

;q

I
B9 3!
E

5teorr,r-

t a E'. +. i F.!
"rnOri

::

>\-

s3

!: ;+Ei* ;; !;E;: f t"z:==EEe

t

iPP 6gi

Es

ai6-",-1i,

6'00""

a9

$::
h !;-

E ;5
rPN NuDn1M)sdn 3hd (5546e0
H)

3n
153

t6

Kdneys ofsome people may be dam:Eed by disease, drugs or injury. nh one k nney. Howerer. f bonr k dneys stop funcl on

I
nA.

tlre b ood osnroti. pressurc.nd

rr ood

. ' .

The build-up of tox c wastes in the body can threatan the life. Hence, people who sutler from kidneylailure have lo undeo Haemod a

yss

s a process of

liltering blood thmugh an artificalwaythat takesoveithe lunctions ota laited kidney

The process of dialysis in a

The haemon

aysistrealmentlakesabout 6 hours

haemodialyser 6 per t m
prweek A

Blood fromth Net

arteryollrre patcnfs arm..lers |re

d aryss

a.d nrlstdla yss Dalients re.tun 3 treatmerts

dilfrsioi olro{ins i5 ftoni rhe b ood ro fie dia ys s fu d due oi g ,did bd i4b" 4l)ood old to r i.

et
Pcop.shoar. i
the latestagesoichron c ldieydi5eases

@ n";
Kidney Transplant

r-."r onn,r,ccntc.s

tr,,, oootr

!esse s oftlre sa

re arn.il r. pali.ni

Ale.nat ve way lo lreat k dfey fa !re Thefa ed k d ry oflhe palient is rrnovd.nd then rep accd !vth thc aonoas k dncy llosever,lhere sa riskof relectionof transpantdoig.n

f6.; Practising

a Healthy Lifestyle Depressants

rncrease the activity of the centra I nervo us sydem a nd the

brock the removar ol pleasure

- inducing Excess ve use can

nurol6nsmitieB. calse a

dr#ry t'l'e
o

. .

lsua ys owdown the aclvty of lh central nervous system and the tansm'ss,o. oi nrve nnl]u ses Erampe Balbturatcana arcoh. Trrey nhibittre rerease ofADH lrom the poslerior ptuitary afd cause

.
Typeg of Dru

An a

coholc usuarypasses

tefr porary excitement and

largevolumeolurnand nray

depre$ion. once

drug is der i cause sreepiness. ways of consumpr on : njecton,

lie

eflect of

Stmuateand

a so ruin

the

n.r..s0 rhe metabo ic rate

lnduce the fee iig oJ euPhora. srowdown th norma b@in flnctons and b ock the pa n

Exanpe LSDlDryserec

Exampl : Heroin and toorpliine The dtugs may cause seepine$

and disruplthe normarluncton Besides, the drugs mimlc by bind ng to

ol

neurotansfrfte6

.a1il] .h.w !o,s,noknre

Ways of

consumpton: injection,

ar

-a/
'

Plant Ilormones

Organccornpoundswlr ch are prodlced ii a sma tamo!nt. txper menls conducted by Chares Darwi. and Bosyen.Jense. to fnd our lrowand why panrsgrowlowardssln grt
(ii)

l/ b.

(\ /)

Tlp s covered Tp s covered byopaqle cap bycearcap

(I

(iv)

""." byopaqueshied

J1",",".

-o

bya geat n

,lJil".*o ,'n"l!1."0
bock
by

mic.

-p
Theshoots r

r.g Lp
Conclus

\ dra, .o

. theshoots . The shools . benttowards be.ttowards benttowards

rha1r

<f

+ ft
Th shoots grew

oi:

The

DaMin and his son (1aa0) lips ofihe shools were resDons

\/-

b e

\ \

The a

gBwlr promoting chen cal

,t',ffitr*l
d4ntl!rir

BoysenJensen (1913) Coiclusion:Theshoord d not bend towards trr. gr]lir ltre t pwas sep.rated lrom ie ower paf byai nrrre neabe bafrier

tA

nies5eneei ca led

auri.

rr,s",

'

to

ue" r.rr,

Experim.ntsbywent(1926)

' . .

rr.r.ti Lilrl .o rt: rd:. r. .. , F!s,A rBe rrr.r liq n oauLen r the sr..t1t
Co

. H.rnr. ". ir," !r!d!cer

t.
rt-.AL

uded

.tlr !,oritlr

a rd

' .

Alrins and elhyeie are

Llre

examplesol

ant

Thcchemic. sLbstance
sr rnur.tcd the growth

of

rlgtr donce.r?t on of

The shootgreq1owards

1) sp..ds (i)
srolvs

up Lhe

gBotr or

0oicenlrat of

.l

grolvlh

d.w.

the gro,v|r

messefger:re higher on

lh.d.rkFrridPorsh..i

)iicreassrhe

r.tc.r
n.r:ps

:Tr,ffi""dil
Effect Of Auxins On Phototropism

at.. i

rle

|.t

Lisht fron onc side

lll
i,t nr!d!.es a un f.rn ard.r.,r I st, Lrutio I of:L r rs a rd gr.rs st aiAfl L pwa .s
Slr...t

Auxins move to stiaded side and ce ls row fasler here

+ -

lhe shadeandstihuare groMh beneath tlie

on the slde in

p.,'+"d4
tltoot/toot ricnt t o.
on.3tde

the groMh oJ a planl rowards light s caused by unequal dist blt on oi auxlns ln the shoot.

t!rrer a sho.t

s.rp.s..l

t.
lengthening to the cells of

aL

i ns spr,ldd ouieveny. .Iheshootgro$Up

lrit rror

id..r ons rh.

fie shD.ts.ri riept it,edark 1re siroDts, gr.w sn.rfrt uDv. rls
H)

rnen, tne coreopti" orprudi{#ws towards ght becausethe cels on the darlr s de grow lasterrhan

the.e

ls on the brighterside.

o Pfr Neum (Ml sdr Bhd.15546e0

15s

Geotropism = ihe growlh movement of a p ant in resDonseto Eravnv

Aux.s contro the responses of botlr the

roots and shoots

to

ight and gravty.

horizonta y, both light and gravily cause auxins to be cafied to rhe lower s des of bolh the shool and ihe root Accum! arlon oi auxin on lrie r.werside of the shool
Accu

nllation of:uxin

on

the lower s de of ttr root.

.
They

Aux

.s

are synthesized

concentrarion of auxins that caLsesthe elongation ol rh shoor nh bittliecell e oigato. n the ools.

wi

w laccumu ate on lhe lowers de of the shoot. Higher cofcentrat on ofaux m calses the shoot bends lpwads.
shoot shows posit ve photoLropism

ce s eoigaG mo,e

sh!@
otherfuncions oiauxins : (a) stimu ateihe deve ophent .fJruii wirh.ut fefti saii.n

As ihe shool

up

s ve.t car, the d str

buton

ofauxins becomes equa and even.

The stm erows stra eht uD and emerEinA from llre dow.ward lowa rds the light.

(bl

nduce the growth ot

d,rwnwards. the auxlfs

roj

w I keep

on growing

Ethylene

t)
.

Also known as ethane, is a p ant lronnone. It is secreted duringthe ripening of fruits. The synthesis ofeihyene !s!a lyoccurs in fr!its. stems and eaves.

The ethyiene ofripe mangoes wil induce the ripening of papay. Hence, many farmers applythis knowledge and use ethylene to rlpen the immature fruits that

Functionsof ethylene : (a) st mulatesihe prodLrction ofcel'rlase

.Fl\le-s

(b) rnakesthelrultsoft (c) lncreases the speed orrrults ripen.g (d) he ps to convearthe complex carbohydEtes lnto simp e sugar

a-s

d li

p d6,. oeLlp'.

156