Symbolic and Critical Reasoning - IAP 101 Final Review

Three basic components to human knowledge: 1. Objective fact a cat 2. The idea of a cat 3. The word we apply to the idea, which allows us to communicate it to others. In English, cat. It all starts with the cat. If there were no real cats, there would be no idea about them and there would be no words for the idea.

Two kinds of reality: subjective and objective Subjective reality is limited to the subject experiencing it. Therefore it's only as trustworthy as the subject. Obective reality is the actual thing or event out there. Things An actual, existing object Events We have no direct evidence of past events but we have records. Our ideas are dependent on things and events outside ourselves.

Truth
Two kinds of truth Ontological Truth big word for a simple meaning. Saying something is ontologically true just means it exists. Example this computer, classroom, that guy over there. Logical Truth The truth of statements. A statement is an expression in language that you can say is either true or false. For example: Flora and Kimi are from China. Denny is from Mexico.

statements
A statement is an expression in language that you can say is either true or false. The Payap University campus is located in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The Payap University campus is a beautiful campus. The second statement is an evaluative or value statement. It is subjective opinion and should not be treated as objective fact.

The Cat egor ical st at ement

A categorical statement tells us that something is definitely the case The purpose of an argument is to demonstrate to show that something is true Argument is the activity of logic An argument is only as good as its statements The most effective argument is one whose conclusion is a categorical statement

Efficient Cause an agent whose activity brings something into existence or modifies its existence. -something that causes or changes something else Final Cause the purpose of the activity Material Cause material out of which an object is composed Formal Cause the identifying nature of a thing -How you describe it Example: a garden Not everything has all four causes

Types of Causes

Deductive Arguments go from general to particular -All cats are mammals. Hello Kitty is a cat. Therefore, Hello Kitty is a mammal. Inductive Arguments go from particular to general -Hello Kitty has pointed ears. A lot of other cats have pointed ears. Therefore, it is likely that all cats have pointed ears. Inductive arguments are not as certain as deductive arguments They are guided by hypotheses -Then we gather evidence and find patterns

Inductive Argument

Sound Argument
Relies on content and structure Statements are true or false meaning they either reflect reality, or they don't. (Ontological Truth)
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Arguments are valid or invalid meaning they either follow a logical structure, or they don't. (Logical Truth)

skepticism
Is it good to be skeptical? Extreme skepticism There is no truth Moderate skepticism There may be truth, but the human mind cannot grasp it. (In the end, this has the same result as extreme skepticism) In critical thinking, skepticism should be selectively employed we reserve judgment, but only for a time
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Evasive Agnosticism
If I am agnostic, what do I believe? Agnosticism = uncertainty Evasive Agnosticism is using agnosticism as an excuse Saying I don't know without trying to find out the answer It's okay to be uncertain, but we should not use this as an excuse for not trying
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Cynicism and nave Optimism

Cynical bitterly distrustful, contemptuous, or pessimistic. (Dictionary.com) Optimistic - disposed to take a favorable view of events or conditions and to expect the most favorable outcome. (Dictionary.com)
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Opposite points of view that make the same mistake Prejudiced pre-judge judge before knowing the facts Blinds us to possibilities, creates self-fulfilling prophecies or disappointment

Narrow-Mindedness
Not open to other ideas, weak-sense critical thinking, refusing to consider alternatives that don't agree with your own prejudices
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Example: looking for your keys The solution: Open-mindedness?

Formal Fallacies
Formal fallacies structure 1. Denying the Antecedent
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If Louise is running, then she is moving. Louise is not running. Therefore, she is not moving.

Formal Fallacies
2. Affirming the Consequent If Louise is running, then she is moving. Louise is moving. Therefore, she is running.
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Formal Fallacies
3. The Undistributed Middle guilt by association Every M is P. Every S is P. Therefore every S is M.

M P

some Nazis were members of the music club. Joe was a member of the music club. Therefore, Joe was a Nazi.

Informal Fallacies
Using and Abusing Tradition Things have always been done this way is not a good reason to do them that way
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Can apply to the opposite: it's not a good reason to not do them that way either.

Informal Fallacies
Two Wrongs Don't Make a Right It's all right to do X because Y has already been done.
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They did it first.

Informal Fallacies
Laughter as a Diversionary Tactic Tears as a Diversionary Tactic What do these both have in common?
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They are actually forms of the Appeal to Emotions fallacy!

The Critical Questions

1. What are the issue and conclusion? 2. What are the reasons? 3. What words or phrases are ambiguous? 4. What are the value conflicts and assumptions? 5. What are the descriptive assumptions? 6. Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? 7. What reasonable conclusions are possible?

8. How good is the evidence? 9. Are there rival causes? 10. Are the statistics deceptive? 11. What significant information is omitted?

Thinking and Emotion

We bring lots of personal experience, emotion, and agendas to every decision we make. Critical thinking puts our emotion and previous opinions aside - just briefly. One danger of emotional involvement is that you wont consider other conclusions/ideas. We are not machines, but we need to recognize the role of our emotions. Emotion should take place AFTER one has thought critically.

What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? (Ch. 2)

In order to think critically we must know what we are thinking critically about!!! What are the issue and the conclusion? The Issue - a question or controversy responsible for the conversation or discussion. The stimulus for what is being said. The Conclusion - the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept.

The Issue - 2 Kinds

1. Descriptive Issues - raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future. Examples: Why do students procrastinate? What do college students believe about God? Are students smarter now than students 50 years ago?

The Issue - 2 Kinds

2. Prescriptive Issues - raise questions about what we should do or what is right or wrong, good or bad. Examples Should parents be more or less involved in students lives? What ought to be done to improve Payap University? Should/Must students have to learn about the worlds religions?

People suffering from mental illness are nearly twice as likely to smoke cigarettes as people with no mental illness, according to a new study by Harvard Medical School researchers. The researchers found that people with diagnosable mental illness comprise nearly 45 percent of the total U.S. tobacco market. The study suggests that people with mental illness often use the nicotine from cigarettes to enhance their mood, relieve anxiety, and cope with stress. What are the issue and conclusion? Is the issue perscriptive or descriptive?

People suffering from mental illness are nearly twice as likely to smoke cigarettes as people with no mental illness, according to a new study by Harvard Medical School researchers. The researchers found that people with diagnosable mental illness comprise nearly 45 percent of the total U.S. tobacco market. The study suggests that people with mental illness often use the nicotine from cigarettes to enhance their mood, relieve anxiety, and cope with stress. Is smoking related to mental illness? - Descriptive

Frisbee is fun even if youve never played it before. People of all ages and skill levels can play together. 60% of college students who played frisbee said they enjoyed it. Thus, frisbee is a great game. Frisbee is fun even if youve never played it before. People of all ages and skill levels can play together. 60% of college students who played frisbee said they enjoyed it. (C) Thus, frisbee is a great game. (1)Frisbee is fun even if youve never played it before. (2)People of all ages and skill levels can play together. (3)60% of college students who played frisbee said they enjoyed it. Thus, frisbee is a great game.

What words or phrases are ambiguous?

The average professional golfer made $874,840.23 in tournament earnings alone in 2004.

The average professional golfer

Whenever we make an argument there are always hidden values and assumptions. Values - the unstated ideas that people see as worthwhile. Assumption - an unstated belief that supports the argument. Reasons + (VALUES/ASSUMPTIONS) = Conclusion

What are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions? (Ch. 5)

How to find Value Assumptions!

1. Look at the authors background 2. Ask, Why is the conclusion so important to the author? 3. Look at the opposite. Think about the opposite position and what values the opposte person might have.

How to find Value Assumptions!

Each year in the United States, hundreds of thousands of animals are slaughtered each year. Before their death most of these livestock are kept in deplorable conditions. Cattle feed lots are packed so tightly that animals can scarcely move; chickens are held in cages too small for them to turn around in. For what? So that people who can afford it can enjoy tasty meat products. Mass production methods of raising animals, like those described above, must change if we are to think of ourselves as ethical people.

What is a Descriptive Assumption?

Value Conflicts and value assumptions deal with Prescriptive Arguments (The way the world should be) Descriptive Assumptions are beliefs about the way the world is! It is an unstated belief about how the world was, is, or will become.

The Honda Click 2010 will get you where you want to go. I have driven older models of the Honda Click on multiple occasions. (C) The Honda Click 2010 will get you where you want to go. I have driven older models of the Honda Click on multiple occasions. The Honda Click 2010 will get you where you want to go. I have driven older models of the Honda Click on multiple occasions. No Value Assumptions - because a value assumption is an unstated belief or idea. (A belief about the way the world should be!)

Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? - Ch. 7

Ad Hominem: An attack, or an insult, on the person, rather than directly addressing the persons reasons. The Slippery Slope Fallacy: Making an assumption that one step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events. The Equivocation Fallacy: A key word is used with two or more meanings in an argument. These different meanings make the argument no longer make sense.

Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? - Ch. 7

Appeal to Emotion Fallacy: The use of emotional language to distract the audience from relevant reasons and evidence. Straw Man Fallacy: Distording our opponents point of view so it is easy to attack. Thus we attack a point of view that doesnt truly exist. Appeal to Popularity - Assumes that anything favored by a large group is desirable. Either-Or - Assuming there are only two choices or options, when there are more than two.

Intuition: Knowledge that comes from immediately just knowing. There is no process or justification. It is your gut feelings or hunches. Advantages: 1. Very quick. 2. Personal. Disadvantages: 1. Others have no way to judge its dependability. 2. It ignores relevant evidence. 3. Intuition can often be wrong. 4. It can have prejudice or bias. Example: You should not vote for PM Gonzalez because I just have a bad feeling about him.

Intuition

Personal Experience
Personal Experience: Knowledge that comes from
one's past experience. situation.

Advantages: 1. Can be good for a specific person or Disadvantages: 1. It generalizes people and
situations instead of judging each on a personal basis. chocolate cake, so I thbetter ink that anyone who is depressed just needs to eat more chocolate cake.

Example: I always feel after having a big slice of

Personal Testimonials
Personal Testimonials: Persuasive appeals from one's personal experience. Advantages: 1. Can be good for a specific person or situation. Disadvantages: 1. selectivity people select information that confirms their beliefs and ignore information that doesn't confirm their beliefs. 2. Personal interest 3. The Human Factor We want to believe honest and enthusiastic people more than graphs or statistics. Example: Hooked-on-Phonics worked for me!

Appeals to Authority
Authority: A source outside of ourselves that gives us information. Advantages: 1. Efficient. 2. Provides inaccessible information. 3. Provides context past, present, future. Disadvantages: 1. Knowledge from an authority is only as good/reliable as the source. 2. Authority can be confused with power. 3. suspension of one's judgment.

Analogies: A comparison between two things to make a point. (If two things are alike in one way, they will probably be alike in another way too). Adults cannot learn all of the intricacies of new computer technology. Trying to teach adults new computer systems is like trying to teach an old dog new tricks. Advantages: They can be very powerful and persuasive. Disadvantages: There are faulty analogies that don't make sense. They can be deceiving because they sound right.

Analogies

Personal Observation
Personal Observation: Using one's senses to observe something Advantages: We feel confident of something we actually see or hear Disadvantages: We have a tendency to see or hear what we wish to see or hear, selecting and remembering what makes sense to us (consistent with our background). Best if they are recent observations made by several people under optimal conditions who have no apparent, strong expectations related to the event.

Research studies: a systematic collection of observations by people trained to do scientific research. Advantages: Avoids many biases. Reliable so that even if someone else did a similar study the results would be basically the same. Disadvantages: Not all research is dependable. Research findings DO NOT prove conclusions. At best, they support conclusions. Even researchers have biases, expectations and emotional investment. Also, research changes. It is important to drink 8 glasses of water a day.

Research studies

Case Examples
Case Examples: A detailed study of one or several individuals or events to support a conclusion. President of Payap: Of course our students can move on to high paying jobs and further study at large universities. Just this past year we sent one of our students, mary Nicexample, off to law school at Harvard. Therefore, our students certainly can achieve remarkable success at elite universities. Advantages: It can be very persuasive. Disadvantages: Uses fallacy appeal to emotions, which destracts from more relevant research. Case examples are not proof.

What is a Rival Cause?

Cause: to make something happen, to bring about, to effect Rival Causes: A possible alternative explanation that can explain why a certain outcome occurred

Possible Relationships
There are at least four types of relationship between X and Y 1. X causes Y 2. Y causes X 3. X and Y are associated because of another factor Z - they have a common cause 4. X and Y influence each other Complicated term: correlation does not imply causation! - meaning just because to events are associated does not mean they cause each other.

Confusing Averages
There are actually three different types of averages Mean Add up all the numbers and divide it by the number of units (whatever you're measuring). Median List all the numbers from highest to lowest and find the one in the middle. Mode The number that appears the most frequently. So when someone uses the word average, you must find out what kind of average they mean. (Usually the mean).

The new weight-loss drug Get-That-Fat-Off-Me is effective in helping people lose weight. In a clinical study, only about 6 of 100 people reported any side effects when taking the drug. The company manufacturing the drug says 94% of people have positive results with Get-That-Fat-Off-Me. It is safe to say that our pill is one of the most effective weightloss pills on the market. What does the statistic prove? What does the manufacturer conclude?

Proving One Thing, Concluding Another

Deceiving by Omitting Information

Statistics often leave out important information. It is important to ask: What else do I need to know to judge the impact of the statistic? Despite common fears, skydiving is much safer than other common activities, such as driving a motorbike. In one particular month, in Bangkok, 176 people died in motorbike accidents while 3 died in skydiving accidents.

summary
1. Try to find out as much as you can about HOW the statistics were obtained. 2. Be curious about the type of average being used and whether or not that is deceptive. 3. Pay attention to wording. Some statistics prove one thing while communicators conclude something else. Some statistics can be made to sound impressive simply by changing the wording.

1. Common Counter-arguments 2. Missing Definitions 3. Missing Value Preferences or Perspectives 4. Origins of the facts of the argument 5. Details of how the facts were gathered 6. Alternate techniques for gathering or organizing evidence 7. Missing or incomplete figures, graphs, tables or data 8. Omitted effects, positive and negative, short-term and long-term 9. Context of quotes and testimonials

The search for omitted information...

Reminders
Extra Credit Assignment may be turned in at any time before finals week
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The Final Exam will be on Monday september 26th from 1:00 p.m. - 4:00 p.m. In PC214 (that's here)