Professional Documents
Culture Documents
China
22 Oct 1862 - 10 Nov 1872 War Ensign 10 Nov 1872 - 1890 1890 - 12 Feb 1912; 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917
1903 - 12 Feb 1912 Civil Ensign 10 Oct 1911 Revolt flag 12 Feb 1912 - 22 Dec 1915;
22 Mar 1916 - 1 Jul 1917;
12 Jul 1917 - 8 Oct 1928
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22 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916 8 Oct 1928 - 1 Oct 1949 Adopted 1 Oct 1949
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l Taiping
220 - 589 Era of disunity under Warlords. China not unified
l Shengping
under any one power. Huns, Turks and nomadic
l Cheng
tribes invade the north.
l Pingnan Guo
420 - 589 Divided under Northern and Southern dynasties.
Warlord Period 589 Reunification under the Sui dynasty (rules to 618)
(1911-1928) 907 - 979 Era of the "Five dynasties and Ten Kingdoms."
1276 - 1368 Yuan (Mongol) dynasty, Kublai Khan (b. 1215 -
Nationalist
d. 1294) rules 1276 - 1294.
China
(1917-1949) 28 Jan 1368 Great Ming (Shining) Realm inaugurated.
17 Feb 1616 Jing (Ch'ing [Manchu] dynasty) inaugurated.
Alternative 15 May 1636 Great Qing (Ch'ing dynasty) Empire
Governments inaugurated.
(1927-1934)
28 May 1858 Left bank of Amur River annexed by Russia.
Japanese 14 Nov 1860 Amur right bank below Ussuri junction (Primorye)
Occupation annexed by Russia.
(1937-1945) 4 Jul 1871 - 24 Feb 1881 Russia briefly annexes Ili.
Manchuria 2 Jun 1895 - 25 Oct 1945 Taiwan annexed by Japan.
(1900-32, 1945-46) Jul 1900 - 7 Sep 1901 Britain, Germany, Russia, Japan and allies
Manchukuo occupy Tientsin (14 Jul 1900), Peking
(1932-1945) (21 Aug 1901) and other areas during the
Boxer Rebellion.
Inner Mongolia/
10 Oct 1911 Revolution begins.
Meng Chiang
(1934-1945) 1 Jan 1912 Republic of China
Jan 1913 - 7 Oct 1951 Tibet (de facto) independent.
Kashgaria 1 Dec 1911 (Outer) Mongolia declares independence.
(1693-1877) 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Restoration of Great Qing Empire.
East Turkestan 19 Feb 1920 - 3 Feb 1921 Mongolia briefly reincorporated.
(1934-1946)
10 Sep 1931 - 15 Aug 1945 Japanese occupy Manchuria (Manchukuo).
Dörben Oyriad 1 Dec 1931 - 15 Oct 1934 Communists declare Soviet Republic of China in
(Dzungar Khanate) Kiangsi province.
(1626-1757) Sep 1937 - Aug 1945 Japanese occupy northeast China, Yellow River
Tibet valley and coastal provinces.
(1720-1951) 1 Oct 1949 People's Republic of China (from 8 Dec 1949,
Tibet Exile Govt. Republic of China continues on Taiwan only.
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Note about Pinyin: To 1979 names are given Wade-Giles transliteration, where available, with
the pinyin version following in parenthesis (i.e., Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong). After 1979, the
pinyin transliteration (which came into general use in 1979, but is rejected by the
Nationalist regime on Taiwan) following the names) is used. Under the People's Republic, all
names are given in pinyin with those before 1979 followed in parenthesis by the Wade-Giles
version (i.e. Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). I have taken this additional step because most
sources prior to 1979 refer to Chinese names in the pre-pinyin fashion.
Chinese Empire
Hear National Anthem
National Anthem "Gong Jin'ou"
Constitution
Map Chinese Empire "The Tone of Li Zhongtang" (The Cup of Solid Gold)
(none adopted)
(1896-1911) (unofficial) (4 Oct 1911-12 Feb 1912
and 1-12 Jul 1917)
Currency: Chinese Silver National Holiday: 7 Feb (1906)
Capital: Peking Population: 431,735,400 (1900)
Tael (CST) Emperor's Birthday
Note: Emperors are listed with their personal name (ming), followed by their temple name
(miaohao), posthumous name (shi), and the era name (nianhao) roughly coextensive with the
particular reign (note that the overlap is not perfect). Although it is customary in "Western"
sources to refer to a Qing ruler by his nianhao (i.i., the Guangxu emperor), Chinese usually
refer to a former emperor by his miaohao, perhaps preceded by the name of the polity (i.e.,
Qing Dezong).
Emperors
17 Feb 1616 - 30 Sep 1626 Nurhachu (Nu'erhachi) (b. 1559 - d. 1626)
miaohao: T'ai Tsu (Taizu)/ shi: Gao huangdi
nianhao 17 Feb 1616 - 15 Feb 1627: T'ien Ming (Tianming)
20 Oct 1626 - 21 Sep 1643 Huangtaiji (b. 1611 - d. 1643)
miaohao: T'ai Ts'ung (Taizong)/ shi: Wen huangdi
nianhao 16 Feb 1627 - 14 May 1636: T'ien T'sung (Tiancong)
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Taiping
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Heavenly Kings
11 Jan 1851 - 1 Jun 1864 Hung Hsiu-ch'üan (Hong Xiuquan) (b. 1813 - d. 1864)
1 Jun 1864 - 25 Oct 1864 Hung Fu (Hong Tianguifu) (b. 1849 - d. 1864)
Shengping
Heavenly Kings
9 Oct 1854 - 24 Jul 1858 Hu Youlu (to Oct 1855)
+ Zhu Hongying
Cheng
Kings
27 Sep 1855 - 21 Aug 1861 Chen Kai (styled Ping Xun wang)
+ Li Wenmao (to 1858)
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Pingnan Guo
¹According to the treaty signed between the Ch'ing (Qing) court and government of the
Republic of China, P'u-i preserved the title Emperor, received annual payment from the
Republic of China government, and had the right to live in the Forbidden City, to be protected
by imperial troops, grant noble and honorary titles, maintain certain government organs in the
Forbidden City (mainly for management of the Forbidden City and other palaces, management of
imperial families, etc.). Inside the Forbidden City the dragon flag of the Ch'ing dynasty was
flown. People in the Forbidden City still wore the Ch'ing official dress and used the Ch'ing
calendar system. In 1922, the Emperor was married and wife was called Empress. On 5 Nov 1924,
the Emperor was forced to leave the Forbidden City by a faction of the army of the Republic of
China and the above mentioned privileges ended.
Warlord China
10 Oct 1911 Revolution begins.
1 Jan 1912 Republic of China proclaimed.
22 Dec 1915 Empire of China
22 Mar 1916 Republic of China
1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Brief restoration of the Great Qing Empire (s.a.).
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Note: The following provincial military governments proclaimed their independence from the
Qing Empire in the name of a Republic of China in gestation at the end of 1911, and combined
in a Central Military Government at the end of November. Names in parenthesis are modern
pinyin transliteration (which came into general use in 1979, but is rejected by the
Nationalist regime on Taiwan) following the names (i.e., Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong). When the
Wade-Giles style is unknown, the pinyin prevails.
Military governors
- Hupe (Hubei) -
11 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong) (b. 1864 - d. 1928)
- Hunan -
23 Oct 1911 - 31 Oct 1911 Jiao Dafeng (b. 1887 - d. 1911)
31 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Tan Yankai (b. 1879 - d. 1930)
- Shensi (Shaanxi) -
23 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Zhang Fenghui (b. 18.. - d. 1958)
- Kiangsi (Jiangxi) -
24 Oct 1911 - 2 Nov 1911 Ma Yubao (b. 1864 - d. 1933)
2 Nov 1911 - 12 Nov 1911 Wu Jiezhang
12 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Peng Chengwan
- Shansi (Shanxi) -
29 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Yan Xishan (b. 1883 - d. 1960)
- Yunnan -
30 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Cai E (b. 1882 - d. 1916)
- Shanghai (actually called itself Military Government of the Republic of China) -
4 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Chen Qimei (b. 1878 - d. 1916)
- Chekiang (Zhejiang) -
4 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Tang Shouqian (b. 1856 - d. 1917)
- Kweichow (Guizhou) -
5 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Yang Jincheng (b. 1880 - d. 1922)
- Kiangsu (Jiangsu) -
5 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911 Cheng Dequan (b. 1860 - d. 1930)
- Anhwei (Anhui) -
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13 Jun 1923 - 9 Sep 1923 Chang Shao-ts'eng (Zhang Shaozeng) (b. 1879 - d. 1928)
(acting)
9 Sep 1923 - 10 Oct 1923 Kao Ling-wei (Gao Lingwei)(acting) (b. 1868 - d. 1943)
10 Oct 1923 - 2 Nov 1924 T'sao K'un (Cao Kun) (b. 1862 - d. 1938)
2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924 Huang Fu (acting) (b. 1880 - d. 1936)
24 Nov 1924 - 20 Apr 1926 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (b. 1865 - d. 1936)
(provisional chief executive)
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Hu Wei-te (Weide) (acting) (b. 1863 - d. 1933)
13 May 1926 - 22 Jun 1926 Yen Hui-ching (Yan Huiqing)(acting)(b. 1877 - d. 1950)
(W.W. Yen)
22 Jun 1926 - 1 Oct 1926 Tu Hsi-Kuei (Du Xigui) (acting) (b. 1875 - d. 1933)
1 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927 Ku Wei-chün (Gu Weijun) (acting) (b. 1887 - d. 1985)
(Wellington Koo)
18 Jun 1927 - 2 Jun 1928 Chang Tso-lin (Zhang Zuolin) (b. 1873 - d. 1928)
(Generalissimo of the Military Government of China)
Premiers
13 Mar 1912 - 27 Jun 1912 Tang Shao-yi (Shaoyi) (b. 1860 - d. 1938)
29 Jun 1912 - 25 Sep 1912 Lu Cheng-hsiang (Zhengxiang) (b. 1870 - d. 1949)
25 Sep 1912 - 1 May 1913 Chao Ping-Chün (Zhao Bingjun) (b. 1859 - d. 1914)
1 May 1913 - 31 Jul 1913 Duan Qirui (acting) (s.a.)
31 Jul 1913 - 12 Feb 1914 Xiong Xiling (b. 1870 - d. 1941)
12 Feb 1914 - 1 May 1914 Sun Pao-ch'i (Baoqi) (acting) (s.a.)
Secretaries of state
1 May 1914 - Dec 1915 Hsü Shih-chang (Xu Shichang) (s.a.)
(1st time)
Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916 Lu Cheng-hsiang (Zhengxiang) (s.a.)
(acting)
22 Mar 1916 - 23 Apr 1916 Hsü Shih-chang (Xu Shichang) (s.a.)
(2nd time)
23 Apr 1916 - 29 Jun 1916 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (s.a.)
Premiers
29 Jun 1916 - 23 May 1917 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (s.a.)
(1st time)
23 May 1917 - 28 May 1917 Wu Tingfang (acting) (b. 1842 - d. 1922)
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28 May 1917 - 2 Jun 1917 Li Jingxi (1st time) (b. 1859 - d. 1925)
2 Jun 1917 - 12 Jun 1917 Hsü Shih-chang (Xu Shichang) (s.a.)
12 Jun 1917 - 24 Jun 1917 Chang Shao-jong (Jiang Zhaozong) (b. 1861 - d. 1943)
(acting)
24 Jun 1917 - 1 Jul 1917 Li Jingxi (2nd time) (s.a.)
1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Restoration of Great Qing Empire (s.a.)
14 Jul 1917 - 30 Nov 1917 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (s.a.)
(2nd time)
30 Nov 1917 - 23 Mar 1918 Weng Shizhen (acting) (b. 1861 - d. 1930)
23 Mar 1918 - 10 Oct 1918 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (s.a.)
(3rd time)
10 Oct 1918 - 13 Jun 1919 Ch'ien Neng-hsün (Qiang Nengxun) (b. 1869 - d. 1924)
13 Jun 1919 - 24 Sep 1919 Kung Hsin-chan (Gong Xinzhan) (b. 1869 - d. 1943)
(acting)
24 Sep 1919 - 14 May 1920 Chin Yün-P'eng (Jin Yunpeng) (b. 1877 - d. 1925)
(1st time) (acting to 5 Nov 1919)
14 May 1920 - 9 Aug 1920 Sa Chen-ping (Zhenbing) (acting) (b. 1859 - d. 1952)
9 Aug 1920 - 18 Dec 1921 Chin Yün-P'eng (Jin Yunpeng) (s.a.)
(2nd time) (acting)
18 Dec 1921 - 24 Dec 1921 Yen Hui-Ching (Yan Huiqing) (s.a.)
(1st time)
24 Dec 1921 - 25 Jan 1922 Liang Shi-i (Shiyi) (b. 1869 - d. 1933)
25 Jan 1922 - 8 Apr 1922 Yen Hui-Ching (Yan Huiqing) (s.a.)
(2nd time) (acting)
8 Apr 1922 - 11 Jun 1922 Chao Tzu-Ch'i (Zhou Ziqi) (acting) (s.a.)
11 Jun 1922 - 5 Aug 1922 Yen Hui-Ching (Yan Huiqing) (s.a.)
(3rd time)
5 Aug 1922 - 29 Nov 1922 Wang Ch'ung-hui (Chonghui) (b. 1881 - d. 1958)
(acting)
29 Nov 1922 - 11 Dec 1922 Wang Ta-hsieh (Daxie) (b. 1859 - d. 1929)
11 Dec 1922 - 4 Jan 1923 Wang Cheng-t'ing (Zhengting) (b. 1882 - d. 1961)
4 Jan 1923 - 9 Sep 1923 Cheng Shao-ts'eng (Zhang Shaozeng) (s.a.)
9 Sep 1923 - 12 Jan 1924 Kao Ling-Wei (Gao Lingwei)(acting) (s.a.)
12 Jan 1924 - 14 Sep 1924 Sun Pao-ch'i (Baoqi) (s.a.)
14 Sep 1924 - 31 Oct 1924 Yen Hui-Ching (Yan Huiqing) (s.a.)
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(4th time)
2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924 Huang Fu (acting) (s.a.) Mil
27 Nov 1924 - 26 Dec 1925 Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui) (s.a.)
(4th time)
26 Dec 1925 - 4 Mar 1926 Hsu Shih-ying (Xu Shiying) (b. 1873 - d. 1964)
4 Mar 1926 - 20 Apr 1926 Chia The-yao (Jia Deyao) (b. 1880 - d. 1940)
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Hu Wei-te (Weide) (acting) (s.a.)
13 May 1926 - 22 Jun 1926 Yen Hui-Ching (Yan Huiqing) (s.a.)
(5th time)
22 Jun 1926 - 1 Oct 1926 Tu His-Kuei (Du Xigui) (acting) (s.a.)
1 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927 Ku Wei-chün (Gu Weijun) (acting) (s.a.)
18 Jun 1927 - 2 Jun 1928 Pan Fu (b. 1883 - d. 1936)
Military governors
- Kiangsu (Jiangsu) -
15 Jul 1913 - 29 Jul 1913 Cheng Dequan (b. 1860 - d. 1930)
- Anhwei (Anhui) -
17 Jul 1913 - 7 Aug 1913 Bo Wenwei (b. 1875 - d. 1947)
- Kwangtung (Guangdong) -
18 Jul 1913 - 3 Aug 1913 Chen Jiongming (b. 1878 - d. 1933)
- Hunan -
25 Jul 1913 - 13 Aug 1913 Tan Yankai (s.a.)
Military governors
- Yunnan -
1 Jan 1916 - 8 May 1916 Tang Jiyao (b. 1881 - d. 1927)
- Kweichow (Guizhou) -
27 Jan 1916 - 8 May 1916 Liu Xianshi (b. 1870 - d. 1927)
- Kwangsi (Guangxi) -
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Military governors
- Anhwei (Anhui) -
29 May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Ni Sichong (b. 1868 - d. 1924)
- Shensi (Shaanxi) -
29 May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Chen Shufan (b. 1885 - d. 1949)
- Fengtian -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Chang Tso-lin (Zhang Zuolin) (s.a.)
- Shantung (Shandong) -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Zhang Huaizhi (b. 1860 - d. 1934)
- Fukein (Fujian) -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Li Houji (b. 1869 - d. 1942)
- Honan (Henan) -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Zhao Ti (b. 1871 - d. 1933)
- Chekiang (Zhejiang) -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Yang Shande (b. 1873 - d. 1919)
- Chihli (Zhili) -
May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917 Cao Kun (s.a.)
Nationalist China
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Note: The name of the polity is still Republic of China, but it overlaps the preceding polity
of that name, has a different flag and government system, and eventually a different capital
(Nanjing; Beijing is in fact deprived of the name-part jing, meaning capital, and is renamed
Beiping after the demise of the "warlord" regime).
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20 Nov 1939 - 31 May 1945 Chiang Kai-shek (3rd time) (s.a.) KMT
31 May 1945 - 1 Mar 1947 Sung Tzu-wen (Song Ziwen)(2nd time)(s.a.) KMT
1 Mar 1947 - 18 Apr 1947 Chiang Kai-shek (4th time) (s.a.) KMT
18 Apr 1947 - 24 May 1948 Chang Ch'ün (Zhang Qun) (b. 1889 - d. 1990) KMT
24 May 1948 - 26 Nov 1948 Wong Wen-hao (Weng Wenhao) (b. 1889 - d. 1971) KMT
26 Nov 1948 - 12 Mar 1949 Sun Fo (2nd time) (s.a.) KMT
12 Mar 1949 - 3 Jun 1949 Ho Ying-ch'in (He Yingqin) (b. 1889 - d. 1987) KMT
3 Jun 1949 - 7 Mar 1950 Yen Hsi-shan (Yan Xishan) (s.a.) Mil/KMT
(from 8 Dec 1949 on Taiwan)
¹The ambiguity of the Constitutional situation leaves it unclear whether this was a vacancy
or a substitution for Chiang.
Party Abbreviations: KMT = Chungkuo Kuomin Tang ("Kuomintang" or Chinese Nationalist Party,
Chinese nationalist, authoritarian, only legal party 1928-49 [1914-1919 Chung-hua Ke-ming Tang
(Chinese Revolutionary Party]); Mil = Military
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17 Dec 1937 - 30 Mar 1940 11 Apr 1940 - 24 Feb 1941 3 Feb 1943 - Aug 1945
24 Feb 1941 - 3 Feb 1943 (indoors only 24 Feb 1941 - 3 Feb 1943)
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Party Abbreviations: KMT = Chungkuo Kuomin Tang ("Kuomintang" or Chinese Nationalist Party,
Chinese nationalist, authoritarian, only legal party 1928-49 [1914-1919 Chung-hua Ke-ming Tang
(Chinese Revolutionary Party]); KMT-WC = Kuomintang-Wang Ching-wei (Nationalist Party-Wang
Ching-wei faction, personalist [Japanese puppet government 1940-44]); Mil = Military
1928 - 7 Nov 1931 7 Nov 1931 - 15 Oct 1934 Adopted 1 Oct 1949
1 Dec 1931 - 15 Oct 1934 Soviet Republic of China (in Kiangsi, capital Ruijin),
(referred to as the Kiangsi Soviet Republic).
19 Aug 1948 People's Government of North China
1 Oct 1949 People's Republic of China
8 Dec 1949 Final remnants of Nationalist government flee to Taiwan.
Note: Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-ping)(b. 1904 - d. 1997) was de facto leader from the late
1970's to the early 1990's. He did not take over the chairmanship of the State, the Government
or the General Secretary of the Party, but from 1978 to his death in 1997 he was the
unquestionable Paramount Leader. From Jun 1981 he was Chairman of the Military Affairs
Committee. It is impossible to provide exact dates; he rose to power in the aftermath of Mao's
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death (9 Sep 1976) and became more and more frail in the 1990's (he last appeared in public
9 Feb 1994).
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Premiers
1 Oct 1949 - 8 Jan 1976 Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai) (b. 1898 - d. 1976) CPC
4 Feb 1976 - 10 Sep 1980 Hua Guofeng (acting to 7 Apr 1976) (s.a.) CPC
10 Sep 1980 - 24 Nov 1987 Zhao Ziyang (s.a.) CPC
24 Nov 1987 - 17 Mar 1998 Li Peng (acting to 9 Apr 1988) (b. 1928) CPC
17 Mar 1998 - 16 Mar 2003 Zhu Rongji (b. 1928) CPC
16 Mar 2003 - Wen Jiabao (b. 1942) CPC
²The title "chairman" for the heads of state in 1954-75 represents the same Chinese term
(zhuxi) that is commonly translated "president" for the heads of state after 1983.
³Vice-chairmen of the Standing Committee during the vacancy: Wu De (b. 1914 - d. 1995), Song
Qingling (f) (b. 1893 - d. 1981), Liu Bocheng (b. 1892 - d. 1986), Wei Guoqing (b. 1913 - d.
1989), Seypidin (b. 1915 - d. 2003), Chen Yun (b. 1905 - d. 1995), Tan Zhenlin (b. 1902 - d.
1983), Li Jingquan (b. 1909 - d. 1989), Ulanhu (b. 1906 - d. 1988), Guo Moruo (b. 1892 - d.
1978), Xu Xiangqian (b. 1901 - d. 1990), Nie Rongzhen (b. 1899 - d. 1992), Zhang Dingcheng (b.
1898 - d. 1981), Cai Chang (f) (b. 1900 - d. 1990), Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme (b. 1910), Zhou
Jianren (b. 1888 - d. 1984), Xu Deheng (b. 1890 - d. 1990), Hu Juewen (b. 1895 - d. 1989), Li
Suwen (f) (b. 1933), Yao Lianwei (b. 1935), and, from 2 Dec 1976, Deng Yingchao (f) (b. 1904 -
d. 1992).
Territorial Disputes: Based on principles drafted in 2005, China and India continue
discussions to resolve all aspects of their extensive boundary and territorial disputes
together with a security and foreign policy dialogue to consolidate discussions related to the
boundary, regional nuclear proliferation, and other matters; recent talks and confidence-
building measures have begun to defuse tensions over Kashmir, site of the world's largest and
most militarized territorial dispute with portions under the de facto administration of China
(Aksai Chin), India (Jammu and Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas); India
does not recognize Pakistan's ceding historic Kashmir lands to China in 1964; lacking any
treaty describing the boundary, Bhutan and China continue negotiations to establish a boundary
alignment to resolve substantial cartographic discrepancies, the largest of which lies in
Bhutan's northwest; China asserts sovereignty over the Spratly Islands together with Malaysia,
Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; the 2002 "Declaration on the Conduct of
Parties in the South China Sea" eased tensions in the Spratlys but is not the legally binding
"code of conduct" sought by some parties; Vietnam and China continue to expand construction of
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facilities in the Spratlys and in Mar 2005, the national oil companies of China, the
Philippines, and Vietnam signed a joint accord on marine seismic activities in the Spratly
Islands; China occupies some of the Paracel Islands also claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; China
and Taiwan continue to reject both Japan's claims to the uninhabited islands of Senkaku-shoto
(Diaoyu Tai) and Japan's unilaterally declared equidistance line in the East China Sea, the
site of intensive hydrocarbon prospecting; certain islands in the Yalu and Tumen rivers are in
dispute with North Korea; China seeks to stem illegal migration of North Koreans; China and
Russia have demarcated the once disputed islands at the Amur and Ussuri confluence and in the
Argun River in accordance with their 2004 Agreement; in 2006, China and Tajikistan pledged to
commence demarcation of the revised boundary agreed to in the delimitation of 2002;
demarcation of the China-Vietnam land boundary proceeds slowly and although the maritime
boundary delimitation and fisheries agreements were ratified in Jun 2004, implementation
remains stalled; in 2004, international environmentalist and political pressure from Burma and
Thailand prompted China to halt construction of 13 dams on the Salween River.
Party Abbreviations: CPC = Communist Party of China (communist, authoritarian, only legal
party since 1 Oct 1949); Mil = Military;
Manchuria (Manchukuo)
May 1922 - 18 Sep 1931 9 Mar 1932 - 1 Mar 1934 1 Mar 1934 - 15 Aug 1945
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Emperor's Birthday
Exports: $148.9 million (1937) Ethnic groups: Chinese (no differentiation
Imports: $221.7 million (1937)
GDP: $N/A between Manchurian & Chinese) 95%, Korean 3%,
note: excluding trade with
the rest of China Japanese 1.5% (1938)
Total Armed Forces: 111,044 (1934) Relgions: Buddhist, Lamanist, Taoist, Roman
Japanese Troops: est. 1,000,000 (1945) Catholic, Shinto, Protesant
International Organizations/Treaties: None
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Emperor
1 Mar 1934 - 15 Aug 1945 Pu-yi (s.a.)
nianhao: Kang Teh (Kangde)
Soviet Military Governor
15 Aug 1945 - May 1946 Aleksandr Mikhailovich Vasilevsky (b. 1895 - d. 1977)
Premiers
9 Mar 1932 - 21 May 1935 Chang Hsiao-hisn (Zheng Xiaoxu) (b. 1860 - d. 1938)
21 May 1935 - 15 Aug 1945 Chang Ching-hui (Zhang Jinghui) (b. 1871 - d. 1959)
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1934 - 1936 Mongolian League 28 Jun 1936 - 1 Sep 1939 1 Sep 1939 - 10 Sep 1945
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Kashgaria/East Turkestan
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Khans
c.1693 - 1720 Ahmed Khan (d. af.1720)
1720 - 1754 Daniyal Khwaja (2nd time)
1754 - 1757 Yusuf ibn Daniyal
1757 `Abd Allah Badshah Khwaja ibn Yusuf
1757 - Aug 1759 Burhan ad-Din ibn Ahmad (d. 1760)
1820 - 1828 Jahangir Hodja (in rebellion) (b. 1783? - d. 1828)
Sep 1830 - Dec 1830 Muhammad Yusuf Hodja (in rebellion)
May 1857 - Aug 1857 Wali Khan (in rebellion)
1864 - Feb 1865 Qutlugh Beg
Feb 1865 - 1866 Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir Khan
(1st time)
1866 Muhammad Amin ibn Jahangir Khan
1866 - 1867 Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir Khan
(2nd time)
1867 - 6 Dec 1873 Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir (b. c.1820 - d. 1877)
Muhammad Mirza
Amir Khans
6 Dec 1873 - 29 May 1877 Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir (s.a.)
Muhammad Mirza
29 May 1877 - 28 Dec 1877 Quli Beg ibn Muhammad Ya`qub Beg (b. 1821 - d. 1877)
President of the Turkish-Islamic Republic of East Turkestan
12 Dec 1933 - 6 Feb 1934 Xoca Niyaz Haci (b. 1887 - d. 1938)
President of East Turkestan Republic
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Prime minister
Dec 1933 - Feb 1934 Abdul-Bakr Tabit Damla
Tibet
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Constitution
Hear National Anthem Text of National Anthem
Map of Tibet to 1950 Charter of the Tibetans in Exile
"Gyallu" Adopted 1949 (or 1960)
(14 Jun 1991)
National Holiday (to 1951):
Currency (1912-1951):
Capital: Lhasa 7 Jul (1935) Population: 1,700,000 (1947)
Tibetan Silver Rupee (TBR)
Dali Lama's Birthday
International Organizations/Treaties: 1912-1950 None; Govt. in Exile: UNPO (from 1991)
Tibetan Buddhism
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Note: Although the dates are firm in the Tibetan calendar, the correspondence between the
Tibetan and the Gregorian calendars is only approximate, as are, consequently, the dates
given here.
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Regents
1679 - 1705 A-bar Sans-rgyas rGya-mts'o
1705 - 1706 Ngag-dban Rin-ch'en
1706 - 1717 IHa-bzang
1717 - 1720 Sa-skyong sTags-rTse-pa lHa-rgyal-rab-
brtan
Chinese Administrator
1720 - 1721 Yan-xin
Regents
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Chinese ambans (representatives of the emperors at the court of the Dalai Lama)
1709 - 1711 Ho Shou -Envoy
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Dalai Lama
25 Aug 1939 - rJe-btsun-'Jam-dpal-ngag-dbang-
blo-bzang-ye-shes-bstan-'dzin-
rgya-mtsho (14th Dalai Lama) (s.a.)
(from 31 Mar 1959 in exile [from 1 May 1960 in Dharamsala, India])
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