ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

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FRANCE
SECTION 9: LABOR

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CIVIL-AFFAIRS

HANDBOOK

ON

FRANCE,

SECTION

Dissemination
tained In restricted may to be documents to of any material States in given

of

restricted matter.
essential known loyalty to and be in

The

information conof of restricted the United

and. the person

characteristics the service who

and

persons work,

undoubted not be

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by authorized Sep

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relations

agencies.

(See

also par.

18b,

380-5, 28

1912.)

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES, 11 DECEMBER 1943

ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

III*Il'i I ---~ - I -~

M 352-9
Civil Affairs
I I

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

FRANCE
SECTION 9: LABOR

REPRINT

OF

PRELIMINARY

DRAFT,

CIVIL

AFFAIRS

HANDBOOK

ON

FRANCE,

SECTION

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES,17 DECEMBER 1943

. . Dissemination of restricted matter. - The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press (See also par. 18b, except by authorized military public relations agencies. AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

l.

NUMBERING SYSTEM OF
ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS

The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indicated by consecutive numbering within the following categories: Basic and Advanced Training Army Specialized Training Program and PreInduction Training Personnel and Morale M200 - M299 Civil Affairs M300 - M399 M400 - M499 Supply and Transportation Fiscal M500 - M599 M600 - M69'9 Procurement and Production Administration M700 - M799 Miscellaneous M800 - M899 M900 Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction up M99 M199 Ml M100 -

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES, Washington 25, D. C., 17 December 1943.

Army Service Section 9, General,

Forces Manual M 352-9, Civil Affairs Handbook --

France:

Labor, has been prepared under the supervision of The Provost Marshal and is published for the information and guidance of all concerned.

[8PX 461 (11 Aug 43).3

By command of Lieutenant General SOMERVELL:

W. D. STYER, Major General, General Staff Corps, Chief of Staff.

OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General.

24-62086ABCO

C I VIL

A FF AIR.S TO.FI G

IIA

D.1

L ,IQI

1. 2* 3.

Geographical and-Social Background Government and Administration

Legal,~ Affairs
Government Finance Money and Banking

:,'4
5.

6. Natural Resources
7.
8.

Agriculture Industry and Commerce Lamo Public Thrks and,,Utilities. Transportation systems ComunicatLions Public Health and Sanitation. Public. Saf'ety Education

9.
10. 11. 12. 13.

i:,
15. 16.

Public ;Welfare

INTRODUCTION
Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook. International Law places upon an occupying power the obligation and responsibility for establishing government and maintaining civil order in the areas occupied. The basic purposes of civil affairs officers are thus (1) to assist the Commanding General of the combat units -by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations, (2) to reduce to a minimum the humnan suffering and the material damage resulting from disorder and (3) to create the conditions which will make it possible for civilian agencies to function effectively. The preparation of Civil Affairs Handbooks is a part of the effort of the War Department to carry out this obligation as efficiently and humanely as is possible. The Handbooks do not deal with planning or policy. They are rather ready reference source books of the basic factual information needed for planning and policy making. Revision for Final Publication. Information on areas of potential occupation is immediately needed (a) for civil affairs officers charged with policy making and planning, (b) for the use of civil affairs officers-in-training and (c) to make certain that this data is available at the time of occupation. Arrangements were therefore made with the cooperating agencies to organize all immediately available material in accordance with a prepared outline. This section on Labor in France is therefore a preliminary draft. Labor organizations had an important influence upon French government prior to the German occupation. They may again become an important factor following the defeat of Germany. For these reasons, labor conditions and labor organizations prior to German occupation are treated in some detail. The final revision of this section will focus upon the more recent developments in France with special reference to the disorganization of labor (both prisoners of war and conscripted labor) by Germany.

OFFICERS USING THIS MATERIAL ARE REQUESTED TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS AND CRITICISMS INDICATING THE REVISIONS OR ADDITIONS WHICH WOULD MAKE THIS THESE CRITICISMS SHOULD BE S1NT MATERIAL MORE USEFUL FOR THEIR PURPOSES. TO THE OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF THE SURVEY AND RESEARCH SECTION, MILITARY GOVERNMENT DIVISION, P.M.G.O., 2805 MUNITIONS BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D.C., (OR PHONE WAR DEPART ENT EXTENSION 76370).

24_.1600ABCD

LABOR CONDITIONS IN FRLANCE This report deals only with conditions in continental France

CONTENTS

1.

DPLO!MENT AND UNE!PLOYUENT.. .3 Pre.-war employmaent.. .3 Industrial distribution of population-.. 14 frend of employment, 1930-1939. *,6 Distribution by important industries and trades .. 96 8 Foreign workers ... Special groups of workers .. 89 1 Unemployment, pro-war and war ... 0 60.13 Wartime employment conditions

Reginaldistribution

.0.3

2.
3.

!MflDT

AGENCIES

,0

.1S

1 WAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS ... 7 General trend of wages, 1929 to 1940 .0.17 Value and purchasing power of the franc ... 19 Limitations on wage data ... 20 21 Factors affecting wages ... 21 Family allowances ... 23 Vacations with pay ... 23 Social-insurance contributions ... Pro-war wages by industry and occupationi ..o Metallurgical industry, Paris and Strasbourg districts ... 27 029 Textile industry .. industry ... 33 Paper Pottery industry ... 34
Glove industry . ..

Dairy and cheese industries ... 35 Perfumery and essential oils industry ... 3.

Coal mining

... 36

3 Iron mines ... 7 38 Potash mines ... Railroads *..38 Subways, Paris .... 39 39 Street railways, Eavre ... Shipping industry . 00 Stevedoring industry ... 1
Building trades, Mlarseille ... IJA'

3.

WAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS-Continued

Wages after the Armistice ... 142 Actual wages during the occupation ...43 Wage laws and regulations ... 44 Regulation during the war .. 46 Regulation after the Armistice ... 1t6 Hours of*labor ... Pre-war hours ... 48 Wartime hours .. .9 Hours after the German occupation ... 50 Hours in coal mines ... 51

[re-war regulation

-e h4

48

Overtime 4.

hours and rates

of pay .. .5] 5

LABOR LEGISLATION AND LABOR POLICIES ...

(a)

Governmental administrative agencies ... Ministry of labor ...53 Labor inspection ... 53
alphabetical

5
list..
..

(b) Labor laws and regulations,

5.

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS ... 65 Pre-war developments..."6 Membership in 1939 and 1940"..67 Dissolution of labor unions after the INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS...70 (a) Collective agreements .0.70 (b) Strikes,..73 (c) Conciliation and arbitration .. 76 Pre-war practice .. 76
Wartime arbitration.. .77

Armistice...69

6.

Developments after -the Armistice 7. COOPERATIVES .. .79

Pro-war situation .079

... 78

Effect of the war on cooperatives ...82 Important organizations in various branches of cooperation ...

8. SOCIAL INSURANCE **.f39

(a) Sickness, maternity, invalidity, old-age, and death Commercial, Industrial and Domestic Workers ... 89 Agricultural workers ...92

Miners

... 9h

Seamen ...96 Railwaymen ... 100 Public employees ...1Ol (b) Unemployment relief and compensation ... 103 " .. O1 Unemployment relief Voluntary unemployment insurance .0.106 (c) Workmen' s compensation ...107 A selected list of references on Labor Conditions in France .. 110

1.

LP0LDMNT AND UNEMPL0N

Each successive 5-year census since 1921, when Alsace and Lorraine

were annexed to France, has ,shown -.downward trend in population growth. a ?rom 1931 to 1936 the population increase was only 72,133 bringing the
total to 41,907,056. Between 1926 and 1931 the rise was slightly more than one million while it amounted to one million and a half between 1921 and 1926. The total urban population (towns of over 2,000 in-

habitants) was 21,971,,698 and the rural 19,935,358 in

living in

1936.

Foreigners

France totaled 2,453,524 -437,644 fewer than in

1931.

Pre-War &ipgoyment
The latest data regarding the industrial distribution of the total

population are those contained in the 1931 General Census. A census was again made in 1936 but at the time of the fall of France in 1940 only part 1 of Volume I had been published and this covers only general population figures.

Of the total population of 41,834,923 in 1931, 21,611,835 or 52 percent were gainfully occupied as compared with 40 percent in the United
States as shown in the census of 1930. Forestry and agriculture in France accounted for 7,637,433 persons and manufacturing 6,837,684.. In

ocutrast, agriculture in the United States employed 10,752,909 persons out of a gainful population of 48,829,920 and industry employed 14,341,372.
French managers and employers and persons working alone aggregated

8,990,590 as compared with 9,665,540 in the United States where the population was nearly three times as great. These figures emphasize the greater importance of small-scale enterprise and independent work in Industry employed fewer people than France than in the United States. agriculture but the manufacture of automobiles, machinery, textile and

luxury goods was highly developed.

have had a wide market especially in

Luxury goods produced in France

the United States.

Regional Distribution France has a number of coal mining districts, particularly in the northern section of the country, but under normal conditions was obliged The North is also the center of the to import coal for industrial use. Paris and its environs has, great textile industry in and around Lille. however, been the preeminent center of industrial activity as well .s As a, result of the concentration of seat of Government. the political costs and wages were higher than living industry in the region of Paris in wages between Paris The disparity in other sections of the country. and the provinces has always been very marked.

-up'*

Industrial Distribution of Population

The following table shows the distribution of the gainfully occupied population in 1931 by nine employment groups.

occupied population in France in Table l.-Gainfully 1931 by branch of activity and by sex. Industry or Gainfully employed Total Male Female

Fishing
Forestry and agriculture

66,747 7,637,433

Mines and quarries

Manufacturing Transportation and warehousing Commerce, banks, and theaters Liberal professions Personal service and domestic servants Public services Total

480,677
6,837,684
1,069,356 2,695,390 657,757 893,376 1,313,415 21,611,835

63,396 4,447,051 429,308

4,725,194 934,746 1,538,172 332,641 176,567 1,064,412 13,711,487

3,351
3,190,382

11,369
2,112,490 134,610 1,157,218 325,116 716,809 249,003 7,900,348

*I II

ID~

Table 1.--Gainfully

occupied population in

France in

1931

by branch of activity and by sex-Continued.

Personnel of establishments

Industry
or

Mbanager
or

Slre
Salaried Wage eaners

Profession

Employer
e Female
1,291

Employees

Male
505

emae
126

ae
18,789

Female
1,517

Fishing

11,759

Forestry and agriculture Mines and quarries Manufacturing

Transportation and ware-

3,262,758 5,244 522,064 24,633 409,560 34,981 21,415

-

2,303,017 140 188,067 6,105 316,813 17,451 11,271

-

4,823 16,431 347,368 159,531 576,812 141,323 31,313 679,934 1,958,040

1,058 1,295 191,43 25,132

1,543,364 401,330 3,221,360 538,908 269,327 34,318 79,786 384,478 6,491,660

576,961 9,881 1,196,231 31,626 83,522 43,639 665,775 42,733 2,651,885

housing Commerce, banks, and theaters Liberal professions

Personal service and

446,355
182,779 12,617
206,270

domestic servants
Public services

Total

3,392,423

2,844,155

1,066,845

Industry

Unemployed workers
-t

or
T) .. 4

Self-employed home workers, etc. Male Female

Pro esion

Male

Female

Fishing Forestry and agriculture Mines and quarries Manufacturing Transportation and warehousing Commerce, banks, and theaters Liberal professions Personal service and domestic servants
Public services

986 20,356 3,705 165,210 71,892 31,171 10,867 3,954

4 3,547 43 74,703 13,950 17,317 15,360 19,730

31,357 515,750 2,598 469,192 139,782 251,293 111,152 40,099

413 305,799 10 462,276 57,797 293,211 65,887 7,396

Total

308,141

144,674

1,561,223

1,192,789

Trend of Employment, 1930-1939 Changes in employment are indicated by a series of index issued by years beginning with 1930. The series is based on ment in a sample group of 2,363,000 wage earners and salaried in mining, industry, transportation, and commerce, using 1930 of 100. Year Index 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 March August 100.0 92.5 80.9 79.4 76.9 73.5 74.1 78.6 81.2 84.6 81.2 numbers employemployees as a base

Employment progressively declined from 1930 through 1935 when the index was 73.5. With the enactment of the Popular Front laws in 1936 employment improved slightly in the following year--index 74.1. By March 1939 under the impetus of war production the index was 84.6. However, there was some deterioration in the employment situation.by August 1939, just before the outbreak of war, when the index dropped to 81.2. Later index numbers are not available. Distribution by Important Industries and Trades In 1931, 13,711,487, or 63.4 percent of the total gainfully occupied workers were males and 7,900,348, or 36.6 percent, females. In the general population females formed over 52 percent of the total. No information is available on the number of employed children. Information is also lacking on the distribution of the population by skills but table 2 giving the distribution by industry and type of mining indicates that the particular skills which have been developed are in the fields of metal work and metallurgy, textiles, and construction. Ordinary metals and metallurgy employed 1,682,450 in 1931 of whom all but 173,258 were males. Textiles and clothing together accounted for 1,908,983 workers. Female workers exceeded males--1,383,450 females as compared with 525,533 males The 894,574 persons in the construction industry were almost exclusively

males.
As noted above no data are available on occupational or industrial distribution of the population for later years.

Table 2.-Distribution of

Gainfuliy Occupied Mining and

Minufacturing Personnel by sex, 1931

Group

Total

Male

Female

Mines Quarries Stone cutting Stone and brick work Foods Chemicals Paper Graphic industries Textiles Clothing Shoes
Skins and leather

367,867 67,143 39,457 220,179 685,158 273,078 153,581 157,697 916,786 992,197 231,721
122,389

358,018

65,734
37,690 184,938 486,422 203,538 90,152 112,867 368,409 157,124 171,239
84,662

9,849 1,4409 1,767 35,241 198,736 69,540 63,429

14,830
548,377 835,073

60,482
37,727

Wood working Metallurgy Ordinary metals

Fine metals, precious

634,086 173,231 1,509,219 37,545

894,574

569,688 165,998

1,343,194
24,389
882,723

64,398 7,233 166,025 13,156

11,851

stones
Construction

Miscellaneous Total

43,965
7,519,873

27,748 5,334,533

16,217 2,185,340

Forein Kkez2,. The proportion of foreign workers who could be employed in France was fixed by a law of August 10, 1932, but prior to that time various In 1926 a law restrictions had been placed upon their employment. passed for the protection of native workers against immigrant labor prohibited the employment of a foreigner without an identification card Employment of a foreign worker in any other bearing the word "worker." trade than that for which the identification card was secured was prohibited unless a year had elapsed since the card was issued or he had Every employer of foreign a card from the public employment office. workers was required to enroll them on a special register within 24 hours of their engagement and within 48 hours every foreign worker was required to report to the police commissioner or mayor in order to receive a regular identification card for which a tax had to be paid. A law of August 10, 1932, provided that the number of foreign workers who could be employed in the public services could not exceed 5 percent of the total number of employees and the proportion who could be employed in private industrial and commercial enterprises was to be fixed by decree,by occupation, by industry, by commerce or by occupational All foreigners classification for the whole of a territory or region. desiring to enter France to work were required to have a ministerial authorization, granted after consultation with the public employment serThe conditions under which so-called frontier and seasonal vices. workers living in another country but working in France could be emAll the percentages fixed under the above ployed were also regulated. law which exceeded 10 percent of the total number of workers were subject to revision by a decision of the Council of Ministers of November In order to reduce the number of employed alien workers it 20, 1934. was decided by the Government in November 1934 to refuse employment permits to new immigrant applicants, to examine closely every application for renewal of an employment permit, and to include in every contract for public works or supplies a provision that the contract must be carried out with French labor only. A large number of decrees were issued between 1932 and 1938 fixing the percentage of foreigners who could be employed in different industries. Of the total working population in 1931 (21,611,835) 1,599,224 The number of foreigners working in France at the time were foreigners. the 1931 census are shown, by nationality and by sex, in the followof ing table.

:9\

Table 3.--Number of Foreign Workers in France by Nationality and Sex, 1931.

Country of origin

Total

Male

Female

Austria, Hungary Belgium Czechoslovakia Germany Great Britain

Greece, Roumania, Bulgaria

16,929 156,870 30,932 38,840 18,803

21,109

13,455 116,920 25,096 29,485 12,423

17,186

3,474 39,950 5,836 9,355 6,380

3,923

Italy Luxemburg
Poland

475,006 11,939
287,002

383,066 7,770
232,728

91,940 4,169
54,274

Portugal Russia Spain

Switzerland

39,095 47,721 194,200

60,846

37,380 39,431 150,694

46,056

1,715 8,290 43,506

14,790

Turkey
Yugoslavia

20,396
23,762

15,041
22,011

5,355
1,721

Other European Africa, French subjects Other countries Total

12,969 98,153 44,652 1,599,224

9,771 97,791 35,959 1,292,293

3,198 362 8,693 306,931

Italy normally furnished the largest group totaling 475,000 in The 1931, of whom 383,000 were males, working largely in the South. were women. contingent from Poland was 287,000, of whom nearly a fifth Next in importance among the foreign workers were those from Spain Four-fifths of the foreign workers in France were males and Belgium.

according to the-1931 census returns.

Special Groups of Workers In peace times there was a considerable movement of Belgian workers over the French borders daily consisting of men who lived in Belgium but Similarly, in times of active business colonial workers worked in France. from North Africa often migrated to France where they were employed and support. their sent money to their families at home for a large volume of agricultural raise other countries that france, like products, requires the services of extra workers during the seasons when the crops mature, for example in the vineyards.

10
Unlike the situation in certain other western countries the French tend to live on terms of equality with other racial groups. This is exemplified by the fact that, in North Africa the children of persons marrying French citizens become citizens themselves upon coming of age, unless they declare other intentions.

Unemployment. Pre-War and War

The effects of the world-wide depression were not felt in France as early as in most of the industrialized countries. Statistics are unlikely to reflect the full volume of unemployment in a country in which there is no general unemployment insurance system and therefore neither compulsory registration nor the opportunity to benefit from registration. This is the case in France where the only regularly recorded unemployment has been among those voluntarily registering for relief or with the employment exchanges in an effort to secure work. Such statistics as are available show that in 1929 only 928 unemployed persons were listed as on relief and in 1931, 56,112. The following table shows the number of unemployed receiving relief from 1929 to May 1942 and the applications for work registered from 1929 to November 1941. From July 1932 onwards the figures include unemployed in receipt of relief from the welfare offices.

fit

11
Table 4.-Number of Unemployed and Applications for Work in France, 1929 to May 1942.

Date

Number of unemployed on relief 928 2,534 56,112 273,412 276,033 345,033 426,931

Applications for work registered 10,052 13,859 75,215 300,096 307,844

1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934

376,320
465,875 475,272 379,095
2 404,60

1935 1936
1937 1938 1939 1940 March Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1941 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.

431,397
350,333
,~75,432

1/361,930
_/175,473 000,000
3.1,} 000 , 000

223,732 1,059,229 824,000 676,000 594,000 534,391 400, 000 377,000 326,000 310,000 254,000 244,000 223,000 203,000

2'700,000
2/ 650 000

2/ 550,000 2/ 430,000

2/ 460,000

2/ 350,000 2/ 350,000
260,000 240,000 230,000 207,000 184,000 185,000 176,000 166,000 143,000 126,000

Nov.
Dec. 1942 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

1/ January to September and November. / January to August and November. P ?reliminary.

1?
Both the series on unemployment relief and applications for work In the latter year increased steadily each year from 1929 to 1936. the average number of unemployed on relief was 426,931 and the applications for work registered were 475,272. After the Popular Frontlaws were enacted in June 1936 unemployment began to decline and the averages However, in 1938 the for 1937 were 350,333 and 379,095, respectively. trend of unemployment showed a slight rise followed by a small decline Such statistics as are availin the averages for the following year. able for 1940 show the adverse effect on employment of the fall of France. Numbers on relief and registered were at a peak of one million in October. By January 1941 the totals had dropped by approxiAt the end of that year the numbers were in the mately one-third. Relief figures only are available for the neighborhood of 200,000. early months of 1942. The unemployed in receipt of benefit dropped Beginning in 1941 the from 176,000 in January to 126,000 in April. reduction reflects the absorption of French labor by the German war
machine.

Wartime Employment Conditions The years since September 1, 1939, when war was declared, are divided into three distinct periods, of which the first ended with the fall of France in June 1940; the second in which the country was divided into an occupied and a nonoccupied zone ended at the close of 1942 when the French fleet was scuttled; and the third period was marked by the complete occupation of the country by the Germans. In view of the imminence of war a law was passed in July 1938 providing for the requisitioning of both industry and labor in the event of war. The conditions under which the services of civilians could be requisitioned, including both Frenchmen and the native populations of the French dependencies,were fixed by a decree of November 28, 1938. By the decrees the worker lost his right to move freely from job to job. General control of labor was placed in the hands of the Minister of Labor who had general charge of the occupational and geographical allotment of the personnel between public and.private employing services--military or civil, industrial, commercial, or agricultural-and the specific assignment of personnel to establishments and farms. A national committee made up of representatives of all the ministries was set up under the Minister of Labor to centralize information relative to the needs of the different services and to apportion the available labor among the respective employers. As France placed a high proportion of the adult male population under arms when the war started it became increasingly difficult to man war industries. A recent statement of Pierre Cot, former Minister of Aviation, attributes France's defeat to the unduly high percentage of men in the fighting forces with an insufficient civilian staff to supply them with planes and other war materials. As the labor supply problem grew worse the Government used its power to recall mobilized men who were indispensable on war work because of their technical qualifications. There were also instances where men were given furloughs to harvest their crops. A law promulgated in Vichy, France, on September 4, 1942, provided that all male citizens residing in France between the ages of 18 and 50 years, and all unmarried women between the ages of 21 and 35, who are shown by a medical examination to be physically fit, may be required to carry out any work judged by the Government to be in the higher interests of the nation. All heads of enterprises are required to conform to instructions received by them from the competent Secretaries of In order to inState regarding the constitution of crews of workmen. sure the stability of the personnel, no workmen may be dismissed or labor contracts canceled in industrial and commerical enterprises without the authorization of the labor-inspection service, and no one may be hired without such authorization. These measures were to be put into effect by orders of the competent ministries, for a whole territory, for a region, or for a determined locality, in the branches of industry and Orders by these commerce or the professions to which they apply.

14

authorities will govern the conditions of labor of the personnel and the obligations of the heads of enterprises. Labor inspectors and officers of the police courts will be in charge of the enforcement of the provisions regarding the hiring and discharge of workers.

Every able-bodied Frenchman between the ages of 18 and 50 must be

able to justify his employment as useful to the interests of the country; if he cannot do so he will be required to take work designated by the services of the Secretariat of State for Labor. In order to direct workers toward the occupations which lack workers, a technical and occupational organization must be established by employers, under terms specified by an official order. Any person who infringes the law or the measures taken to put it in effect will be subject to fine and imprisonment. Foreigners residing in France may be subject to similar measures to be prescribed by the Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs and for Labor. After the defeat, when Germany undertook to preserve a semblance of independence in the unoccupied zone, French labor was recruited for German industry. Inducements were offered workers who would volunteer for employment in Germany, such as promised release of a certain number of war prisoners for a fixed number of labor volunteers. There are no reliable data on the number of French workers who either voluntarily or under compulsion had gone to work in Germany. It was reported from Berlin in November 1941 that the departure of the 100,000th French worker to take employment in Germany was celebrated on November 20th but the Paris radio reported in the middle of December 1942, according to the New York Times, that the 100,000th French worker This report was discounted by the Fighting had just left for Germany. French, who said their information showed that not more than 90,000 Frenchmen had been sent and that the majority of those had been sent forcibly instead of voluntarily as had been stated. Once the military occupation was extended to unoccupied France the voluntary principle was abandoned and women as well as men were under Information is lacking as to compulsion to work in German plants. the extent of the labor shortage in France but it is known that Germany is faced with the need of bolstering its working force and that labor in the conquered countries is being depleted. With a view to the enforcement of the order by the German Director of Manpower that "the foreign manpower of the occupied territories shall, like the German workers, observe the strictest labor discipline," the German Military Commander in Paris introduced Nazi wartime labor legislation in the occupied zone of France. As from September 1, 1942 no French worker employed in a German-owned factory or in a French factory working for the German army under German supervision could refuse to perform work allocated to him or to work overtime, nights, or Sundays. Slow work, absenteeism, frequent tardiness, insolence towards superiors, etc., were punishable with imprisonment and fine without limit.

'J15
2. EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
France's public employment agencies were placed in operation by

legislation adopted March 14, 1904.

Economic disturbances of the 1930's

increased the importance of these offices. An act of February 2, 1925 made it mandatory for cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants to establish free labor exchanges and in addition to the municipal offices the French Government maintains offices in the various Departments. Advisory councils were created by the same law "to control and advise upon the work of the public employment agencies throughout the country," both departmental and municipal. Equal numbers of employers and employees were included in the membership in these councils. Members of municipal councils were appointed by the mayor and the prefects appointed members to the departmental councils. Legislation governing private employment exchanges was enacted long before the public employment system was established in France. Private employment agencies operating on a commercial basis were placed under supervision by a decree of March 25, 1852. Although they were under police control, the methods used and the fees exacted were such that there was general agitation for abolishing them. Under the laws of March 14, 1904 and December 28, 1910 provision was made for the suppression of fee-charging agencies upon payment of just indemnity. The law permitted a maximum fee of 60 francs to be collected from employers, but no fee could be charged workers. These offices had their advisory groups which were subordinate to the larger departmental or municipal bodies. Before the war the advisorycouncil system was regarded as of the greatest value in the operation of the public employment offices as they did much to allay the too easy suspicion that the public system was bureaucratic. The system was diversified to a great extent and special placement machinery was established for a large number of specific occupations, industries, and professions. By a law.of July 19, 1928 employers in certain branches of commerce were forbidden to establish placement offices in their places of business. The 1928 law also established regulations as to the records to be kept by both public and private agencies and laid down principles for the recruitment of colonial and foreign labor. Authorization was required from the appropriate governmental agency for placing such labor, for example, from the Minister of Labor for industrial workers and from the Minister of Agriculture for agricultural labor. Centralization of the employment offices was carried out under a decree of March 20, 1939, which made the departmental offices subject to the direct authority of the Ministry of Labor.

After war was declared decrees regulating the hiring and firing of workers were issued (September 1 and 26, 1939), the first decree providing that the municipal offices and the free employment offices (established by professional syndicates of workers, or employers, or both), the labor exchanges, trade-unions, mutual-aid societies and all other legally constituted associations, and the authorized fee-charging gencies were under the jurisdiction of the labor inspectors and the departmental labor-mobilization services. The Minister of Labor was empowered to close private All private employexchanges which did not conform to the regulations. ment offices which were operating regularly at the time of publication of the decree were required to notify the divisional labor inspector, within the 15 days of their intention to continue their operations, but no such offices might be opened after that time, nor could the existing offices extend their activities without authorization by the Minister of Labor. These regulations did not apply to employment offices for agricultural laborers. The trades or occupations for which all hiring must be done through the public employment offices, and those for which all hiring and firing must be reported to those offices were established by orders of the Minister of Labor. All establishments which were required to hire through the public employment exchanges were forbidden to post notices in any place, showing their need for workers, and other establishments could post such notices only Advertisements for labor in the press at the entrance of the establishment. or through other means of publicity were forbidden unless authorized by the labor inspector. The September 26 decree prohibited all recruitment of personnel in administrative agencies, services and establishments of the State except in accord with the advice of the accounting officer of the Ministry covered. Employees in the administrative services of Departments, and the communes of over 20,000 inhabitants, offices of the housing administration and welfare institutions, subsidized wartime navigation, and air transporA Vichy detation companies and various concessions were also covered. cree of October 11, 1940 abolished the existing departmental and municipal exchanges and substituted a state system of employment offices organised on a regional basis. This decree was implemented by a decree of December 31, 1941. Placements made by the public employment offices totaled a million After that year there was a gradual and a half in 1924 and again in 1929. decline to 1,150,000 in 1934; and approximately 1,200,000 in each of the three following years.

3.

YAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS

General Trend of Wages,

1929 to 1940

Wages in France before the war were low in comparison with those of Great Britain, Sweden, and Germany and particularly the United States. Even within France there had always been a great difference between the wages paid in Paris and its environs and cities in other parts of France as is shown in table 1, covering

average hourly wage rates of adult males in manufacturing indusThese statistics are tries from October 1929 to October 1940.
taken from the annual wage study made in October each year by the General Statistical Bureau.

Table 1.--Average Hourly Wages of Adult Males in Manufacturing Industries, October 1929-October 1940.
Paris Cities

Period

recrion

other then

Francs

Francs

1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

6.10

6.64
6.61 6.34 6.34 6.34 6.23 7.06 10.06 10..50 V

3.83 4.08 4.08 3.99 3.89 3.89 3.30 4.42 5.60 6.19

1940

10.90

6.34

Wages of street railway employees, truck W drivers~and laborers are included.

Not available.

Wage rates remained substantially without change for 1929 to 1936, when the social laws enacted by the Popular Front Government in June 1936 resulted in a general upward movement of wages. The laws particularly affecting the wage structure were the law establishing the 40-hour week, which provided that there should be no reduction in the remuneration of the workers in industries in which the 48-hour week had been in effect either in wages or in other payments as a result of the reduction in hours, and the law on collective agreements which provided for the establishment of minimum wages by classes and by regions. The minimum salaries and pensions of employees and agents of the public services, State, Departments, communes and similar services were increased by the law of June 20, 1936, and decrees passed in 1934 and 1935, which provided for deductions from the salaries of employees, reduced special allowances, and postponed the regular promotions of civil servants, were repealed.

Value and Purchasing Power of the Franc

For many years prior to the First World War the par value of the French franc (i. e., its value in United States currency) was 19.30 cents. This was the same as the par value in U. S. currency of the principal currency units of the other members of the monetary union, including the Belgian and Swiss franc and the Italian lira. After the First World War the French franc underwent a long series of revaluations which greatly changed its exchange value in terms of United States currency, which itself was affected relatively to other countries by the reduction of the gold content of the dollar in 1934. In 1934 the exchange value of the French franc in United States There was little change in 1935 and 1936, currency was 6.56 cents. but in 1937 there was a drop to 4.04 cents, and thereafter the decline was still sharper, the exchange value being only 2.08 cents in 1940, the latest year for which quotations have been made by the Federal Reserve Board. In other words, the exchange value of the French franc in 1940 This does not was only about one-third what it was in 1934 to 1936. mean, however, that there was a corresponding drop in the purchasing value of the franc in France and thus in the "real" wage of the French According to figures presented in the 1941 ILO Yearbook of worker. Labor Statistics the cost-of-living index for Paris (on a base of 1929=100) was 93 in 1934, but rose to 111 in 1937 and to 126 in 1938. However, as the wage rates rose still more rapidly over these years, as shown in table 1 above, there was a net gain in the hourly "real" On the other hand, because of the reducwage of about 30 percent. tion in weekly hours, as a result of the 40-hour week law, the weekly "real" wage in 1938 was just about what it was in 1934. Cost of living in wartime.--Information is very unsatisfactory regarding the trend of cost of living in France after the entry of that country into the war and still more during the period of German occupaFigures assembled by the League of Nations in its World Economic tion. Survey of 1941/42 (p. 149) but recognized as unreliable show that there was a rapid rise in living costs after 1939, the indexes (on a 1939 As money wages base of 100) being 142 in June 1941 and 150 in 1942. did not rise during this period, it is evident that real wages suffered a decline of at least 20 percent as compared with 1938 and probably considerably more.

^^^

^--^

Limitations

on Wage

Data

The wage rates cited in the preceding table and in most of the official French reports are, as a rule, the minimum rates provided by collective agreements. It is impossible to ascertain how far these minima varied from the actual wages paid. While the minimum rates were strictly followed in many cases, undoubtedly higher wages are often paid to many employees. National wage scales rarely existed in pre-war France, and probably this is still the case. Hence the rates given apply only to the region indicated, and a different scale might exist in the same indusAs a general rule, wages were on an try in another part of France. hourly basis, but there were exceptions, notably on the railways, where the basis was annual.

21
Factors Affecting Wages

The actual value of pre-war French wages to the worker was increased by the existence of family allowances, by the granting of paid vacations, and by a system of social insurance.. Family Allowances Under the law of March 11, 1932, which first went into effect October 1, 1933, and was gradually extended in the scope of its application, family allowances were paid to heads of families for each dependent child under 14, and in some cases, for children up to 16 years of age. The minimum payments fixed by decree varied widely in different parts of France, being highest in Paris, and less than half that amount in The payments increased in size with the number of some Departments. The purpose of this law was to stimulate the dependent children. This system started in industry and commerce, and inbirth rate. The funds from which cluded many classes of agricultural workers. family allowances were paid were contributed entirely by the employers, except in the case of certain agricultural workers. Contributions to the fund were payable for each employee, male or female, married or single, and were based either on the number of employees or on the Usually contributions were adjusted quarterly in order total wage. Consequently contributions to make the payments required by law. varied according to industry and locality, but in general were esDuring the winter timated at about 2 to 5 percent of the pay roll. of 1938 family allowance rates were revised upwards in many DepartIn general the miniments, and such saales are shown in table 2. mum rates were followed, but in some cases a higher rate was fixed by the collective agreement in a particular industry.

22
Table 2. -- Minimum Family Allowance Rates in France,. Prescribed by Ministerial Orders

1 child Department per day per month

2 children per day

3 children per day per month

per
month

Commerce and industry

Aube-------------------------

Francs
2.00
-

Francs Francs 50.00 4.80

Francs 120.00

Francs 8.40

Francs 210.00

Seine (Paris), Seine, and Oise Oise (except Creil, Rieux,

and Erouis)
----

2.4.0
1.75

60.00 44.00 55.00

40.00

6.40
4.55

160.00
114.00

12.40 8.30 10.00

7.20

310.00
208.00

Oise (Creil, Rieux, and Erouls),

Seine, and Marne ----- -----Allier, Ardeche, Drome, Indre, Loir and Cher, Loir Inf., 2.20
1.60

5.40
4.00 3.00

135.00
100.00

250.00
180.00

Pas-de-Calais,

and Vosges

---

Lozere, Orm-----------------Agriculture Aube --------------------Indre et Loire--------------

1.20

30.00

75.00

5.00

125.00

1.00 .70

25.00 17.50

2.40 1.60

60.00 40.00

4.40 3.00

110.00
75.00

4 children
Department

5 children

Each additional child above the fifth

Commerce and industry Aube -----------------Seine (Paris), Seine, and OiseOise (except Creil, Rieux,
and Erouis) -----------Oise (Creil, Rieux, and Erouis),

Seine, and Marne ----------Allier, Ardeche, Dr'ome, Indre, Loir and Cher, Loir Inf., Pas-de-Calais, and Vosges-Lozere, Orn -------------------Agriculture
Aube
------------

Indre et Loire --------------

Vacations with Pay The law of June 20, 1936, granted annual paid vacations to all employees in industry, commerce, the liberal professions, domestic service, and agriculture. The minimum vacation was 15 days, including 12 working days, for every employee who had had 12 months' continuous service with the same employer. Those who had not had 12, but had had at least 6 months' service, were entitled to 1 week of vacation with pay. In some collective agreements, e.g., that of the Paris metal workers, it was provided that vacations should be granted on the basis of 1 day for each month's work. It was usual for collective agreements to specify the vacation period as falling within certsin summer months. This measure added about 4 percent to wage costs. Social-Insurance Contributions The compulsory social-insurance contribution for all employees in industry and commerce, having an annual wage of not over 30,000 francs and not covered by a separate system, was 8 percent of the wage, half of which was paid by the employer and half by the employee. However, contributions were not payable on that part of the wage which was in excess of 13,000 francs. Flat rates were paid for agricultural workers who were divided into four classes, the annual premium ranging from 4l francs to 360 francs divided equally between employer and worker. For mine workers, contributions for both old-age and sickness insurance amounted to 14.5 percent of the wage, half of which was paid by the employee and half by the employer. However, contributions were not payable on that part of the wage which was in excess of 15,000 francs annually. For old-age and invalidity insurance, railwaymen contributed 5 percent of their wages, the entire wage of the first month after permanent affiliation, and one-twelfth of any increase in annual wages. They made no contribution for sickness insurance. The social-insurance contribution of seamen amounted to 16.3 percent of the wage, of which 6.95 percent was paid by the employee and 9.35 percent by the employer.

Pre-War Wages by Industry and Occupation

The following table shows the wage rates of a number of occupations in Paris and in cities outside Paris, for the years 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1938. The 1935 data are for the period just before the enactment of the 40-hour law, with consequent sharp increases in hourly wage rates.

Table 3.--Average hourly wages in -

Occupation

Paris

and its environs

1935

1936 Francs
7.06

1937

1938

Males
Average

Francs
6.23

Francs
10.06

Francs
10.50

Printers, compositors
Bookbinders

6.15
5.05

7.25 6.75

10.50
10.50

11.90
11.90

Tailors Wood turners

Cabinetmakers Pit sawyers

5.50
6.25
5.87
-

6.38
7.50
6.5d

8.49 9.10
9.40

8.49 9,80
10.10

Carpenters Joiners
Plumbers Blacksmiths

5.87 5.87
6.25 6.10

6.50 6.50 6.75

7.25 7.50

9.65 9.65,
10.28 10.50

9.85 9.85
10.45 11.70

Locksmiths
Metal turners Electrical fitters
Watchmakers

6.00
' 6.05 6.00

'p.25
7.20 6.80
-

9.65
10.35 9.70
-

9.85
11.90 9.91
-

Quarrymen
Stonecutters Masons

6.25
9.25 6.37

6.50
9.25

8.55
12.85 10.15

Navvies (terrasiers)
Roofers House painters Ornametal-stone Brickmakers

6.25
6.25 6.00 7.12
-

7.00 6.50
7.25 7.00 7.67
-

12.10 10.60

9.55
10.28 9.65 11.05
-

9.55
10.45 9.85 11.35
-

cutters

Glaziers

6.12

7.00

11.45.

Cities other than Paris Males Average Brewers Printers, compositors Bookbinders Tanners Saddlers, harness makers Shoemakers Tailors

1935i
Francs

Francs

Francs

1938 Francs 5.54 6.87. 6.84 5.86 5.48 5.45 5.87 5.56
5.13

3.80 3.39 4.24 4.13 3.49 3.42 3,40 3.84 3.56 2.90 3.33 3.72

4.42
4.02 4.70 4.56 4.06

5.60

5.17
6.09

5,99
5.12 4.96 4.85 5.43 5.15 4.63 4.95 5.40

4.20
3.95

Dyers, cleaners Weavers

Rope makers Wheelwrights

4.42 4.12
3.62 3.92 4.33

5. 31 5.96

~-ImE.

Table 3.--Average hourly wages in -

Cont' d

Occupation

Cities

other than Paris

1935

1936

1937

1938

Males
Wood turners Coopers Cabinetmakers Upholsterers Pit sawyers Carpenters Joiners Coppersmiths Tinsaiths Plumbers Blacksmiths Farriers Stovemakers Locksmiths Fitters Metal turners Electrical fitters Watchmakers Quarrymen Stonecutters Masons Navvies (terrasiers) Roofers House painters Ornamental-stone cutters Brickmlakers Potters Glaziers Motormen, tramways Conductors, tramways Truck drivers Laborers Females Average Ironers Dressmakers Seamstresses Waist coat makers Lace makers Fnbroiderers Milliners

FranCs
3.94 3.75 3.97 4.00 3.78 4.02 3.88 4.16 3.83 3.96 3.89 3.74 3.83 3.77

FranCs
4.57

Francs
5.72 5.45

francs
6.37 5.90

4.34 4.55
4.60 4.41 4.63 4.53 4.81 4.53 4.63 4.57 4.32

5.79
5.6 5.29 5.84 5.76 6.14 5.76 5.91 5.84 5,45

642
6,32 6.04 6,44 6.35 6.90 6.28

6.41
6.59 6,08 6.35 6,35 6.88 6.92 6.56 6.56 5.93

4.53
4.48 4.74 4.84 4.77 4.83 4.16 4.84 4.59 3.96 4.63 4.48 5.50

5.78 5.78
6.11 6.14 5.94 6.00 5.37 6.05 5.85 5.1 5.95 5.77 6,85 .5.06 5.25 5.75 5.67 5.40

4.01
4.03 4.03

4.26
3.58 4.16 3.92 3.31 4.02 3.83 4.95 3.48 3.56 3.88 3.98 3.86 3.83 2.87

6.72
6.43 5.67 6.50 6.33 7.78 5.72 6.01 6.34 6.20 5.91 6.15 4.92

410
4.52 4.47 4.46 4.10

4.44
3.46

5.78
444

2.26 2.33 2.33 2.15 2.33 2.27 2.19 2.20

2.62 2.63 2.67 2.53 2.71 2.63 2.62 2.58

3.08 3.10 3.09 2.97 3.24 3.09 3.04 3.05

3.42 3.36 3.40 3.30 3.59

3.55 3.42
3.31

27
Little data are available for wages in individual industries for France as a whole. But a report prepared by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1939 gives detailed wage rates for a number of important industries in representative sections of the country. These-rates relate Abstracts from this report are given below. for the most part to 1938, the year previous to the entry of France into the war. Metallurgical Industry Paris district.-The minimum guaranteed hourly wages of metal workers in the Paris district as fixed in the collective agreement of May 2, 1938, are shown in table 4. Hours worked above the 40 per week provided by law were paid for at the rate of time and onequarter for the first 2 hours, time and one-third for additional hours, and time and one-half for night work, Sunday, and holidays. Other extra payments included a meal allowance of 8 francs for night shifts, bus or car fare of 2 francs for the second day shift, a half-hour rest period paid for at the full rate for workers on continuous shifts, paid vacations between June 1 and October 15 at the rate of 1 day per month of work, and family allowances prescribed by law.

"$=W%

28
Table 4. --Hourly Wages in the Metal Industry, Paris Region, May 1938, by Occupation

OccuptionHourly

Occuptionrate Francs 11.86

11.55

Boiler smiths, formers, and sheet-iron formers ---------Skilled tool workers--tracers, engravers,
millers, fitters--------------------------------------Adjusters----------------------------_#--- -------Ironsmiths, hand ----------------------- - Machine manufacture-turners, millers, rectifiers,

11.21
11.21

borers, mortisers, planers

Welders

------------------------.
----

10.82
10.82

--------------------------------------

Sheet-iron makers--------------------------Fitters-------------------------------_-

~
--

10.82 10.56"
10.56 10.56 10.30

Clockmakers--------------------------------------------Mechanics--setters -----..-----------------------Electricians ----------------------------------.

Locksmiths ----------------------------------------------Plumbers-------------------------------------------------Carpenters
---------------------------

10.18 9.91
9.79

-----

Skilled machine workers:

Male---------------------------9.53
Female -----------------Boiler stokers _------------_ _
--

_-_-_-

---------------

8.15 9.47 9.*34 7.62

Skilled assemblers:
Male

------------------------------------------------

----

a------

Female
Warehousemen

-----______________---__9.21 --

Laborers,

heavy work----------------------------____.__--------------------------------

8.38
-

Ordinary laborers:
Male -------------Female
---

---

7.86
6.78

29
Strasbourg district. --The minimum daily wages of metal workers in this district as fixed by the collective agreement of April 2, 1938, for the entire metallurgical industry were as follows: Skilled workmen, pattern makers, molders, foundrymen, including machinists, designers, boilermakers, ladlemen, and blacksmiths, received from 39.75 to 43.42 The highest rate was provided for workmen over 25 years francs per day. of age with a minimum of 7 years' experience and qualifying as master workmen. The rate for specialized laborers, not apprenticed, operators

of machines, helpers, and drivers ranged from 36.69 to 40.36 francs.

Laborers doing heavy work were to receive 35.47 francs; and ordinary laborers, 35.02 francs. The rate for boys between the ages of 14 and 18 ranged from 12.23 to 22.01 francs, and those from 17 to 18 years who had finished their apprenticeship were to receive 26.91 francs per day. The rate for girls between the ages of 14 and 18 ranged from 9.17 to The rate for apprentices was set at 8.44 francs per day 16.51 francs. for the first half year, 9.17 francs for the second half year, 12.23 francs for the second year, and 18.35 francs for the third year. The wages actually paid after February 17, 1938, in different localities in the Departments of Moselle and Meurthe-et-Moselle in certain branches of the metallurgical industry are shown in table 5.

Table 5.

-- Daily Wages in the Iron and Steel Industry in the Departments of Moselle and Meurtheet-Moselle, February 1938

Occupation

Blast furnaces

Steel mills

Rolling mills

Skilled workers:

Francs

Francs

Francs

First class Second class Third class

Specialized workers:

62.15-74.24 58.70-62.45 55.40-59.62 51.99-61.08 48.53-57.95 45.60-51.05 49.47-62.10 43.60-49.00

59.34-71.60 52.66-67.20 50.00-60.98 52.50-56.13 50.40-53.36 47.68-54.05 46.80-50.80 37.60-44.10

60.90-70.25 59.25-64.56 56.58-57.58 53.26-55.20 52.98-54.72 47.45-50.96 45.45-57.54 39.51-42.65

First class Second class Third class Classified laborers Ordinary laborers

Textile industry occupations in Table 6 gives the average hourly wages in certain and branches of the textile industry in the Lille specified districts district, effective in May 1938.

30
In general, overtime work was not encouraged; but in case of rush work time and one-quarter was paid in the silk and rayon mills in the Lyon district, while a 10-percent increase was paid for overtime in the velvet mills. Family allowances in this district ranged from 50 francs for one child to 320 francs for four children, and for each additional child above the fourth, 150 francs was to be paid. In the silk and rayon industry a lower rate was paid if both husband and wife worked. The cost of vacations with pay in this district was estimated at about 4 percent of the annual pay roll.

'-ml

31
Average Hourly Wages in the Textile Industry Table 6. -of' Specified Districts in France, May 1938 Lille District

Process, occupation,"and sex Cotton and linen weaving

Avrate hul

Weaving: Winders: Francs Linen, male-------------------------------3.91 Cotton, male---------------------3.75 Apprentice, male-------------------------2.23 Warpers, male----------------------------------4.25 Wavers: Ordinary looms, male---------------------3.97-5.15 Multiple looms, male----------------------4.141-7.00 Thread spinning Winding: Wiinders, linen, female-----------------------3.53 Assemblers, female---------------------------3.64 3.51 Cleaners, pickers, female ---------------------Twisters: Heavy looms, female ------------------------3.66 Light looms, female ------------------------3.67 Reelers, female------------------------------3.38 Finishing: Winders: Automatic machines, female -----------------3.54 Hand looms, female--------------------------3.32 Hand, female ------------------------------4.68Widrsinthefmae-------37 Cotton spinning mills Coarse yarn: Carders, doffers, male ------------------ 4.51 Winders, male--------------------------------4.56 Card fixers, male----------------------------4.31 Scthrmale------------ ------------------5.02 Spinners, male------------------------------1/ 6.08 4.00 Carders, male ----------- --------------Combers, female--------------------------------/ 3.58 Drawers, female---------------- -3.35 Rovers, male---------------------------3.39 Laborers, male-------------------------------4.28 Medium and fine counts: Spinners: Male-------------------------------------5.64 B~eginners, male---------------------------1.71 Reelers e Femalo ------------------- ----------------2.62 Beginners, female -------------------------1.58 Carders,. female------------------3.24 Combers, female-----------------------------3.41 Drawers, female-----------------------------3.30 Rovers, female------------------------------3.38 Ring spinners, female ----------3.44 Winders, female-----------------------------3.32 Knitting mills Winders, runners-on (fine gauge), female 4.34 Runners-on (coarse gauge),. female ----------------- 4.27 Linkers, female------------------------------- 4.27-4.55 Sewing-machine operators, female ----------------- 4.41 Runners-on, female-----------------------------4.55 Trimmers, female ---------------------4.41. Rib top runners-on, female -----------------------4.13 Runners-on, male --------------------4.45 Footers, male ------------6.56 Laborers, male -----_______4.87

,/Piece rate.

32
Table 6. -- Average Hourly Wages in the Textile Industry of Specified Districts, in France, May 1938 -ContinuedLyon District

Average hourly rates,

April 1938 2/
Process, occupation, and sex Silk and rayon Velvet

Silk

and rayon and velvet Francs Francs 4.25-4.50 4.25-4.50

Wlinders, female--------------------3.70 Reelers, female-------------------3.70

Warpers, female----------------Weavers: Male-----------------Female-- ------------

-4.50

4.75-5.00

4.70
4.40 4.75-5,00
----

Loom fitters,

male---------------

2/1,34400
4.00-5.75 7.00 -------8.15

Loom fitters' apprentices, male

Finishers:
ale---- le------------Female-----------------------Dyers, male-------------------

5.50-6.50 4.25-4.75
8.15
----

Printers, male---------------

Laborers, weaving, male----------

9.00 5.50

------

/ Average exchange rate of franc in April 1938

/ Per month.

= 3.10 cents.

Dyeing The minimum hourly rate of assistant machine operators and labordyers, operators of washing and ers in dyeing plants was 5.88 francs; rinsing machines, shrinking, stretching, and drying machines, etc., were to receive a minimum wage of 6.25 francs; and head operators of machines, inspectors, finishers, folders, etc., a minimum rate of 6.61 francs. The minimum hourly rate of women was 4.31 francs for foldingmachine operators, and operators of sprinkling and vaporizing machines.

.33
Paper Industry The minimum basic hourly wage scale as of May 15, 1938, in the paper industry in the region of Paris is shown for different plant departments in table 7. Table 7.-Minimum Hourly Wages in Paper Industry Paris Region, May 1938, by Occupation

Occupation
-------;-- . ----.. .

Minimum hourly ratee/

..... ..... -: . -. _.~~i-: ....---... _-,-.. -;.,--

Pulppreparation
Head operators' 2 Operators l Assistant operators Vat loaders and assistants Operators, newsprint machines Second operators, newsprint machines Grinders, crushers fag washers Chlorine workers Felt washers, fullers

Fancs 8.35-9.60 7.90-9,40

7.45-8.35.

4.55.
8,65
8.35

7.,35
7.85

Colorers
Machine Room Machine operaiors.

9.,26-11. 75
5.05

First driers=
Second drier Second drier-unwinder Assistant drier

8.00-11.;75.
7,30:

Chief winderW
Second winde4 Third winderc/

7.95,
Room

Finihig

Supervisors Winders, calender operators, cutters Winding machine helpers Cardboard spindle cutters: Male Female Handlers, weighers
--------

9.10. 7.58.3.5
7.45. 5.40

7.,~5
: ----. ..:. --

/
2/

Including bonuses and payments in kind. Rates vary according to speed of machine.

2/ Receive 2 liters of milk. !/On winding machine attache..

Nine.

34
Wages of power-plant employees ranged from 9.80 francs per hour for ,chief firemen to 7.50 francs for inspectors of water turbines, steam engines,, and stations for pumping and treating water, while wages of'-maintenance employees ranged from 11.75 francs for skilled

cabinetmakers and 10.10 francs for tool experts to 7 francs for stock
wages of young workers varied from 3.60 francs per hour keepers. The .. for boys of 14 to 15 years of age to 6.75. francs for those l79 to 18 years, while the corresponding rates for girls were 2.95 to 4.90 francs. Pottery Industry In the pottery industry in the vicinity of Cherbourg the maximum daily wage's of skilled workmen--turners and painters--were 40.30 and 46.20 francs,,7respectively, in May 1938. The minimum rates of specialized workmnen were 27 francs per day and the maximum rates ranged from 31.90 francs for: .grpovers to 38.20 francs for paste pattern makers. The minimum rates..of women in this group were 17 and 18 francs and the maximum rates ranged from 22.40 francs for enamel repairers to 34.90 francs for trimmers. Repairers working on piece work, however, may average as much as 37.45 francs per day. The daily wages of ordinary and specialized laborers ranged from 27 to 32.80 francs per day. Engineers received, from 1,000 to 1,440 francs per month. The rate for firemen on the day shift was 37.45 francs per day, with a special allowance of.' 24 francs a month and 4.70 francs per hour for overtime,

while on night work the rate was 40.70 francs with a food allowance of 6 francs.; The first year rate for boys between the ages of 14 and 18 was 12 francs per day and for girls, 10 francs.
Glove Industry

trict 1n Ajr' l 1938 are shown in the following stcatement. Overtime rates were. time and one-quarter for tbe first 2 hours and time and onehalf thereafter. Family allowances ranged from 50 francs per month for one child to 470 francs for five children and 150 francs for each additional; child above the fifth. One day's vacation with pay was granted fQrI' each month worked during the year. No housing was provided. Rate per hour (francs)
a,'ers$~eeCeaAIB""Bee~eIIIIBII*~ee 6,30

The

hourly

wages paid in the glove industry in the Grenoble dis-

Skin

dyers. . . ..................

Skin stakers. Glove butters.

..
. ......

,..".........
. . .. .. .. ...

10.30 10.70
6.50

Glove

....... dreesel"rs.
,b , o ,

..... s.
.o
e

5.25
2. 250
2.25

Sewers,

" acine,,.,........" lbo e

"ewers,~~r~l hand,,,,,

35
Dairy and Cheese Industries The minimum monthly wages of workmen employed in dairies and cheese factories in the Cherbourg district in May 1938 averaged 765 francs for ordinary laborers, including milk handlers, assistant butter makers, apprentice molders, milk collectors, etc.; 815 to 820 francs for specialized laborers including molders and cheese turners, weighmen, mechanical mixers, warehousemen, skinners, churners, mechanics etc.; and 870 francs for specialized workmen, including special condensed-milk workers, testing and laboratory workers, skilled butter and cheese workers, butter sorters, foremen, etc. The wages of women ranged from 520 to 570 francs per month for occupations classed as laborers; 570 to 620 francs for specialized laborers; and 620 to 670 francs for specialized workers. Apprentices (boys under 20 years of age) earned from 312 to 566 francs, according to age, while those 18 to 20 years and specialized earned a minimum of 616 francs. The corresponding rates for girls under 20 years of age were 312 to 466 francs, and for those 18 to 20 and specialized, 516 francs. If employees in these industries were boarded and lodged the following deductions were made from their monthly wages: 330 francs for men for board and 300 francs for women and 30 francs for both sexes for lodging, while the deductions for boys ranged from 200 to 250 francs, according to age, and from 200 to 230 francs for girls. The monthly deduction for housing families was at the rate of 25 francs per room, unfurnished, exclusive of light 'nd heat. The additional allowance for workmen with families was 25 francs per month for one child, 60 francs for two children, 120 francs for three, 200 francs for four, and 100 francs for each child above the fourth. Owing to the perishable nature of the products handled the 40hour week had not yet been applied in these industries. Working hours were 9 per day and 54 per week, and in general overtime was not necessary. If overtime was worked, the rate for the first 2 hours was time and one-quarter and for each additional hour time and one-third. Perfumery and Essential Oils Industry There is only one class of workers in this industry in Grasse (Maritime Alps) aside from the technicians and the employees on a monthly basis. The hourly rate for men in May 1938 was 5.20 francs and for women 3.55 francs. Overtime is allowed only in crop periods and, according to the day on which it is performed, is paid for at the rate of time and one-quarter to time and one-half.

38
Coal Mining The 40-hour week became applicable to the coal-mining industry on November 1, 1936. After that time various changes took place affecting wages, as well as the working and social conditions of the coal-mine employees. At the end of 1937 the number of persons employed by the coalmining industry throughout France was 245,316, as against 231,951 at the end of 1936, and by the end of the first quarter of 1938 the number had risen to 246,984 persons, of whom 153,905, or 62 percent, were employed in the important Northern Basis, comprising the mines of the Departments of the Pas-de-Calais and the Nord. The duration of the underground worker's presence in the mine could not exceed 38 hours and 40 minutes per week nor 7 hours 45 minutes per shift. Duration of presence was reckoned from the time a miner left the surface until his return. In the mines in the Northern Basin the duration of the descent and ascent was about 4 minutes each, and the average time traveling underground was 48 minutes. As a daily break of 25 minutes for lunch was allowed, the actual working time was about 6 hours and 24 minutes. The hours of surface workers were,in general, 40 per week and 8 per day, with an uninterrupted rest of 48 hours including Sunday. However, certain exceptions to these hours were allowed. In the mines of the Northern Basin about one-half of the underground workers, including hewers, loaders, truck drivers, and gallery cutters, were paid on a piece-work basis, according to the amount of coal extracted. The men worked in groups of 5 to 50 men under a foreman paid separately by the mine operators. The earnings of the gang were calculated at the end of a 15-day period on the number of "berlines" (i.e., wagonettes with a capacity of 500 kilograms or 1,102 pounds). The rate per berline varied according to the obstacles and difficulties encountered in the vein and was determined by the foreman. In cases of disagreement between the foremen and the men as to the rate, the pit engineer was called in to make the decision. The lowest rate paid in recent years was approximately 4 francs and the highest 10 francs. The total earnings of the gang were divided according to the grade of the workers. There are four grades of hewers-grades 10, 9.3, 8.5, and 8. Grade 10 men are the most proficient and ordinarily the highest paid, while grades 9.3 to 8 are usually less efficient hewers and juniors qualifying for the higher ratings. Approximately 33 percent of the underground workers are grade 10 men. Surface workers of 14 to 21 years of age received minimum rates, varying according to age and including the bonuses, ranging from 21.82 francs for boys aged 14 to 14 years to 43.60 francs at age 20 to 21. The rates for female workers ranged from 21.82 francs for girls of 14 to 28.78 francs for women aged 18 and over. The rates for laborers on the surface over 21 years of age were 44.46 francs per day and for laborers in full possession of physical strength 46.20 francs. When skilled surface workers were called upon to work underground, they received a supplement or additional bonus equal to 15 percent of their normal wage for the period underground.

---

-L.---l-

-~L

37
Supplementary bonuses varying according to conditions were paid for unhealthful work. Workers who were heads of families were housed free except for a nominal upkeep charge ranging from 7 to 20 francs per month, and in practically all cases there was a small garden included. Single men were not furnished quarters. Free water was supplied, as well as free fuel amounting to about 4 tons of coal a year for each household, on which a cartage fee of 1 franc to 4 francs per ton was charged. All workers contributed 1.9 percent of their wages to locally organized sick-benefit societies under State control, the mining companies making an equal contribution. These societies were operated independently of the social-insurance system. Workers received free medical treatment and appliances and a daily cash benefit ranging from 6 to 15 francs per day, in general the higher rate being paid for workers over 20 years of age. All workers, through payment

to the Miners' Pension Fund, operated nationally, qualified for old-age

pensions of 7,000 francs after 30 years' service, or proportionally for service of 15 to 29 years. The employer contributed an amount equal to the workers' contributions. In the event of the worker being able to take advantage of the provisions of a law of April 7, 1936, granting a temporary allocation to miners at the age of 50 years with 20 years' service underground, he was entitled to a pension of 7,000 francs in 1938 at 52 years of age, in 1939 at 51 years of age, and in 1940 and thereafter at 50 years of age. Family allowances amounted to 1.60 francs per day for the first child, 2.50 francs for the second, 3.50 francs for the third, 4.50 francs for the fourth,' and 5.50 francs for the fifth and each child over that number, for each effective day of work, and were increased by 20 percent when the working period did not exceed 5 days per week. Workers called out during the night and on Sunday and holidays for exceptional and urgent work received time and one-quarter for such overtime. The deductions from the miners' wages on account of the three types of insurance amounted to about 7.55 percent of their earnings, of which 5.5 percent is paid to the pension fund, 1.9 percent to the sick-benefit fund, and 0.15 percent to the coal fund. Iron Mines The collective agreement adopted May 7, 1938, in the iron mines of Lorraine (Strasbourg district) established a rate of 40 francs per day for miners of the first class and 36 francs for miners of the second class and for loaders. The rate for men operating mechanical loaders was 37 francs. Truss builders and track layers received 35 francs per day and their helpers 30 francs. The rate for operators of electric trains was 35 francs and of horse trains 32.50 francs. Mine laborers received 30 francs. The wages of miners in open mines were 3 francs below those of underground miners. Young workers in the mine between the ages of 15 and 21 received from 15 to 29 francs, according to age, and above ground 10 to 26 francs.

am="*-

-~I~L~SChg

38
Potash Mines By the terms of the collective agreement, effective April 15, 1938, in the potash mines of Alsace, skilled workers over 20 years of age received 62 francs per day and 53.50 francs between the ages of 18 and 20. Skilled workers of these ages without a certificate of ability received 59.40 francs and 50.90 francs, respectively. Construction workers received 57.80 francs per day; machine operators, 57.20 francs; pickmen, 5.7.20 francs, and their helpers 52 francs; and loaders and shovelers, 51.70 francs. Elevator loaders and car handlers between the ages of 16 and 20 were paid from 40.50 to 47.50 francs. The daily wages of surface workers ranged from 24.60 francs for day laborers 14 to 15 years of age to 59.40 francs for skilled workers over 21. Railroads All the main-line railways in France were united in a national system on January 1, 1938, and the wage scale was therefore Nation-wide. Railroad workers, in general, received increases of about 3 percent of their salaries or wages every 6 months for the first 4 years with two similar increases after long service. The employees were divided into four groups. The first of these groups (the commissioned personnel), consisting of train and station employees, chiefs and subchiefs of laborers and maintenance workers, inspectors, station masters, etc., were divided into 18 wage classes. The minimum basic wages in force in May 1938 ranged from 8,600 francs per year for the lowest class to 19,540 francs for the highest, and the maximum from 11,200 francs to 51,740 francs, respectively. The second (locomotive) group is divided into six wage classes made up of switch-engine drivers, firemen, yard engineers, and electric and locomotive engineers. The minimum rates for these workers ranged from 8,830 francs per year to 11,200 francs and the maximum from 11,260 francs to 18,400 francs. The minimum rates of the third group (maintenance employees), consisting of laborers, drivers' and electricians' helpers, foremen, inspectors, assistant chief electricians, and the heads of electrical stations of the fourth class, ranged from 8,600 francs to 10,880 francs per year and the maximum from 11,200 francs to 18,780 francs. Shop workers, who formed the fourth class, received minimum daily wages ranging from 27.50 francs for laborers to 31.80 francs for skilled workers and assistant foremen and a maximum rate ranging from 36.50 francs to 46.80 francs, respectively. From April 1, 1937, permanent employees having a net annual wage of less than 30,000 francs were granted a special supplement to wages not to exceed 100 francs per month, and from October 1, 1937, an additional supplement of 1,200 francs per year was paid to workers earning less than 30,000 francs and of 1,000 francs for those earning more, with an annual supplement for minors and apprentices ranging from 300 to 600 francs. A residence allowance was made which varied according to the size of the city. It was raised twice in 1937 and in May 1938 was 3,630 francs for employees residing in Paris and proportionately less in other sections of the country.

JHbfwl-Yui

u~

ImmII

Subways, Paris Employees in Paris subways received, in addition to their regular wages, a temporary annual supplement granted as of October 1, 1937, and a rent bonus of 2,700 francs for employees residing.in Paris or within 25 kilometers of the city and a smaller amount if living farther from the city. The wages of chief engineers, as established in 1936, ranged from a minimum of 50,000 to a maximum of 70,000 francs a year; works' engineers, from 37,500 to 60,000 francs; and maintenance chiefs and inspectors from 31,500 to 45,000 francs; motormen, from 14,300 to 16,300 francs; and guards, linemen, etc., from 13,400 to 15,000 francs. The temporary annual supplement, based on earnings and date of employment, ranged from 1,000 to 3,000 francs. Street Railways, Havre

The hourly wages of operating employees of the street-railway system of Havre were based on the 40-hour week divided into 6 days of 6 hours and 40 minutes. Conductors, motormen, and bus drivers were classified according to length of service. The average daily wages of these employees, established on January 1, 1938, were 41.95 francs for the class with over 20 years' service, 39.85 francs for those with 15 to 20 years' service, 38.15 francs with 10 to 15 years' service, 36.50 francs with 5 to 10 years' service, 35.20 francs with 1 to 5 years' service, and 34.35 francs with 1 year's service. Temporary employees or extras were paid a flat rate of 30.15 francs Uniforms were to be furper day. Time and one-half was paid for overtime. Employees received the usual Departmental family alnished by the company. Six percent of wages was deducted for the lowances and vacations with pay. company pension fund.

I-Y~-IL

40
.Slipping Industry Wages in the shipping industry were fixed by the national collective agreement of June 24, 1936, concluded between representatives of shipowners and of the marine workers' syndicates. In the Bouches-du-Rhone Department a spe'ial agreement was concluded covering six ports, including the port of Marseille. The national agreement and the supplementary regional one were made effective as of June 15, 1936. After that time wages were increased, and table 8 gives the scale which was in effect after December 1937. Table 8.--Monthly Wages of Seamen in the Marseille District, 1938 average exchange rate of franc in May 1938=2.81 cent7

Rank

Wjages per month Francs

Overtime rate per hour Francs 7.10 7.10 6.00 5.40 3.60 2.40 7.10 7.10 6.50 6.00

Food allowance per day Trance 22.00 22.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 22.00 22.00 20.00 20.00

Cost-of living allowance per month Francs 75.00 75.00 65.00 65.00 35.00 35.00 75.00 75.00 65.00

Boatswain Boatswain's mate Able seaman Ordinary seaman Novice and mess boy Cabin boy or apprentice Chief stoker Wiper Stoker Trimmer

825.00 810.00 725.00 640.00 375.00 285.00 825.00 825.00 790.00 725.00

65.00

Stevedoring Industry Wages of stevedores in Havre were fixed by an arbitreLdecision, February 28, 1938, at 63.50 francs for a day of 6 hours and 40 minutes from 8 to 11:20 a.m. and 1:30 to 4:50 p.m. The overtime and night rates were 16.50 francs per hour between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. and 4:50 and 6:50 p.m., and 19 francs per hour between 11:20 a.m. and 1:20 p.m. The rate for night shifts from 8 p. m. and at night after 6:50 p.m. to 2:40 a.m. was 127 francs per shift and from midnight to 6:40 a. i., 138 francs per shift. Talley men or checkers received 67.50 francs per day of 6 hours and 40 minutes whether or not a full day was worked. For overtime the rate ranged from 17.75 to 20.25 francs per hour, For work on night shifts the rate was 135 francs per shift or 146 franca for the late shift.

6-

41
The social-insurance contribution amounted to 2 francs per day. The basic wages of stevedores in Rouen in May 1938 were 59.50 francs

per day of 6 hours and 40 minutes and at Bordeaux 55.50 for general cargo,
61.50 francs for coal passers, and 60.50 francs for handling pit props. At Rouen longshoremen received 6.70 francs per hour with an increase of 30 percent for overtime up to midnight and 75 percent after midnight, and time and one-half for work performed on Sunday and holidays. Paid vacations were provided for longshoremen. Building Trades ,Marseille.--The hourly rates for building workers, shown in table 9, were in effect in March 1938 in the Bouches-du-Rhone Department. Overtime was authorized only in exceptional cases, but if worked the regular rate was paid for the first hour, time and one-quarter for the second hour, end time and one-half thereafter. Double time, however, was paid for overtime from midnight to 6 a.m., and on Sunday and holidays. Table 9.--Hourly Wages in the Building Trades in Marseille,

March

1938

Occupation

; Hourly wage rate

(francs)

Masons Skilled laborers Skilled cement workers Semiskilled cement workers Concrete mixers and ironworkers Tile layers Tile layers, assistants

8.52 7.44 9.00 8.52 7.68 10.50 7.74

Roofers
Plasterers

8.64
9.00

Excavators Crane operators

Steam-shovel operators Carpenters Asphalt workers, skilled Plumbers Metal fitters, locksmits

7.44 7.56
9.60 9.12 8.64 8.52 8.34

Riveters
Laborers

8.04
7.14

dII

42

Wages After the Armistice

Shortly after the armistice, which would normally have brought the suppression of the regulation of wages provided for during hostilities, the State on the contrary assumed total control of the movement of wages. In the absence of exact statistics on the wage movement in France, it is difficult to measure with any certainty the effect of the control policy on the standard of living. The French trade-union press, controlled by the authorities, estimated the reduction in real wages was from 40 to 50 percent. This reduction in the buying power of wages occurred in spite of the price stabilization decreed by law of October 21, 1940. Also, at differ-

ent times the Government has granted additional wage allowances in

the more important industries to meet the rising cost of living.

f---

43
Actual Wages During the Occupation

The workers' average income was reported to be more than 50 percent below the minimum subsistence level in May 1942. The maxinum wage rates
as fixed by the Government were about 1,700 francs per month in the Department of the Seine, and approximately 1,200 francs in 15 other areas, including Marseilles, 1,350 francs, and Lyons, 1,225 francs. Women's wages were everywhere 10 to 20 percent lower. Incomes of 800 to 1,000 francs a month for men were not unusual particularly in the rural areas.

Any wage increases which might be followed by an immediate advance in prices were ruled out by the Government. In the public services salaries ranged from 28 to 42 francs per day and teachers salaries, from 13,000 to 18,000 francs per year. According to an order of the German Military Commander in Paris of September 5, 1942, Reich German personnel resident in France before May

10, 1940 was to be paid 25 percent above the customary French wage in the locality. A recent compilation (earlier referred to) showing money and real wages and cost of living in 194+0, 41, and 42, based on unofficial returns, shows the following movements: first half of 1930100J]
June

Money wages Cost of living Real wages

113 119 95

113 142 80

150

1/ October figure.

44
Wage Laws and ReMlations

In the previous discussion of wages reference was made to the more important laws anf regulations regarding wages. In this section these laws and regulations are reviewed in greater detail, as well as those relating to wages on public contracts and wages of home workers. Pre-War Regulation Public contracts.-4-Wage regulation in France dates back to the compulsory to include in the terms of State contracts .aprovision for the payment of wages at the going rate for the occupation or area and the other two made it possible for departments, communes, and welfare institutions to include such provisions in their contracts. Wage provisions of existing collective agreements were to be used as a basis for determining the appropriate rates or, in their absence, boards consisting of equal numbers of employer and employee members were to be consulted as to the proper rate of payment. Application of these measures was extensive during the war years, 1914-1918.

Millerand Decrees of. August 10, 1899, one of which made it

Home. workers.-The first law fixing wages of home workers was enacted on July 10, 1915. It covered female workers and indirectly es in the clothing industry. Under the terms of the legislation the scope could be widened and the provision was later invoked in related industries. Fixation of minimum rates was to be entrusted to the labor councils-for which statutory provision was made on July 17, 1908 but which were never established-or, in their absence,. to special bodies The latter bodies provided for in the legislation covering home work. were to be set up by the prefect of the department and were to consist Departmental of departmental wage and trade assessment committees. wage committees fixed basic wages and minimum time rates and the trade assessments committees determined the time needed for the manufacture of mass production articles as a basis for fixing minimum piece rates. Appeals against rates were permissible and were heard by a central If no objection was made, the board sitting at the Ministry of Labor. rates became compulsory one month after their publication in the Administrative records of the department. Rates were required to be revised not less than once every three years.

Enforcement provisions consisted of facilitating the work of checking the application or nonapplication of the act; ensuring supervision the strict sense of its application and setting up penalties for inAs the law required that the schedules of prices to be fringemnent, paid should be posted by employers and each worker was given a record of rates covering each lot of goods, he was to handle, the factory inFinal assurance of the spectors' work of enforcement was facilitated. observance of the law could only be ensured by resort to civil action as the legislation did nbt expressly authorie labor inspectors to ve conformity of the wages paid with the minimum rates fixed.

_I

__

Minimum wages of home workers were again dealt with by legislation on August 1, 1941 providing that all home workers, male and female, should receive not less than the minimum rates of pay fixed by the prefects. The prefects were bound to consult with the committees which previously had the power to establish wage rates. The law empowered the Secretary of State for Labor to fix home-work rates that differed from those specified by the prefect and no appeal is permissible in such cases. Minimum wages must be fixed in accordance with the wage for persons of average skill doing the same kind of work. Changes in rates may be made ex officio or at the request of the Government department concerned, if changes have occurred in the general average level of wage rates in the industry concerned.

Popular Front.--Certain of the early laws enacted by the Popular Front Government were designed to extend wage standardization in industry and commerce. Both the law of June 24, 1936 concerned with collective agreements and that of December 31, 1936 establishing conciliation and arbitration procedure had for their purpose fixation of minimum wage rates (and other conditions of employment). If rates could not be agreed on voluntarily through collective bargaining they were to be imposed by conciliation and arbitration. Under the June 24 law the terms of a collective agreement made by a single branch of industry might be made a common rule for the entire industry or region by Ministerial Order and thus attain very general application. Agricultural workers were not covered by the original collective agreements and arbitration laws but were included by special legislation enacted on February 24, 1938 and March 4, 1938, respectively. Methods by which minimum wage rates were to be arrived at were not stated by the June 1936 law on collective agreements. The law only required that they should be established for each category of workers and each district. No formula was contained in the 1936 law on arbitration but when a new arbitration law was enacted on March 4, 1938 it was stipulated that the minimum-wage rates fixed in the first place, that is by collective bargaining or arbitration, must be varied with changes in living costs. Every 6 months for each 5-percent change in the official cost-of-living index a proportionate change in wages was to be made, contingent on the local, regional or national economic resources. No provision was made to ensure strict observance of the wage scales established by collective agreements and arbitration awards under the 1936 laws. This was done by a decree of May 2, 1938 concerning production and requiring employers to post workshop rules in the work places and where workers are hired. Employers who failed to pay the wages fixed by an arbitration award were deemed to have committed a penal offense under the same decree. Penalties for such failure were provided by decree of November 12, 1938.

.J

of the requisitioning On November 28, 1938 provision was made for both industry and labor in the event of war and the conditions were

fixed under which the services of civilians could be requisitioned. Such requisitioning of a person's services did not entitle him to any In cases in which the occupation payment except his salary or wage. oration was fixed at the initial salary existed in peacetime, the re of the position, while if the requisition maintained a person in the g,the salary or wage he was receiving was post he was already occu
maintained. If the position was a new one, the salary was fixed ac-

cording to a comparable employment in time of peace. In the case of wage-paid employment, the remuneration was fixed by the requisitioning authority on the basis of normal rates established by decrees of April 1937 concerning working conditions under Government contracts.

Regulation During the War

dustrial Government requisitioning The measure instituting and commercial establishments and in the State of labor in inservices was made

effective by a decree of October 1%, 1939.

Some additions to wages were also authorized after of the provisions of law whereby extra war as a result the outbreak of payment was made

for overtime hours of work, (See section on overtime.), but to prevent a general rise in normal rates of pay special legislation was enacted. In establishments working for the national defense the average wages paid in each enterprise to workers of the same trade category could not exceed those paid on September 1, under the terms of decrees dated NovAccording to a statement accompanying ember 10, 1939 and May 31, 1940. the decree only in exceptional cases were the wages thus stabilized modified by decision of the Secretary of State for Labor.

Regulation After the

Owing to the great increase in living

Armistice
costs, supplementary wage

allowances were provided by decree of May 23, 191 for workers in industrial and commercial enterprises, the liberal professions, civil servants,and professional syndicates of all kinds whose salaries or wages did not The alexceed the limit for inclusion in the social insurance system. lowances were made retroactive to June 1, 1941 and were based on the They wages in effect on September 1, 1939, or readjusted thereafter. ranged from 50 centimes to 1.15 francs per hour, according to locality and were reduced by one-half for workers under age 17 and by one-quarter for those under age 20. The asaaximum permissible increase for young workers was 20 percent.

47

Labor Charter.--Criteria for determining rates of pay were established by the Labor Charter October 4, 1941 which states that members of an occupation are to be remunerated according to their place of employment, occupational qualification, and the special conditions under which they work. The principles to be followed were elaborated to provide that all workers should receive a living wage and that geographic location, family responsibility, and skill of the worker should be taken into account in fixing pay. The minimum living wage was to be fixed by the Government for each region, department, or locality in accordance with the recommendation of the Superior Wages Board.

'*'*' ',

48
Hours of Labor
Pre-War Hours A survey of employment and hours of labor in French industries employing normally more than 100 persons in the years immediately preceding the establishment of the 40-hour week in 1936 showed the following distribution of employees working specified weekly hours in 1934 and 1935. Table 1.--Employees in French Establishments Working Specified Weekly Periods February 1, 1934 and 1935. Percent of total Full-time weekly hours 1934 48 hours and over Over 40 and under 48 hours 40 hours Over 32 and under 40 hours 32 hours Less than 32 hours Total 59.7 20.7 9.3 7.4 1.7 1.2 100.0 1935 50.4 22.5 10.2 10.7 2.9 3.2 100.0

In June 1936, when the Popular Front laws were passed, the 40-hour week was established for all industry and commerce, educational and The law provided welfare organizations, etc., by a decree of June 21. that the method of application by profession, by industry, or by professional category for the total of a territory or for a region would be determined by the Cabinet Council with advice from the competent In establishsection or sections of the National Economic Council. ing the hours for a particular industry the employer and workers organizations concerned had to be consulted. Most of the decrees did not specify the division of the workweek to be followed but permitted a choice between the 5-day week, the 5j-day week, or a 6-day week of The most common division was the 5-day 6 hours and 40 minutes a day. In general where a choice of the hours to be week of 8 hours per day. worked was allowed it was provided that hours which had been fixed by By the middle of 1937 the law collective agreement must be followed. was in practically universal effect although a gradual transition to the new hours was necessary in some industries and in some cases it was In the iron and steel industry, necessary to allow more than 40 hours. for example, which had been operating in general on a 56-hour week, 48 hours were allowed for a period of 3 months from the date of the deuree-October 27, 1936--after which a four-shift system with a 42-hour week was put in effect. Longer hours were allowed in industries in which the work was of an intermittent character such as service industries, food stores, and hotels and restaurants.

Supplementary hours up to 100 per year were authorized by a decree of August 30, 1938, to meet the needs for increased production particularly in works carried on for the national defense and safety, and by a decree of November 12, 1938, the workweek was extended from 5 to 6 days and necessary overtime to do the work on hand over the basic 40 hours per week was authorized up to a maximum of 50 hours. Extensions of overtime above the 50 hours could be requested in sections of 40 hours at a time and if not refused by the authorities within 10 days, the extension could be considered accepted.

Wartime Hours The various laws passed in 1938 relaxing the Popular Front standard of short hours reflected the French Government's realization of the serious international situation and the probability that war could not be averted. As war came nearer, a law was enacted on April 21, 1939, which while retaining the principle of the 40-hour week fixed the normal week at 45 hours with no increase of pay for the forty-first to the forty-fifth hours. Overtime pay was to start after the forty-fifth hour instead of the 40th hour as previously. / A decree of March 20, 1939, provided for a 60-hour week for establishments working directly or indirectly for the national defense and the Minister of Labor was authorized to increase hours above 60 when necessary. A decree issued September 1, 1939, at the outbreak of war, provided for a 60-hour week in industrial, commercial, and cooperative establishments of every kind with a general maximum workday of 11 hours which could be extended up to 12 hours to make A 56-hour week averaged over up for collective interruptions of work. a period of 12 weeks without special authorization was fixed for continuous operations and if the work was for the national defense or for a public service it could be extended to 72 hours a week, if authorized The maximum hours of women and young persons by the labor inspector. were in general fixed at 10 per day and 60 per week.

J/

See section on Overtime Hours and Rates of Pay.

_^^t$tfJO ^flM '^^JP

s^w

Hours after the German Occupation A report from an unofficial agency gives the average weekly hours of work in the occupied and nonoccupied zones in June 1941. In the occupied zone the average workweek was reported as 39.2 hours as compared with 38.5 hours in May and 35.9 hours in December 1940. In the nonoccupied zone the average was 38.4 hours in June, 38.0 in May, and 37.4. in December 1940. A classification of employed persons in the zones according to the weekly hours of work in June 1941 showed the following: Occupied zone Percent Over 48 hours Over 40 but less than 48 hours 40 hours Over 32 but less than 40 hours Over 24 but less than 32 hours Less than 24 hours 16.6 12.4 42.5 10.7 6.5 7.5 Nonoccupied zone Percent 9.1 11.5 46.6 13.1 12.8 3.2

In the occupied zone industries working more than 40 hours per week in June 1941 were the wood and metal industries, excavation and construction, stonework, transportation and various commercial enterprises. In the nonoccupied zone industries working longer than the normal week of 40 hours were the chemical industries, wood and metal industries, earthworks, stonework, and various branches of commerce. The textile industries were averaging only 30.2 hours in the occupied zone and 31.4 in the nonoccupied zone; hides and skins 34.6 hours and 36.9 hours respectively; while other industries in both zones were working more than 35 hours per week. A decree of March 25, 1941 provided for an increase in weekly working time from 40 to 48 hours. When necessary, maximum hours were restricted to 54 per week and 10 per day with overtime to be paid for at 10 percent above the regular rate for hours in excess of 48.

rrnr

Hours in Coal Mines In underground mines the maximum time underground for each worker was fixed at 38 hours and 40 minutes by the hours decree of June 21, 1936. Under a decree of November 12, 1938, the maximum workday remained 7 hours and 45 minutes and the maximum week 38 hours and 40 minutes but while the 5-day week was still authorized a choice was given of working a 5--day or a 6-day week. A decree of September 10, 1939, provided that the duration of presence could not exceed 52 hours and 30 minutes per week or 8 hours 45 minutes a day, the division of hours being based on the 6-day week. Normal hours of work were extended to 43 hours and 30 minutes per week with no change in wages. Additional time was authorized in case of force majeureetc., and because of collective stoppages up to a maximum of 10 hours 45 minutes per day. On July 18, 1941, the weekly hours of surface workers were raised to 48 hours a week and of underground workers to 46 hours and 30 minutes. Supplementary hours up to a maximum of 60 hours per week and 10 hours per day could be authorized in mineral mines. In stone and slate quarries supplementary hours could be allowed up to a maximum of 75 hours per year, and in coal and bituminous-schist mines additional hours were limited to 1 per day. Overtime Hours and Rates of Pay Under the 40-hour week prescribed by the 1936 decree-law additional hours, ranging in the majority of cases from one-half hour to 2 hours per day were provided for maintenance men, technicians, drivers, etc. Time and one-quarter was the usual rate paid for such overtime. In general loss of work by reason of force majeure, seasonal unemployment, breakdown and spoilage, or other causes could be made up, a limit being set to the supplementary hours allowed, while additional working time was allowed for operations in the interest of safety and the national defense, or public service at the order of the Government. In these cases the limits were fixed in each case by the Minister of Labor or the Minister who was responsible for the work in question.

The decree of November 12, 1938 issued because of the need for increased production provided for overtime pay as follows: 10 percent increase for the first 250 hours within 1 year in establishments employing more than 50 and from 5 to 10 percent in others; 15 percent in all esThe employer tablishments up to 400 hours; and 25 percent thereafter. was required to pay a 10-percent tax on profits resulting from overtime. The overtime rate was fixed by a decree of April 21, 1939 at a uniform 5 percent above the regular hourly wage for all hours over 45 per week. Decrees issued September 1 and 26, and October 27, 1939 fixed the payment for supplementary hours above the 45th, successively at 75, 66-2/3, and 60 percent of the normal hourly rate, with the difference between these rates and the normal pay to be retained by the employer and paid into the National Solidarity Fund for the payment of allowances to needy The pay for work from the fortyfamilies of men in the armed forces. first to the forty-fifth hours inclusive, under the decree of September 26, was to be retained by the employer and paid into the Solidarity Fund. A general tax of 15 percent of wages of men aged 18 to 49 years who were not attached to a military unit was payable from October 1, 1939 to the A decree issued by the Minister of Finance National Solidarity Fund. December 5, 1939 established the methods of calculating the 40-percent The reduction did not apply reduction to be made for overtime pay. to overtime worked to prevent accidents or correct their effects, or to make up for collective stoppages of work; nor were hours added to the workweek of an establishment considered as overtime. Because of the great unemployment following the armistice the working of overtime and employment in more than one job was prohibited by a decree of October 11, 1940 while another law of the same date provided for restriction of employment of women, particularly married women. In mines and quarries by the decree of September 10, 1939 overtime was paid for at 75 percent of the normal pay, 25 percent being paid by This provision was annulthe employer to the National Solidarity Fund. led by a decree of October 30 and a deduction from wages based on the No deduction was made on hours number of hours worked was substituted. worked up to 38 hours and 45 minutes; between 38 hours 45 minutes and 46* hours the deduction was 6 percent of wages; and for 461 hours and The corresponding deduction for over the deduction was 10 percent. surface workers was based on 40 to 48 hours, and over 48 hours a week. A tax of 15 percent of wages was imposed on workers between the ages of 18 and 49 under the same conditions as for industrial and commercial Under a decree of July 18, 1941 the overtime rate in mines workers. and quarries was fixed at 10 percent over the normal hourly wage.

53
4. LABOR LEGISLATION AND LABOR POLICIES (a) Governmental Administrative Agencies Ministry of Labor The Ministry of Labor and Public Welfare in France was created by a decree of October 25, 1906. The principal bureaus were: the Bureau of Labor; Bureau of Insurance and Social Welfare; Bureau of Mutuality (general administration of societies); and Bureau of Workers and Peasants Pensions. Auxiliary services included the General Statistical Office, special services for war cripples and victims of industrial accidents, control of insurance companies, and the labor inspection service. Various councils, committees, and commissions on most of which the Minister of Labor was chairman dealt with special labor questions. Prior to the constitution of a separate Ministry labor functions of the Government had been exercised by different Ministries. In the Vichy Government the former Minister of Labor is now the Secretary of State for Labor. Labor Inspection Originally the labor inspection service was an independent Government organization established by law of May 19, 1874 to enforce restrictions placed upon the employment of children and minors. By decree of June 12, 1919 the Minister of Labor was empowered'to appoint 11 divisional labor inspectors who were granted the power of entering work places at any time of day to insure observance of all standards established by law. In addition to its duties under existing law, a decree of October 31, 1941 assigned to the Inspectorate of Labor and Labor Supply the duty of dealing with local administrative authorities and the responsibility for the supervision of the labor offices, as the representative of the Secretary of State for Labor. The staff of the inspectorate consists of two inspectors-general; one divisional inspector for each regional prefecture; 30 men and women assistant divisional inspectors; and 254 men and 45 women inspectors. Each divisional inspector is the regional head of a district and is responsible for the enforcement of the statutory provisions and regulations in the district; his regional duties are to coordinate the work of the departmental labor and labor supply services and to insure technical and financial supervision of the regional labor office.

^jii~ri

"ll i nti1

M'54
(b) Labor Laws and Regulations The principal laws are discussed in the different sections of the report. This section gives the dates of enactment and principal provisions of the basic labor laws in the important-branches of labor legislation. In addition, significant amendments and new legislation as well as important regulations in the past decade are covered briefly. No attempt was made to cover the amendatory laws enacted between the period of basic acts and 1932 as space limitations made this impracticable. Apprenticeship Basic law enacted on February 22, 1851, dealing with apprenticeship, was amended on December 28, 1910 to provide for a contract of apprenticeship. Law of May 24, 1938 deals with vocational guidance and training. Law of March 1, 1940 provides for the protection of apprenticeship during hostilities and for vocational training for other young persons aged 16 years and over. Law of August 27, 1940 provides for the organization and utilization of groups of young persons in agriculture. Law of July 27, 1942 regulates the organization of apprenticeship to give effect to the compulsory apprenticeship system announced in legislative decree of May 24, 1938 (listed above). Child Labor Basic law of March 22, 1841 established 8-year minimum age for employment of children; as the provisions were inadequate the law of May 19, 1874 was enacted fixing the minimum at age 12, in general. Law of March 28, 1882 was amended on August 9, 1936 (School Attendance (Employment of Children)) to provide compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 14 years; children under age 14 could not be employed in commercial or industrial establishments except in family undertakings. Collective Agreements Basic law of March 25, 1919 authorized the conclusion of collective agreements by employers and workers. Law of June 24, 1936 provides for the widespread use of collective agreements. Law of October 27, 1939 maintained the terms of collective agreements in force on September 1, 1939. See section on Collective Agreeme tsl
d

Conciliation and Arbitration Basic law of March 25, 1919 provided for conciliation and arbitration of industrial disputes by employers and employees. Law of December 31, 1936 provided for submission of differences to conciliation or arbitration before a strike or lock-out occurred. Law of January 16, 1937 governed procedure in conciliation and arbitration. Law of September 18, 1937 provided for speeding up the procedure in conciliation and arbitration. Law of March 4, 1938 broadened the scope of proceedings and established the High Court of Arbitration. Law of April 20, 1938 established procedure for conciliation and arbitration in industries without machinery. Law of September 1, 1939 suspended the public conciliation and arbitration system. Law of October 27, 1939 froze conditions of employment established by collective agreements. Law of November 10, 1939 introduced a new system of labor relations. See section on Conciliation and Arbitration Cooperative Movement Basic law of May 7, 1917 defined the objectives of cooperatives. Law of October 30, 1935 describes the limitations on operations of cooperatives. See section on cooperative movement

Employment Offices

Basic law of March 14, 1904 established the public employment system. Law of March 20, of'Labor. 1939 centralizes the offices under the Ministry

Law of September 1, 1939 placed the employment offices under the labor inspection service. Law of September 26, 1939 empowered the Minister of Labor to permit the employment offices to supply labor in certain employments and limited the recruiting of personnel for Government service. Law of April 5, 1940 provided for the coordination of employment offices and unemployment services. Law of October 11, 1940 abolished departmental employment exchange offices, municipal exchanges and the public unemployment funds and substituted State regional employment offices for the area of each divisional labor inspector, with exceptions. Law of December 31, 1941 implements law of October 11, 1940. See sections on Employment Offices and Unemployment Insurance

-MiIE I^^^^^

Family Allowances Basic law of July 14, 1913 provided relief for families with more than 3 children under 13 years of age. Law of March 11, 1932 requires membership of all employers in commerce, industry, and agriculture in an equalization fund to meet expenses of family allowances in respect of every child under the age of 16 years, if the child is at school, or apprenticed, or cannot earn a living owing to a physical infirmity. Foreign Workers Basic law of August 8, 1893 provided for the protection of national labor against competition of foreign workers. Law of August 10, 1932 fixed the proportion of foreign workers who could be employed on Government contracts. Regulation of November 20, 1934 refused employment permits to new immigrants and provided that only French labor should be employed on Government contracts. See section on Foreign Workers. Hours of Labor Basic law of November 2, 1892 modified by law of March 30, 1900 limited hours of women and young persons to 11 per day with 1 hour of rest or more. Law of April 23, 1919 provided for the 8-hour day and 48-hour week in industrial and commercial establishments, both private and public. The law was applied by individual industry in accordance with its terms. Law of June 21, 1936 fixed the workweek at 40 hours and was applied industry by industry. Law of November 12, 1938 extended the workweek from 5 to 6 days. Law of March 20, 1939 established the 60-hour workweek in industries working for national defense. Law of September 1, 1939 fixed maximum hours at 60 a week and 11 a day for males and 60 a week and 10 per day for women Law of March 25, 1941 provided that statutory hours of work could be increased from 40 to 48 hours weekly, when necessary. Maximum hours were fixed at 54 a week and 10 a day. See sections on Hours of Work and Overtime Pay.

57

_T_1

-_

Hours of Work in Mines Basic law of September 25, 1936 applied the hours of work law of June 21, 1936 in coal mines and fixed weekly working time at 38 hours and 40 minutes. Law of September 10, 1939 fixed weekly working time in mines at 52 hours and 30 minutes and daily hours at 8 hours and 45 minutes, establishing overtime pay at 75 percent of the normal rate for hours in excess of 43.5 weekly. Law of September 18, 1940 applied the spread-the-work order of August 13, 1940 to mining and metallurgy. Law of July 18, 1941 permits overtime work in the mining and metallurgical industries under extraordinary conditions to a limit of 60 hours a week and 10 hours a day, with overtime compensated after 8 hours in any day at 10 percent above the normal hourly rate. See also sections on Hours and Spreading Work. Overtime Law of April 8, 1935 authorized the Minister of Labor to suspend overtime in industry and commerce but permitted the labor inspectors to grant overtime in exceptional cases. Law of October 30, 1935 suspended the power to authorize overtime work but permitted rotation of work and substitution of weekday for Sunday rest in industrial and commercial establishments. Law of August 30, 1938 authorized overtime. Law of November 12, 1938 fixed overtime rates of pay. Law of April 21, 1939 increased the normal workweek from 40 to 45 hours and authorized the beginning of overtime pay after the 45th instead of the 40th hour at 5 percent above the normal hourly rates. Law of September 1, 1939 fixed overtime rates of pay for hours in excess of 45 per week at 75 percent of the normal hourly rates. Law of September 26, 1939 fixed overtime rates of pay for hours in excess of 45 per week at two-thirds of the normal hourly rates. Law of October 27, 1939 fixed overtime rates of pay for hours in excess of 45 at 60 percent of the normal hourly rates. Law of October 30, 1939 provided for deductions of 6 percent on overtime work between 38 hours and 45 minutes and 46.5 hours and 10 percent for 46.5 hours and over. Law of October 11, 1940 restricted both employment in more than one job and overtime.

59
Law of March 25, 1941 increased the statutory workweek from 4o to 48 hours and authorized the beginning of overtime after the 48th hour at 10 percent over ordinary rates. See sections on Hours of Work, Spreading Work, and Overtime. Hygiene and Safety Basic law of November 2, 1892 provided for protection of health and safety of employees in factories, workshops, and commerce. Law of July 10, 1913 as amended on January 9, 1934 established general health and safety standards in factories, mines, workshops, stores, laboratories, and kitchens and provided regulations for enforcement. Labor Charter Law of October 4, 1941 respecting the social organization of occupations provided for the establishment of industrial or commercial families organized for joint management. Labor Inspection and Supply Basic law of May 19, 1874 provided labor inspection to enforce observance of child labor restrictions. Law of October 31, 1941 provided for reorganization of the inspectorate and labor supply. See section on Labor Inspection. Labor Organizations and Other Associations Basic law 1884 relates to the formation of trade unions. Law of August 16, 1940 established a provisional organization of industrial production and provided for the dissolution of employer and worker organizations and the establishment of substitute bodies by industry. See Labor Charter. Night Work Basic law of November 2, 1892 forbade night work for women and children in industrial workshops.

Requisitiont Legislation of 1877 established a precedent for the law of July 11, 1938 respecting the general organization of the nation for war and permitting the requisitioning of labor in time of crisis. provided Law of November 28, 1938 or the requisitioning of labor in the
event of war. 8"

UI

Law of September 15, workers where needed.

1939 granted the Government the power to place

Law of September 26, 1939 empowered the employment offices to control hiring of workers for certain employments and occupations and forbade advertising for labor by employers. provided Law of October 19, 19 3 9 Afor the requisitioning of labor in industry, commerce, and State services. Law of December 31, 1941 dealt with the provision of labor for agriculture and covered French citizens and nationals, Moroccan and Tunisian subjects, aliens without nationality, and refugees. Law of September 4, 1942 provided for compulsory labor. See Restrictions on Employment. Restrictions on Employment Law of April 21, 1939 authorized the Minister of Labor or competent Minister to restrict, by decree, heads of industrial and commercial undertakings in engaging workers. Law of February 28, 1940, regarding the compulsory employment of women, provided for fixing by decree the proportion of women who must be employed in certain occupations and undertakings in order to release male workers for national defense. Law of October 11, 1940 prohibited the employment of women in Governmental services, railway, maritime or air navigation companies, etc., with exceptions, in order to combat unemployment and also provided for compulsory leave without pay for married women in these services whose husbands supported them. See Requisitioning of Labor. Rights of Service Men Law of April 18, 1939 suspended insurance contributions and benefits during military service; insured rights to pension if discharged for sickness or infirmity not contracted on military service and not subject to military grant. Guaranteed rights on return to sickness, maternity, and life benefits with credit for minimum deductions during service. Law of April 21, 1939 guaranteed revival of contracts of employment on return from military duty, i sible.

61
Law of September 26, 1939 maintained death, invalidity, and oldage rights. Law of September 13, 1940 guarantees right of ex-service men to revival of contract as provided by April 1, 1939 decree, unless employer produces evidence of impossibility. Law of June 30, 1941 provides for guaranteeing revival of employment contracts but requires ex-servicemen to apply within 3 months of discharge or release from prison, etc., and employer to act within 1 month, unless impossible. Social Insurance Basic law of March 14, 1928, effective July 1, 1930 established compulsory insurance in industry and commerce for sickness, maternity, invalidity, old age, death, and family allowances. Law of October 30, 1935 applied the social insurance law to agriculture and forestry. Law of May 15, 1941 withdrew the requirement that proof of payment of contributions was necessary to receive social insurance benefits. Law of May 29, 1941 amended the schedules of fees for sickness and maternity providing for payment of costs of medical and surgical care, etc. Law of November 18, 1941 established a Local Insurance National Health Institute. See section on Social Insurance.

Spreading Work Law of August 13, 1940 laid down rules for shorter working hours pending return to normal conditions; empowered prefects to determine hours for a particular occupation, establishment, or region; limited overtime to 75 hours a year; maximum weekly hours 48 and daily hours 9; with overtime paid for at regular hourly rate and a contribution of 20 percent of wages for normal hours of work paid into solidarity fund. Law of February 11, 1941 provided for spreading work over less than 6 days a week. See sections on Hours of Work, and Overtime Strikes See sections on Strikes, Conciliation and Arbitration and Requisitioning of Labor. Unemployment Assistance and Insurance Basic law of September 9, 1905 provided Government subsidy to voluntary unemployment insurance funds; basic law of December 28, 1926 relates to unemployment assistance. Law of May 6, 1939 governs reorganized system of unemployment assistance and insurance. Law of October 11, 1940 reorganizes the system. See section on Unemployment Insurance. Vacations With Pay Basic law of June 20, 1936 instituted annual paid vacations in industry, commerce, the liberal professions, domestic service, and agriculture, granting continuous 2 weeks' vacation with pay after 1 year of service or 1 week after 6 months. Law of November 12, 1938 provided for rotating vacations to avoid complete shut-down in the same branch of industry or commerce in the same area. Law for each and of 6 military 6 days in of April 13, 1940 allowed 1 day's vacation with pay during 1940 month worked after September 1939 up to a maximum of 12 days continuous working days for employed wives of men called for service; permitted employer to divide holidays in excess of 2 or 3 parts.

Law of April 12, 1941 continued law of April 13, 1940 but provided that right to a paid vacation should begin with July 1, 1940; vacations could be given in installments, cancelled or suspended by governmental action; and that if vacations were cancelled the employee should receive compensation. AAA0

04ImiW
Law of July 31, 1942 recognized the right of all workers to an annual vacation with pay of 12 working days in 2 weeks and a maximum of 18 working days after 5 years of service, and required at least 6 days of continuous vacation with pay. Wages Basic law of August 10, 1899 provides for minimum wages on Government contracts. Law of July 10, 1915 provides for a minimum wage scale covering female home workers in the textile industry. Law of June 24, 1936 requires that minimum rates of pay shall be established by collective agreemaents. Law of December 31, 1936 requires that minimum rates of pay shall be established by conciliation and arbitration. Law of April 10, 1937 fixed remuneration on Government contracts. Law of February 24, 1938 extends coverage of law of June 24, 1936 to agricultural workers. Law of March 4, 1938 extends coverage of law of December 31, to agricultural workers. Law of March 4, cost of living. 1936

63

1938 provides for wage adjustment according to

Law of May 2, 1938 requires employers to post wage rates. Law of November 12, 1938 establishes penalties for failure to pay required wage rates. Law of November 28, 1938 provides for labor requisitioning without extra pay. provides Law of October 19, 193 9Afor the requisitioning of labor. Law of November 10, 1939 freezes wages on national defense work. Law of May 31, 1940 freezes wages on national defense work. Law of May 23, 1941 grants supplementary cost-of-living allowances. Law of August 1, 1941 requires that minimum wages shall be paid to all male and female homeworkers. Law of October 4, 1941 establishes a Labor Charter. See sections on Wages and Conciliation and Arbitration

Weekly Rest Basic law of March 22, 1841 prohibited Sunday work in factories and workshops by children under age 16. Law of November 2, 1392 extended weekly rest to women.

Law of September 1, 1939 provided for rotation of weekly rest in industrial and commercial establishments as a temporary measure. Workmen's Compensation Basic law of April 9, 1898 provided for compensation of all industrial injuries in agriculture, commerce, industry, and transportation. Law of October 25, 1919 made lead and mercury poisoning compensable (Schedule of diseases was gradually extended). Law of January 1, 1931 deals with industrial diseases. diseases of Law,of October 16, 1935 required notification of all an occupational character caused by listed hazardous substances. Law of July 12, 1936 deals with industrial diseases. Law of July 1, 1938 establishes a new schedule of workmen's compensation benefits. Law of April 3, 1942 increases benefits and coverage under workmen's compensation system. See section on Workmen's Compensation

5.

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Pre-War Developments History.--The growth of trade-unionism is comparatively recent in France for while freedom of association was recognized by ancient French law, it was, except for short intervals denied to French workmen up to the year 1860. From that time to 1884 it was tolerated and there was a slow growth in workmen's societies up to that year when a law was passed according freedom of association to both employers and workers but it was not until 1901 that these rights were fully granted. Organization had always been more complete among employers than workers although after the outbreak of the last war membership in the employees' federations, especially the Confederation Generale du Travail, the principal labor organization, increased rapidly. The C. G. T. was composed of two sections-the national federation of the unions (syndicats) of a given trade or industry and the local Bourses du Travail.made up of the syndicates of their trade, which in turn were united into a National Federation of Bourses. The federations and bourses were exclusively composed of "syndicats rouges" (red unions) which were divided into two groups-the revolutionary syndicates upholding class war and the social revolution and those dealing only with trade questions. The aims of the C. G. T. as expressed in the constitution were to unite the workers in defense of their material, economic, and professional interests and to bring together all workers who were conscious of the struggle to be waged in order to destroy the system of wage earners and employers. In 1920 the Federations of Civil Servants which included the Postal Federation, the Federation of Officeholders and the Federated Union of State Employees were affiliated with the C. G. T. and four organizations of agricultural workers with somewhat similar aims were amalgamated in the National Federation of Agricultural Laborers. Workers' organizations which were not founded on the principle of the class struggle were the socalled "syndicats Jaunes" (yellow unions) founded in 1900, the purpose of which was to better the conditions of the workmen by law and uphold the entente between employers and employees; the Confederation National du Travail made up largely of ex-soldiers and which stood for agreement between capital and labor and against the struggle of the classes; and the Federation of Christian Workers which stood for the defense of the occupational interests of its members. These unions all had a comparatively small membership. The French Socialist Party, while it was in the main limited to political action, was made up largely of the working classes and was inspired by the same theories and ideas as those of the General Confederation of Labor. Although each branch of the labor movement was independent or autonomous, that is there was no stable tie linking the trade union, socialist, and cooperative groups, prominent members of the Socialist Party had a large part in determining the policy of the C. G. T. through their membership in that organization.

lIaaK

A general strike called by extremists in the C. G. T. in ay 1920 resulted in much ill-feeling in the ranks of labor and resulted in a suit by the Government with the object of forcing the aissolution of the organization. In January 1921 the court before which the case was tried ordered the dissolution of the confederation, this order being appealed by the Union. As a result of the general strike the C. G. T. lost about 300,000 members. A decree by the Council of State in January 1922 decided that groups of civil-service employees in France could not organize into trade unions. The decision was based on the provisions of the law of 1884 which granted legal rights to trade-unions which was interpreted to limit the authorization to unions of employers or workers as representatives of special interests, and to exclude civil employees who represent the public interest. This decision was, reversed provisionally by the Minister of the Interior in 1924 who, in a circular addressed to prefects, recommended not only that no obstacle should be placed in the way of relations between the administrative services and the civil servants' trade-union organizations, but that such relations should be encouraged. The circular was c9nsidered to be an official recognition of the trade-unions. In December 1921 the extremists in the C. G. T. who favored affiliation with the Third International (Moscow) instead of the Amsterdam International seceded and formed the C. G. T. Unitaire. The question of tradeunion unity was a disturbing question before every congress of the C. G. T. up to 1931 when a committee made up of representatives of both organizations was organized to try to formulate a basis for compromise. However, it was not until 1935 that sentiment for the amalgamation of the two principal union organizations crystallized sufficiently to permit this aim to be accomplished. The two organizations were united at the National Congress held in March 1936. Period of trade-union dominance.-The amalgamation of the C. G. T. with a membership of 700,000 and the C. G. T. U. with 250,000 members brought together the militant unions in the country. Unification greatly strengthened the workers bargaining position and with the election of the socialist premier Leon Blum the way was paved for the enactment of the social laws which so profoundly changed the working conditions of French labor. In the deliberations leading to the adoption of the new laws-the so-called "Matignon" agreements-the C. G. T. was named the bargaining agent for labor and the Confed6ration Generale du Patronat Frannais, the representative association of employers. French labor supported the Government in the modification of the social laws to meet the need for increased production and in October 1939, after war was declared, a comprehensive agreement fostered by the Government was reached between employers and workers to develop the "spirit of cooperation and trust * * * between the Ministry of Munitions, employers, supervisory staff and workers." It was fully realized by the signatories that present and future success depended upon the abandonment of selfish motives and class antagonisms.

''

Lia

Membership in the Co G. T. increased from about a million at the beginning of 1936 to nearly 5 million at the first of January 1937 but had dropped to three and one-half million on January 1, 1939, and a The Confederation year later the membership was only about 800,000. of Christian Workers had a membership of about half a million in the years 1936 to 1939. Membership in 1939 and 1940 Information regarding individual trade-union organization and membership in France is not available but the following statement shows the principal national union organizations and the reported membership in 1939 and 1940 (i. e., before the fall of France- since that time the The confedera"free" trade-unions have been virtually liquidated). tion of professional syndicates was reported to be of facist tendency.

Principal French a rade-iTnions

Organization

Total 1939

mtembership
191.0

Numnber of~ rga.i st ions 1939

onfe'deration general du travrii, 211 rue Lafayette, Paris (Xe ( ~ree tendency)'
onfede'ration franaise des travaifleurs 28 Place St. Georges, Paris (IXe) (christian tendency)

3,00,1000

1800,000
488, 000

" 1: 37
2,384 208

Chr etiens,
80,000

~nion fderale des employes de France, 24 qualf du Verdanson, Montp 4 ier (Herault)
(neutral tendency)

80,000 V1 0 0 , 000

120

~onfe'deration des syndicats proressionnels fraic~is

(de tendance fasciste) (Fiacist tendency)
'

~45 Federations, 92 Departmental unions, 12,000 professional unions.

,/Not reported.
~/Estimated.

0' 00

Dissolution of labor unions after the Armistice Regulations for the control of industry and labor in unoccupied France had been issued in August 1940 providing for a State-controlled economy through a system of Government-appointed committees for individual industries under Government supervision and the dissolution by decree of all national employer and labor organizations. The C. G. T. was ordered dissolved by a decree of the Vichy Government on November 9, 1940. The French labor charter made effective by decree of October 4, 1941, provided for the organization of the professions (workers and employers) in professional syndicates, by localities. Within these syndicates separate groups were to be formed for employers and for Unions different categories of workers. Membership was compulsory. and federations were to be organized by profession or by groups of professions-the unions on a regional basis as representatives of the professional syndical councils and the federations on a national basis. Insofar as French workers have been able to express their opinion on the new organization, they have manifested their unalterable opposition to the social and economic policy of the present government. While recognizing the necessity of proceeding with the reconstruction of France upon the basis of a directed economy to which syndicalism is said to have given its unconditional collaboration, the labor organizations have proclaimed their fidelity to the principle of traditional French syndicalism, with its freedom of association and freedom of appointment by the workers of their representatives to the organizations of control and economic management.

'I

vim

6. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS (a) Collective Agreements

A basic law on collective agreements was enacted on March 25, 1919. The law authorized the conclusion of agreements between representatives of employers and employees. Written agreements were required and they became effective only after being filed in a public office. There was nb specified time limit on agreements but the general maximum term was five years. Legally agreements might contain provisions by which any disputes arising under the agreement could be referred to arbitration. Regulation of industrial relations by collective agreements made slower progress in France than in many other countries. In 1935 the desirability of extending collective bargaining and the methods to be followed were studied by the National Economic Council. The study disclosed that 448,900 or 7 percent of the wage earners in industry and commerce were covered by collective agreements on October 15, 1933. Coverage was greater in industry--14.5 percent of the wage earners-than in commerce3.5 percent. Most agreements were local, covering at most one town or even one establishment. Aside from the standard "charter-parties" peculiar to deep-sea fishing, no national and few regional or departmental agreements were in force. The number of new agreements signed annually ranged from 557 in 1919, when collective contracts were given statutory recognition, to 20 in 1933. In the interim the highest numbers were 345 for 1920 and 238 for 1926 and the lowest 17 in 1931. Many of the agreements concluded in 1933 were no longer in force when the National Economic Council investigated. Few agreements governed all conditions of employment, with the exception of those for the printing trades and bakeries. Normally, some particular aspect of employment relations was the subject of agreement, usually wages. Hours of labor were second in importance. Legal recognition of collective bargaining was promoted by legislation in two ways, that is,by the 1919 law defining conditions of validity, scope, effect, and the various legislative texts providing for the organization of conciliation and arbitration procedures; and by assigning greater responsibility to collective bargaining agencies under the legislative and administrative regulation of working conditions. Bargaining machinery was, however, notably absent among employers and employees, as it was not customary for local agencies to delegate their powers to centralized bodies. Moreover, contracts once entered were not always honored and the Council's report stated that "the observance of contractual engagements is not so deeply rooted in French as it is in English custom. On the contrary quite a number of recent enactments * * * If collective further. tend to weaken the binding force of contracts still agreements are to become more general * * * nothing short of a code of ethics in regard to such agreements wi e brought into being."

-U
According to the findingsthe specifically French form of collective agreement was the official form of regulation based on agreement between the parties. Such regulations played an important part in the French labor law. By June 15, 1934, a total of 283 Public Administrative Regulations covering 4,800,000 wage earners had been issued dealing with the application of the 8-hour day or exceptions from it. Prefectoral Orders relating to the application of the act requiring a weekly rest period did not have as wide scope. From 1929 to 1932 Prefectoral Orders totaled 387 of which 17 were later revoked. From these figures the Council concluded that collective agreements played a greater part in France than at first appeared and it was the Council's judgment that such agreements could be applied on a large scale through the use of the distinctly French form--that is, admin-

istrative regulations based on agreements between parties.

By the enactment of the Popular Front law of June 24, 1936, the legislation on collective agreements was amended. It was provided that on the demand of an employers' or workers' organization the Minister of Labor was required to appoint a joint committee for the purpose of concluding a collective agreement having for its purpose the regulation of relations between employers and employees in the branch of industry or commerce concerned, either for a specified district or the entire territory. If the joint committee could not reach an agreement upon one or several of the provisions to be included in the agreement, it was the duty of the Minister of Labor to intervene on request of either party to assist in securing agreement. The Minister was to act only after obtaining the advice of the interested professional section or sections of the National Economic Council. An agreement reached by the joint committee must specify hether or not it was concluded for a definite period and n contain provisions concerning (1) trade-union freedom and freedom of opinion of the workers; (2) the appointment, in establishments employing more than 10 persons, of delegates elected by the employees to represent them in claims relative to the application of rates of wages, the labor code,and other laws and regulations concerning workers' protection, safety and sanitation (these delegates may demand the assistance of a representative of their trade-union); (3) minimum wages by class and by district; (4) notice of dismissal; (5) the organization of apprenticeship; (6) the procedure to be followed in enforcement; and, (7), the procedure by which the agreement may be amended or changed. The collective agreements could not contain provisions conflicting with the laws and regulations in force, but could provide more favorable conditions. Agreements thus concluded could be made compulsory by the issuance of a decree by the Minister of Labor for all employers and employees in the district, in the industries to which they applied, for the period of the agreements. Before the decree was issued the Minister had to publish a notice in the Journal Officiel relative to the provisions and requesting the filing of comments and advice within a period of not less than 15 days.

~-m.,... rr-l4

72

The provisions of the decree ceased to be effective when the contracting parties agreed to terminate, revise, or modify it. Also the Minister of Labor could rescind the decree, after securing the advice of the interested parties and the National Economic Council when it appeared that the agreement was not in accord with the economic situation of the industry in the district concerned. Following enactment of the 1936 law the Minister of Labor made very large use of the powers conferred on him and the number of collective contracts increased rapidly. Between June 1936 and December 15, 1938, 5,159 agreements had been concluded.

(Lj) Strikes
Strikes and labor disorders were prevalent following the war of most cases settlements 'of the disputes were favorable to labor. The strike movement became violent in March and May 1920 when the demand for "industrialized nationalization" was added to those A general strike was precipitated for higher wages and shorter hours.

1914-18 and in

by the more radical element among the' railwaymen on

May

1 on the ground

that the French Government had not kept its promise to collaborate with Several nonaffiliated the C. G. T. in considering nationalization. railway-worker unions opposed the C. G. T. strike and it was therefore Much ill-feeling was not complete on most of the railroad lines. aroused within the ranks of labor against the extreme worker elements at a time when the moderates thought the country which forced the strike

was not ready.

Following the strike

-the

moderates resumed control.

and anarch-

Some workers and leaders were dismissed and several editors ist leaders were placed under arrest.

in the following tabl-e show From 1929 through 1936 the statistics information is No statistical activity. in strike variation great Man-days of idleness owing to available for the subsequent years. strikes were at a higher level in 1930 than in any other year recorded but it is likely that if figures were available for 1936 the total would The numbor of workers involved in the 1936 stoppages'' be very high. was over four times as great as in 1930, the previous peak year of the

1929-36 period.

Table 1.--Strike

Activity in

France,

1929-1936.

Number of Year Strikes Workers involved Man-days of idleness 2,764,606

1929

1,217

241,040

1930 1931
1932

1,097 288
362

584,579 54,250
71,561

7,209,342 949,564
2,244,281

1933 1934 1935 1936

343 385 376 217,091

87,091 100,584 108,884 22,422,844

1,199,334 2,393,463 1,182,159

2/

Provisional.

74
A strike of postal employees in Paris during June 1929 was regarded as serious by the Government as it involved workers in the public service. The stoppage lasted 24 hours and was a protest against the suspension without pay of 191 postmen in the main post office for the month following a strike which lasted five hours. Postmen, with the exception of those who had been suspended, reported for work as usual but a "folded arms" strike was observed and no work was done. The strike did not spread to other postal branches in the city. At a meeting of the Cabinet it was decided to dismiss leaders and to suspend a group of 30 workers. When the social insurance law became effective on July 1, 1930 there was a strike protesting its terms. The communist labor group vigorously opposed the deduction from wages to help pay the cost of benefits and urged opposition by the workers to the wage deduction. Both the C.G.T. and the Christian unions, while not entirely satisfied with the terms of the law, were in general agreement with its principles. When the law came into operation only a few small strikes occurred and were soon settled. Later a series of strikes broke out in support of demands for higher wages to cover the contributions and higher living costs. The strike spread slowly but finally affected large numbers of employees, raising the total man-days of idleness for the year to a high level. In Lille, one of the cities most affected, the strike was settled by an agreement of both parties to submit differences to arbitration and to abide by the decision. Wage increases were granted. A compromise was reached in the Roubaix-Tourcoing district.

The strike movement which broke out in France during May 1936 was revolutionary. It started with three strikes in small aviation plants and spread to the Paris metallurgical industry, including many automobile
plants. Finally most of the other industries in the Paris district were involved with the exception of the essential city services. Practically the same situation existed in the most important textile center--Lille. There was a general strike among the miners in the North and many other provincial centers were affected. In almost all instances the strikes were "stay-in" or "sit-down" as the workers appeared to regard this as more effective than picketing and as a means of preventing lock-outs. However, labor was not successful in avoiding lock-outs in a number of localities, notably in the hotels on the French Riviera. M. Leon the workers' that"the law and peaceful Blum took office as Premier on June 4 and prumised to defend interests but asked their confidence in return on the ground must be obeyed." The Popular Front laws were soon enacted relations were again restored.

~rmamw~

Strikes of French civil servants were never forbidden nor recognized as legal by the French Government. Repeated efforts to secure legislation regulating their right to strike failed. Cases were dealt with as they arose and the Government took or threatened At the punitive action against strikers in the public service. time of the general strike of November 1938 organized labor stated that the stoppage was a protest against decree laws less favorable The Government held the strike than those of the Popular Front. political and therefore illegal and invoked the special emergency powers of the July 11, 1938 law permitting requisitioning of labor Legislation of this type was originin time of national crisis. ally enacted in 1877.

qII-

(c)

Conciliation_ and

rbitraion

Pre-War Practice

According to the March 25, 1919 law on collective agreements a contract between employers and workers could legally contain provisions by which the parties could settle their differences arising under the agreement by conciliation andin default of an agreement, by arbitration. Arbitrators could either be designated in the agreement or could be selected, under specified rules, when a dispute arose. Following the widespread sit-down strikes in the early part of 1936 the French Government made its first serious attempt to prevent strikes by providing that disputes must be settled by peaceful means. The first of a series of laws was enacted on December 31, 1936 providing for conciliation and arbitration of disputes between employers and employees in industry and commerce. The law provided that disputes must be submitted to conciliation and arbitration "before any strike or lockout" and if recourse to conciliation would mean undue delay cases could be submitted to arbitration without recourse to conciliation measures. Arbitrators were required to make their decisions without delay and their findings were binding and without appeal. An amendment of September 18, 1937, had for its purpose the speeding up of the arbitration machinery by providing for immediate application of arbitration when a majority of the conciliation committee found that conciliation methods were inadequate to settle the dispute or if one of the parties to the dispute failed or refused to appear before The scope of the original law was broadened the arbitration committee. on March 4, 1938 and the procedure governing disputes arising under collective agreements was established. A collective agreement was required to provide for the constitution of a joint conciliation commission before which every labor dispute should be brought which had not been settled by the parties within the period fixed by the agreement. Penalties were also established for failure to carry out a binding arbitration award. One of the main aims of the 1936 law was to consolidate the gains in wages which the workers had secured through the general strike movement in 1936. To this end the 1938 law provided that the conciliation and arbitration machinery should be used in case of a considerable variation in the cost of living end revision of an agreement could be demanded when there was at least a 5 percent variation in the cost-of-living index from the nearest In such cases date on which wages had been established in the agreement. wages as well as family allowances should be adjusted to the cost of living, unless the employers could prove that such an adjustment was incompatible with the economic conditions of the local, regional, or national In this case branch of activity for which the adjustment was demanded. the conciliation commission would fix the wages. Wage revisions could be The made only at 6-months intervals unless the index advanced 10 percent. workers thus gained in exchange for compulsory arbitration a sliding scale of wages guaranteeing in large measure stability of purchasing power.

401

77
A decree of April 20, 1938 provided for the conciliation and arbitration machinery for industries which had not been able to agree on methods of procedure or in which the machinery had not been established in the collective agreement and, also, for disputes covering several enterprises, different classes of personnel, or those involving wage earners in public services operating under a concession. There were to be two types of conciliation commissions--departmental and national-depending upon whether the dispute was local or national in scope. A High Court of Arbitration was created by the March 1938 law which had jurisdiction on a par with the Supreme Court and the High Court of Appeals. This court made up of high government officials was a court of appeals. It judged awards and principles but did not take the place of an arbiter to settle disputes. It was provided by a decree of November 12, 1938 that employee delegates (Conseils d'entreprise) would be compulsorily appointed in 'll industrial and commercial establishments employing at least 10 persons. The delegates who were appointed by the most representative labor unions presented the individual or collective claims of the workers to the management. They were protected against arbitrary dismissal. Wartime Arbitration By a decree of September 1, 1939 the conciliation and arbitration system of labor relations was suspended and a new system of labor relations was introduced on November 10, 1939. The new organization provided for the establishment of a technical committee in each Department and a central technical committee in the Ministry of Labor. The Minister of Labor in consultation with these committees had the power to modify the terms of agreements when they appeared to be incompatible with production requirements; to extend the terms of agreements to all the undertakings of a given occupation or district; and, in the absence of collective agreements, to fix the conditions of employment for a given occupation or district. On October 27, 1939 it was decreed that conditions of employment in force on September 1 that had been established by collective agreement and by arbitration decisions were to be effective for the duration of the war in the trades and districts covered by the agreements. A later decree (November 10) specified that such agreements would be effective only if they did not conflict with the labor provisions established when war was declared and by this decree. Collective agreements or arbitration awards covering war industries were no longer subject to revision except by decision of the industries interested but in nondefense industries changes were permitted on the decision of the Minister of Labor. Shop committees previously established were abolished and replaced by special worker delegates empowered to act for employees in plant health and safety matters.

78
Developments After the Armistice former system regulating labor conditions the GovernIn place of the countries of ment set up a new organization modeled on the totalitarian Europe. Unde' the terms of the law of August 16, 1940 special organization or commercial activity. coirnittees were created in each branch of industrial controlled These committees, under the Minister of State for Production, programs of production and manufacture and could reraw materials and the appears, thereIt materials, products, labor, and enterprises. cuisition

fore, that the provisions governing

planted by the new industrial

conciliation and arbitration were sup-

organization.

79
7. COOPERATIVES

Pre-War Situation The consumers' cooperative movement and the workers' productive associations began about the middle of the nineteenth century and were already well established in France before the first World War; cooperation among the farmers began only in the early years of the Twentieth

Century.
During the period of the First World War the Government made considerable use of the network of consumers' cooperatives for purposes of distributing supplies to the people, and the cooperatives of all kinds played a substantial part in the reconstruction of devastated areas following the close of the war. The central federations in the three main branches of the French cooperative movement-consumers' cooperatives, agricultural cooperatives, and workers' productive associations-were also given representation on the administrative council of the sinking fund for the public debt. The French consumers' cooperative movement had been characterized by a multiplicity of small associations. The hostility of the chainstore companies resulted in the tightening of competition and in legislative attempts against the movement. To meet this situation the cooperatives affiliated with the National Federation of Consumers' Cooperative Societies of France began a systematic move toward greater efficiency by the amalgamation of all the associations within one or more Depart/ments. These so-called regional "development associations" have played an increasingly large part in the French consumers' cooperative movement. In 1920 their business formed 35 percent of the combined sales of all the associations affiliated to the National Federation; by 1924 it had risen to 44 percent, and by 1938 to 67 percent. In 1934 the consumers' cooperatives were doing about 6 percent of the retail trade in perishable groceries in France. Although urban in origin, the consumers' cooperative movement had attracted (largely through the regional societies) an increasingly large number of members in rural areas. The available 'statistics concerning the development of the French cooperative movement from 1934 up to the outbreak of war are shown in the accompanying table.

1/ The data in this section are from unpublished material furnished to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the International Labor Office; Cooperative Information, No. 2, 1935 (International Labor Office); People's Yearbooks for 1935, 1937, and 1941 (published by Cooperative Wholesale Society of England); Federation nationale des Cooperatives de Consommation, Annuaires de la Cooperation, 1920, 1922, and 1926-27 (Paris); Bulletin du
Ministbre du Travail et de 1'Hygibne (Paris), Jan-Mar. 1923, Oct.-Dec. 1924, ; La Cooperation (Basel), August t. Apr.-May-June 1932, and July- g , May 6, 1921; and Review of 24 1922* U. S. Commerce Ro

International Cooperation

Lononn,

March, April, and September, 1941.

g'

"VQ
Development of various types of Cooperative Associations in France

Number of associations Type of association

1934

1935

1936

1937

1938

Total -

- -

- -

- - -

- -

- -

74,259
1,450

69,527
1,064

83,672
1,200

83,798
1,450 1,000

Consumers'

associations

Credit associations Workers' productive associations Housing associations Agricultural associations Other associations

10,787 418 278 16,790 44,536

6,232 627

6,148 510 31,000 V

5,798 602

./

2/
478 V V

2 2

Membership

Total - - - -

- -

- - - - -

- -

4,435,050
1,595,000

4,496,474
1,698,359

4,558,615
1,600,000 1,800,000
V

1
2,500,000

Consumers' associations

.2

.Credit associations 620,121 30,600 Workers' productive associations Housing associations 22,000 Agricultural associations 847,686 Other associations 1,319,643

2/575,872 V 850,000 1,319,643

,/586,372
V

32,872

2/
2
V V

2
1,000,000 V

./

2/

Figure relates only to associations affiliated with central federation.

JZ/

No data. Agricultural credit only.

Data on the consumers' cooperative phase of the movement since 1913 are The data show the continuous decrease in number given in the following table. of associations that has taken place, at the same time that membership and business has been increasing.

Development of Consumers' Cooperatives in France

Membership

Business-

Year

Total number of associations

Number of associations reporting. Aembers

Number of associations

reporting

(francs)

1913

3,261
n.d.

,1918 i/1920
1922

1924
1926 1927

4,790 4,300 3,648

3,500

2,980 2,362 4,043 3,840

3,558

865,022 1,321,562

2,498,449 2,329,869
2,152,702 2,202,779 2,212,132 2,285,221 2,288,838

3,304
3,231

2,980 2,344 3,978 3,733 3,465 3,163

3,114

317,572,890 641,887,321

1,839,538,723
1,747,223,293

2,144,514,249
2,935,773,861 3,302,404,778 3,552,833,386
3,831,186,712 n.d. 2,332,540,000 1,471,772,000

3,388
3,513

1928
1930

1934 1935 1936 1937 1938

3,296 1,450 1,064

1,200
J 1,176

3,367 3,204

3,074

2,951

'I

J 1 ,5 9 5 ,0 00
1,698,359
1,700,000 1,800,000

1,781,409,000
2,500,000,000
--

.1,695,000

Data include associations in territory outside continental France. Data are for associations affiliated to National Federation of Consumers'

Cooperative Societies.

82
Effect of the War on Cooperatives During the years 1935-1938 the consumers' cooperative movement gradually attained recognition in the system of planned economy that was slowly being put into force in France. The cooperative movement was recognized, under the Meat Marketing Act, as the representative of consumers. It also finally gained representation on the National Economic Council, the Higher Labor Council, the Railways Advisory Board, the Superior Insurance Council, the Council of the Wheat Marketing Board, the council of the Bank of France, the committee supervising the coal-marketing industry, and the National Price Committee. Beginning in 1939 the cooperatives began to- suffer increasingly from the wartime economic regulations and difficulty of obtaining supplies because of the scarcity of certain essential commodities. Nevertheless, the movement was holding its own and even increasing its productive output. Even as late as the beginning of May 1940, the managing director of the Cooperative Wholesale Society told the annual meeting of delegates that the wholesale's business since the beginning of the year had been increasing at the rate of about 20 percent over 1939, partly as a result of rising prices and partly as a result of intensive cooperative efforts. He states that he "faced the future with great confidence" for the development of the cooperative movement. Less than a month later the German armies had cut off the whole northern section of France from the rest of the country. All of the regional cooperatives in that section had to close, and they and other associations had their premises destroyed by bombardment. The wholesale association lost its footwear factories at Amiens and Lillers. Many of the directors and members became refugees, abandoning all their belongings. Aid of various kinds was extended by the National Cooperative Federation to them, as well as to the Belgian refugee cooperators, but shortly thereafter Federation officialswere themselves obliged to flee from Paris'to Tours. A policy of "regroupment, unification, and purification of the cooperative movement" was immediately started by the Germans, the National Federation and the Cooperative Wholesale Society were merged into one organization, all associations in a single town or city were required to consolidate, and some of the veteran cooperative leaders were "permitted to retire." All of the large "development associations" and nine-tenths of the whole cooperative movement of France were in the industrial regions that were overrun by the Germans. No data are available as to what has happened to them since the first few months of German occupation. In unoccupied France, cooperatives like other organizations have been subjected to the measures inaugurated by the Vichy Government with a view to reorganizing French economic life along corporative lines. The law of December 2, 1940, reorganizing agriculture, was described as "a compromise between the old organization inherited from republican France and the new conceptions of autocratic government." Under this law no agricultural cooperative association was allowed to accept into membership a farmer who did not belong to the agricultural syndicate of his district; the cooperative asso-

J-w-M|M~~

83

ciations were permitted to elect only three-fifths of the members of their management committee, the other two-fifths being appointed by the local syndicates. The Review of International Cooperation of September 1941 reported that a National Committee of Commerce had been created on the same lines as those mentioned above for the various branches of industry in pre-invasion France. On this committee the consumers' cooperatives were represented as one of the four forms of distribution, the others being the chain stores, wholesalers, and other retailers. No data are available as to what has happened since the Germans recently occupied the rest of France.

84
Important Organizations in Various Branches of Cooperation

Consumers'
Cooperatives

cooperation.-(l) The National Federation of Consumers' (Fde'ration nationale des Cooperatives de Consornmm.tion. did-not by a fairly large margin include all of the

Abridged: F.N.C.C.)

French consumers' cooperatives, but did include the best developed End '1,176 associations it had in affiliation On January 1, 1938, most, important. with 1,695,000 members, and a volume of trade of about 2, 500,000,000 francs. Its headruarters were in Paris, at 31 rue de Provence. The Cooperative Wholesale Society (iagasin de gros zdes Cooperatives as the Abridged: M.D.G.), with practically the same membership carried on the wholesale supply of goods to the member associaFederation, had an annual business of over one-billion francs, and owned and: It tions. for the production of canned fish and 3 factories operated 3 shoe factories (2)

de France.

and preserves, as well as factories mine. and a salt

for the production of soap and chockate,

Its address was 29 Voulevard Bourdon, Paris. is, Its president was A. J. Cleuet, who was also and presumably still' president of the International Cooperative Wholesale Society (Manchester, Cooperative Trading Agency England) and president of the International The t7o M. Cleuet has a good knowledge of English. (London, England). After the amalgamsniagers of the wholesale were G. Lebon and G. Gaussel. mation of the F.N.C.C. and the M.D.G. and the forced retirement of the former the new organization was placed in the hands of Gaston Prache officials, knowledge of English) and M. LeClerc (formerly in the M.D.G.). (who has a fair

A third Was to be added---G. Gaussel--if he could be released from internment According to private information, they have done very as prisoner of war.
well under the circumstances.

Workers'

productive associations.--The National Federation of Workers'

Productive Associations (Conf deration generale des Societes cooperatives ouvrieres de Production de France et des Colonies) had its headnuarters at general Its president was A. Charial; and its 19 rue de Renard, Paris. organization were affiliated. 475 workTo this secretary was Edmond Briat. erS' productive associations (associations which carried on rod-iction of various kinds in businesses owned and controlled by the workers in them); these associations had a combined membership of 31,227 members. There were altogether about 650 workers' productives (mostly in the inin France,' and some of them,. as for industries) building and printing workers in precision instrurments in Paris, had attained of the stance, that Many of the buildings for the Paris fxhibitin in 19=5 importance. real were erected. by workers' productive cooperative associations.

Credit, urban.--The central organizations in this field were the Union of People's Banks (0entre'federatif du. Credit Dopulaire e France) and the Central People's Bank (Caisse cetral de Bane o irs both with headouarters at 1 rue Leon-Cladel,, ?ariis. To these associations were affiliated 97 cooperative credit associations, with some 60,000 members.

The urban credit cooperatives, or peopless banks, were onrignally created to assist the artisans, small industrialists, and tradesmen.. They had taken no firm root, except in the southeast of France.
Agricultural cooperation.--There vere about 87,,'00 agricultural coop-

eratives,
ing,

including (1)

credit,

(2)

insurance,

(?)

purchasing,

and (5)

service associations.

(1) Cooperative credit in agriculture in France took the form mainly of personal loans, granted in consideration. of the: integrity of the. borrow. ers, nd for this reason was organised from. the very bottom so as to be in close touch with the farm people. At t e same tire it had the financial. support of aid was under the supervision. of the Hence its 3-strata structure, headed by a semipublic institution, as follows:

State.

(a) (b)

Local societies

(Act

of Nov. 15, 189 4 ).

Regional funds

(A ct; of Mar.

31,, 199). 1930) .

(c) National Institute

On January 1, l918 there

for Rural Credit (Act of Aug.,

were 6,050 local rural credit. societies with

586,372

members.

The local societies may accept into membership' both individual agriculturists and agricultural associations. Their capetal. consists of registered shares; they also act as savings banks. They make loans to members, forward-

ing to the regional banks applications which they cannot handle directly.
The regional funds were 98 in number at the beginning of l938. Their consolidated balance sheet showed a total. of resources amounting_ to francs

3,924,039,000.
Their members were primarily the local societies, but individual agriculturalists and agricultural groups orassociations could also affiliate. The regional ftmds were authorized to grant advances to affiliated associations, discount notes of members of local associations (if endorsed by them), receive deposits, issue bonds, and supervise the operations of the affiliated associations. Regional funds which received advances from the State had to keep their books in accordance with very detailed regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture and submit to the supervision of inspectors of the credit division of the same department.

'

r;:

The National Institute for Rural Credit was the head of the system. It was a public institution, administratively independent and' financially autonomous. It was administered by a Board of 7 Directors (at least two of whom represented 'the regional funds) who were elected by the Plenary Committee and from among its members. The Plenary Committee supervised the work of the Board of Directors. Its composition was calculated to ensure cautious management as well as good will .and understanding for the needs of the regional funds. Members of Parliament formed one-fifth of its membership; high officers of the Finance and Agriculture Departments, twofifths; and members elected by ,the regional funds, two-fifths. The general director was appointed by the Minister of Agriculture; he could not be removed, from office except, on the request of the Plenary Committee and the Board of Direction. Besides its primary function of making loans to the regional funds, it had another important duty-that of supervising the rural credit cooperative societies and the other collective bodies which benefited' from loans made under the Act of August 5, 1920, or subsequent, laws. (2) The Act of July 4, 1900 allowed nonprofit insurance companies to be formed under the extremely simple provisions of the Law 1884 concerning trade-unions (syndicats). Such companies have merely to deposit with the local town hall their byelaws and a list of their managers. Rural cooperative mutual insurance societies, composed of, and managed by farm people took advantage of these provisions and have developed extensively. The structure of the rural co-operative mutual-insurance system is similar to that of 'the rural credit system, consisting of the local associations (which permits careful examination of the circumstances 'and amount of the damage incurred); the district funds, which spread the risks by dividing them among a great number of people; and a national fund which is not only a re-insurance agency but also acts as a center for information.

Onl January 1, 1938 the local rural co-operative insurance associations (writing risks of accident, livestock, hail, fire, etc.) numbered'50,461; 36,942 of them had a membership of 2,293,838.
These local associations were -affiliated either to some national fund or tot some central funds, specializing 'in certain types of risk. The national funds were members 'of the big agricultural co-operative union (Federation de la Co eatio a~ico),at 129 Boulevard ea__et n ol Paris. The, central funds were mnembers of the Central Office St erain, g , tualitep del Agricultural Insurance (Federaio centrale u for MutualA col), at 25 rue de la Ville-L'Eveque, Paris.

(3)Rural supply co-operative associations have been organized for the

joint purchasing of farm supplies; most of them also market their members products, and many of them own agriculture machinery whichihey rent to their members. On January 1, 1938 they numbered about 20,000, with 1,752,860 members.

87
In addition there were special co-operatives for the Joint purchase

and use of agricultural implements. Among them the most numerous were the 1,$50 threshing cooperatives, 670 of which (with 20,000 members) were affiliated tothe Fedration nationale des Syndicats et Coopratives de'Battage de France et des Colonies, which was itself affiliated to the ederation nationale de la Mutuality et de laCoopeation agricoles, already referred

to.
Another federation in the agricultural field was that of the 47' electricity cooperatives (with 447,267 members). This distributing electric power in rural federation was also a member of the "Mutualit6" mentioned
above. The 5,000 specialized cooperative marketing associations included the

wheat-marketing associations, the grapegrowers' cooperatives, the distilleries, sugar-beet refineries, dairy associations, and fruit- and vegetablemarketing associations. A number of national federations (already mentioned) had been formed unify agricultural cooperatives according to their activities (insurance,

to

threshing, -heat. marketing, etc.). grouped into one of the following:

These federations in their turn were

(a) Union centrale des Syndicats des agriculteurs dr France (President, P. Lefbure, who died in 1939.; Director, J. Caubere). This organization, grouping fairly big farmers, was supposed to be somewhat conservative in.
politics.

(b) Federation nationale de Ia Mutualite et de (President, Henri Queuille; General Secretary, Paul tion was the more important of the two (with 30,000 Its members) and the more progressive in politics.
been chosen as Ministers of Agriculture; time of the Armistice of 1940.

la Cooperation agricoles

Vimeux). This organizasocieties and 1,850,000 presidents have often

the

Henri Queuille was Minister at

Intercoonerative relations.--Institutional and economic relations had been established between cooperatives of various categories and between their central bodies.*
in 1922 a permanent

committee for joint action in favor of cooperation

had been created to safeguard common interest of all types of cooperative organizations and, in case of need, bring pressure to bear on the Governments and legislative bodies. Its address was 31 rue de Provence, Paris; and its Secretary was ;Maurice Camin.
Collaboration however, was much closer between the two biggest sections consumers' and agricultural cooperative organizations. A of the__movement:

special committee (ComitI des Relations entre Cooperatives agricoles et

study in 1935 for the 'joint Cooperatives de Consommation)- was established of common economic problems, the preparation of a common policy in the econ-

omic field and the development of mutual economic relations. The address of the committee was 129 Boulevard. Paris; its Secretary was P.
Moareau.

This last-named committee was responsible for the foundation of the Cooperative Society for the Distribution and Exchange of Agricultural Products, which included representatives of the Cooperative Wholesale Society and of the agricultural cooperative societies. The trading activity of this body enable satisfaction to be given to the respective supply and marketing requirements of thetwo main French cooperative movements, besides facilitating intercooperative exchanges and providing foreign cooperative organizations with a cooperative marketing channel in France. The address is 15 avenue de l'Opera, Paris; the President was M. Astier.

i i

89
8. SOCIAL INSURANCE
(a) Sickness, Maternity, Invalidity, Old Age,and Death Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Workers The present social insurance system is governed by the legislative decrees of October 28, 1935 as amended by the Acts of May 29, 1941, January 6, 1942 and August 26, 1942. Under the original French social-insurance law, which was put into effect July 1, 1930, workers in industry and commerce were divided into five wage classes, and the maximum wage (including allowances for dependent children) for inclusion in the system was fixed at 25,000 francs. The system covered commercial, industrial, and domestic workers and provided benefits for sickness, maternity, invalidity, old age, death and for family expenses in case of the sickness, invalidity, pregnancy, or death of an insured person for each dependent child between the ages of 6 weeks and 16 years. Unemployment insurance was not included in the system but persons who were compulsorily insured who were involuntarily unemployed through lack of work were exempted from payment of the social insurance contribution for a specified period, the payment being guaranteed by the fund. A decree law of October 1935 abolished the wage classes, and the wage limit of those compulsorily insured was raised in 1936. In 1938 this limit was fixed at 30,000 francs a year, without regard to the number of dependents, cash sickness benefits were increased, and regulations, governing the payment of various benefits were relaxed. Two laws of January 6, 1942, enacted under the Vichy government, made considerable changes in the existing system for persons employed in indusBy these amendments the liability to insurance was extry and commerce. tended by raising and in some cases abolishing the wage limit, and the operation of the scheme was simplified by revising the regulations governing the granting and calculation of sickness and maternity benefits and survivors' benefits, and by changing methods of collecting contributions and accounting. The wage limit for inclusion in the system was abolished for manual workers in general and for other persons whose earnings depend on the number of hours or days worked or on output. Thus, workers paid on an hourly, daily, weekly, or piece-rate basis or by the job are liable to insurance In addition to without regard to the amount of their pay or earnings. this group includes persons whose remunerapractically all manual workers, tion is dependent upon uncertain factors--such as home workers, commercial travelers, hotel and restaurant employees, taxi and other drivers who do not own the vehicle, baggage porters, and theater attendants. Workers paid on a monthly basis or fortnightly basis or on a commission or turn-over basis are liable to insurance if their annual pay or earningsexcluding family allowances, do not exceed 42,000 francs a year, reckoned on the basis of an estimated 2,000 statutory working hours per year.

The distinction between the two groups is based on the fact that if there is a wage limit, whatever its amount, it is often difficult to determine whether workers paid by the hour, day, or week, or by the amount of work done, are liable to insurance, since it is impossible to determine their earnings in advance, particularly when wages are tending to change. The increase in the wage limit to 42,000 francs for other workers was for the purpose of taking into account both the rise in wages and the need for extending the insurance protection to persons who had not been covered. Benefits.--Under the system formerly in effect the payment of benefits depended either on a qualifying period or on the payment of a minimum number of contributions. These qualifications are now not required, and insured persons and members of their families are entitled to sickness benefits on the sole condition that during the 3 months preceding the issue of the first medical certificate attesting a sickness or accident of nonoccupational origin the insured person has been in paid employment or a similar occupation or has been registered with an employment office. In other words, an insured person may claim cash benefits and medical assistance for himself and his family without proving that he has previously been insured or paid a stated number of contributions. Under the terms of the 1935 decree, an insured person could not claim sickness benefits unless 30 francs had been deducted from his wages in the 2 quarterly periods preceding that in which the sickness or accident occurred, or unless 60 francs had been so deducted during the 4 preceding quarterly periods. Cash benefits for insured persons under the present system are payable from the fourth day after the beginning of the sickness or accident for a period not to exceed 6 months. The rate of benefit is fixed at one-sixtieth of the monthly wage for each day of incapacity including Sundays, subject to the minimum and maximum amounts specified by order. Medical benefits are payable from the day the illness is certified by the doctor for a period not Services by a general practitioner and by specialists exceeding 6 months. as well as dental services are provided and hospital or sanitarium care may be furnished but with reduced cash benefits. The patient has free choice of a doctor. An applicant for maternity benefit must show membership in the system for more than 10 months preceding the confinement, and the first medical certificate of pregnancy must be notified to the fund at least 3 months before the expected date of confinement. Maternity benefits include a cash benefit equal to sickness benefit, payment of the cost of medical and pharmaceutical care and necessary institutional care. A grant not exceeding 1,250 francs is payable to an insured worker who nurses her child and in other cases a milk allowance is made.

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Payments for invalidity pensions under a law of August 26, 1942 are due at the end of the sixth month covered by sickness insurance or in case of injury if the working capacity is reduced by at least two-thirds. A supplementary benefit is payable for each child under-16 years of age. The old-age pension is payable to insured persons at the age of 60 years without any qualifying period and under the 1942 act an old age allowance is granted to workers of insufficient means at the age of 65 if they were still employed for wages when the act came into force, or if they are unemployed but fit for work, or if they have had at least 5 years of paid work between the ages of 50 and 65. The allowance is granted to invalid workers who satisfy the latter conditions at the age of 60 years. In case of the death of an insured person a lump sum is paid to the surviving dependents and the widows of insured persons, with at least three children under the age of 14 years are entitled to orphan's pensions for each child after the second. The payment of benefits under the survivors' insurance scheme, which was formerly dependent upon 1 year's membership and the payment of not less than 60 francs in the 4 quarters immediately preceding death (if sudden death) or the sickness or accident causing death, are now dependent only upon the insured person's having been engaged in paid employment or a similar occupation, or having been registered with an employment office, during the 3 months preceding the death or the sickness or accident causing death. Contributions.--Contributions amounting to 8 percent of insured wages, calculated on actual earnings, are payable in equal parts by insured persons and their employers. The State pays an annual subsidy of 140,000,000 francs. Simplified methods of collecting and crediting contributions have been introduced by the 1942 legislation. Employers of fewer than 50 persons are reouired to make a general return in the prescribed form, during the first 10 days of each quarter, while employers of 50 persons or more are required to make such a return within the first 10 days of each month. The report in each case shows the gross wages paid to the persons covered by the insurance and the total amount of contributions, but does not specify for each individual the amount of his wages or his contribution. Individual returns are made only once a year. Within the same time limits, the employer must pay the entire amount of the contribution into a post-office current account which is opened by each regional social-insurance service. Penalties are provided for failure to make the payments within the prescribed time limits. An annual report is reauired from each employer before February 1, showing the total gross wages paid and the total amount of the employers' and workers' contributions for each insured person during the preceding year.

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All the sums paid into accounts of the regional social-insurance services are transferred to a special account in the Deposit and Trust Fund. The contributions assigned to old-age insurance are paid into the General Guarantee Fund. A monthly report of the benefits paid for sickness, maternity, and survivors' insurance during the preceding month must be made by each social insurance fund which receives the corresponding accounts from the Deposit and Trust Fund, Although the returns and statements submitted by employers give the gross wages, the social-insurance contributions are calculated on the net remuneration, account being taken, where necessary, of payments in kind and tips, and a deduction being made of working expenses and workshop expenses; family allowances are not taken into account. The new regulations regarding reports represent a considerable diminution of the employer's responsibility with regard to wage declarations, since a detailed report for individual workers is required only once a year. Agricultural workers The system for agricultural workers is governed by legislative decrees of October 30, 1935 and June 15, 1938 and the Acts of March 14, 1941, April 5, 1941 and March 17, 1942. An amendment of April 5, 1941 provided for a complete reorganization of social insurance and family allowances in agriculture and forestry. This act conferred powers on the Secretaries of State for Agriculture and for Natiornconomy and Finance to issue decrees enabling them to reorganize agricultural insurance. The administration of social insurance is placed by the act in the hands of occupational funds approved by these Secretaries of State. The occupational funds are to form part of the corporative organization of agriculture introduced by the act of December 2, 1940. The Secretaries of State were instructed to formulate the conditions under which the non-occupational insurance funds carrying agricultural insurance under the provisions of the 1935 and 1938 laws are to cease functioning and a new agricultural scheme is to be worked out which would adapt the old-age allowance scheme to agricultural needs and determine the date on which the new provisions which will cancel the previous legislation, will come into force. The legal status of the mutual aid societies provided for under the corporative organization of agriculture are to be fixed by the competent Secretaries of State. The societies are to include funds administering agricultural social insurance and old-age assistance and funds dealing with family allowances, and insurance and reinsurance funds. Until this reorganization is completed the 1935 and 1938 laws, as amended by the act of March 17, 1942, continue to apply. The following provisions are apparently still in force.

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The compulsory insurance system applies to workers in agriculture and forestry whose occupations are governed by the Industrial Accidents Act, persons employed by rural craftsmen who do not employ more than 2 persons, persons employed by contractors for threshing and other work, and those employed by agricultural trade-unions and other agricultural organizations. Members of the farmer's family are included. Under the original law various mutual benefit societies and insurance funds covered the different risks and national reinsurance fundsreinsured the risks of sickness and maternity,,participated in the medical programs, and provided medical treatment for invalids and paid invalidity pensions for the first 5 years of invalidity. General financial operations were covered by the General Guarantee Fund, The reinsurance funds except those of an occupational character were abolished by the law of April 5, 1941 and the various funds were affiliated to or reinsured in the Central Agricultural Mutual Insurance Fund and the activities of branches of pensions funds were transferred to the Central Agricultural Pensions Fund. The insurance is financed by equal contributions by employers and insured persons and a State subsidy. Under the former system, believed to be still in effect, benefits in case of sickness and maternity were not uniform as they were fixed by the rules of the mutual benefit societies or the section of the departmental fund to which the workers were affiliated. In order to qualify for sickness benefit an insured person must have paid 5 months' contributions during the 2 calendar quarters immediately preceding the sickness or accident or 10 monthly contributions in the preceding 4 calendar quarters. If the insured person has been registered less than 6 months on the first day of the quarter on which the illness or accident occurs he must prove that he has paid a contribution equal to the number of days completed since his registration. Provisionally, under the act of March 17, 1942 a daily allowance of 12 francs may be paid to insured persons whose pay exceeds 12,000 francs a year, notwithstanding the rules of the fund. Qualification for maternity benefit depends upon a contribution by the insured woman or the husband equal to the aggregate amount of 9 monthly contributions in the 4 calendar quarters preceding the quarter in which the confinement takes place. In case of sickness, but not maternity, the insured person's contribution to medical expenses amounts to 20 percent of the tariff fixed by the sickness fund, in addition to the difference between the fee charged by the doctor and the tariff rate.

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Old-age pensions are payable at age 60. Under the act of March 14, 1941 persons who were 50 years of age on that date on reaching the age of 60 were entitled to pensions, if certain qualifying conditions as to contributions were met, equal to two-thirds of the annual contribution for each contribution year, with a minimum of 600 francs; other insured persons over 50 were entitled at age 60 to the annuity purchased by the contributions in their individual accounts up to December 31, 1940, increased by one-quarter of the total contributions paid after January 1, 1941; for insured persons under 50 years of age and persons already pensioned the provisions are the same as those for industry and commerce. The provisions for payment of invalidity pensions are not reported. Survivors' benefits payable to surviving dependents, amount to a sum equal to 10 times the amount credited to the individual old-age insurance account of the insured person during the last 4 quarters. Miners Sickness.--Coverage of the miners' sickness insurance system extends to all specified mining undertakings and subsidiary industries and to State quarries. All French manual and non-manual workers and safety inspectors elected by the miners, employers, and friendly societies are insured. Local miners' benefit societies grouped in regional federations and compulsorily affiliated to a national federation managed by a tripartite committee administer the sickness insurance scheme. Financing of the plan comes from contributions of the insured and employers and a State subsidy which is proportionate to the members and the expenses of the societies. Benefits are granted in cash and kind for sickness, non-industrial accidents, and maternity. Benefits in kind are extended to dependents of the insured member, including children under 16; pensioners; and widows. Cash benefits begin on the fifth day after the sickness starts. The insured person must bear a share of medical and pharmaceutical expenses. The rules of the society determine the amount and nature of the benefits and the qualifying conditions. Funds may grant supplementary benefits, such as medical attendance, for the relatives in the ascending line, funeral grants, etc. The miners' sickness insurance plan is governed by laws of March 21, 1930 and June 30, 1930, amended on August 8, 1935 and July 18, 1937. Old-age.--Pension insurance for miners also applies in all mining undertakings and subsidiary industries and to state quarries. All French manual and non-manual workers and safety inspectors elected by the miners, employers and friendly societies are insured. Limited benefits are paid to alien miners, excluding State subsidy except in cases in which reciprocity agreements exist. Administration of the mine-pension system is carried out by the Independent Fund for Miners' Pensions, a corporate body managed by a board of 18 members having equal numbers of representatives of insured persons, mineowners, and the State.

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Contributions amounting to 11 percent of the wages or salaries of the insured are shared equally by employers and workers. The maximum wage on which the contribution is calculated is 25,000 francs a year. An annual subsidy of 4.5 percent of the wages bill is granted by the State and, in addition, a grant of not over 90 million france a year is paid out of the proceeds of the coal tax. Old-age pensions and allowances are payable at age 55 to insured persons who cease to be employed in the mining industry at that age. If the insured person continues to work in the industry after age 55, and has less than 15 years of service in mining at that age, he may receive a pension at a later date. A miner aged 50 years who has been employed for 30 years in the industry (20 years undergound in French mines) may, on retirement, claim a temporary grant of 9,000 francs, payable until he is 55 years old, when he receives the old-age pension. The basic old-age pension is 11,000 francs a year (by law of August 31, 1942, formerly 9,000 francs) for those employed for 30 years in the industry. Supplements are payable for every year of work in excess of 30 years, the amount depending on the number of years worked in mining and underground. For those employed not less than 15 years but not over 29 years, the pension rate increases from 3,300 francs annually for 15 years service to 8,644 francs for 29 years, subject to a minimum of 3,600 francs at age 65. Special provision is made for pensioning miners who do not oualify for payment under the age and length of employment requirements. Invalidity.--An insured person who is invalided after at least 10 years of service and is incapacitated for mining work or other work to the extent of not less than two-thirds of his total capacity is entitled to an invalidity pension after six months of sick benefit. The pension during the first five years of incapacity was made 540 francs a month (Act of August 23, 1941) of which 125 francs are payable by the sickness benefit society. After the first five years of invalidity the annual pension is 6,540 francs, payable as long as the incapacity is 50 percent. The invalidity pension is converted into an old-age pension when the worker reaches the age of 55 years. Death.--At age 50, survivors' pensions are paid to widows of insured persons employed for not less than 15 years in mines. The pension is equal to one-half of the old-age pension paid to workers who have been employed in mines for the same length of time as the deceased husband. A widow receives invalidity pension under the same terms as her husband, provided the husband's service was at least 15 years. Orphans are entitled to monthly grants of 130 francs before and during school age, provided the father was employed in mining for at least three years preceding his death, or that he was in receipt of an invalidity grant or pension, or an old-age pension. If the child has lost both parents the pension is doubled.

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Special grants are made to widow and children if the worker dies in the course of acquiring the right to a pension. The amount payable is 1,920 francs plus 258 francs for each child under 16 years of age. The same gr ats are made to widows and orphans of beneficiaries of invalidity grantsto those of beneficiaries of old-age or invalidity pensions who have been employed at least 30 years in mines. If the pensioner has had not less than 15 years or not over 29 years of service in mines, the grant varies according to years of service from 384 to 1,026 francs, increased by 258 francs for each dependent child. Family allowances are paid beneficiaries of pensions or grants in respect of children under 14 years of age in the amount of 75 francs a month per child. Pension rates and allowances were increased by law of August 31, 1942 but with the exception of the old-age payment no information is available as to the new rates. Miners' pensions are subject to the laws of March 2, 1937 consolidating previous laws, as amended on July 18, 1937, May 2, 1938, May 20, 1939, August 23, 1941, April 3, 1942 and, as already mentioned, August 31, 1942.

Seamen
According to the Seamen's Code of December 13, 1926, as amended, the shipowner is liable for medical attendance of seamen and payment of wages on board ship and the liability continues during the first four months of incapacity owing to an accident or sickness counted from the date on which Further the seaman was left ashore in France, or until he is repatriated. protection is afforded the seamen under the General Provident Fund set up under the decree of June 17, 1938 as amended on December 20, 1938 and April 11, 1941 and providing for medical attendance, allowances, and pensions in the event of accident, sickness, invalidity, and death after the direct liabilities of the shipowner have expired. Insurance with the General Provident Fund is compulsory for all persons of French nationality and all natives who are French subjects or who belong to a French protectorate or a French mandate, if they are engaged, aboard a French vessel other than a ship of war. Their employment must be permanent and connected with the movement, navigation, maintenance or use of the ship. The General Provident Fund is a department of the National Institution for Disabled Seamen, a public autonomous body under the authority of the Minister responsible for the mercantile marine. Insurance is financed by contributions of shipowners and seamen. The seaman contributes 2 percent of his pay for periods of sea service on board and 1 percent for other periods of service or leave. The employer pays 5.75 percent and 1 percent for these respective periods. Lower rates are charged to owners of small vessels and those who sail their own ships.

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Accidents.--Risks covered include accidents arising out of or in the course of work and entailing temporary or permanent incapacity for work or need for medical attendance. Payments from the Provident Fund, as already noted, begin when the shipowner's liability ceases. -Expenses of hospital treatment, medical attendance, pharmaceutical supplies, and appliances are paid at the rates and conditions applying in case of industrial accidents on land. For temporary incapacity the seaman receivesa daily allowance of two-thirds the average wage, subject to a minimum of one-three hundred and sixtieth of 5,000 francs. Supplements for dependent children under age 16 are at the rate of 1.50 francs a day for each of the two first children; 1.90 francs daily for the third and fourth child; 2.30 francs daily for the fifth and sixth child; and 2.75 francs daily for each subsequent child. The age limit is 18 years for apprentices, 21 years for students, and there is no age limit for invalid children. Medical attention stops at the same time as daily allowance except by special decision of the Supreme Health Council of the National Institution. For permanent incapacity of at least 10 percent resulting from an accident the seaman receives a pro rata share of the pension for total incapacity which is three-quarters of the annual wage, subject to a 5,000franc minimum. If the disabled seaman needs the constant assistance of another person, the pension is increased by one-quarter of the wage and a special 3,000-franc grant. If the incapacity is not less than 66 percent the pension is one-half of the wages but not less than 3,500 francs. In either case the pension is increased for those maintaining children up to the age of 16 by 5 percent for two children, 10 percent for three children, and 15 percent for more than than three children. If the incapacity is less than 66 percent the pension is one-half of the reduction in wages due to the accident in respect of the incapacity which is not in excess of 50 percent and equal to the full amount of the reduction for incapacity above 50 percent. If the injured seaman dies as a result of the accident, the widow or motherless orphans receive one-half of the pension payable for total permanent incapacity. If a pensioner dies from the consequences of the accident for which the pension is payable, the same pensions are due to the survivors. Otherwise the widow or the orphan receivesone-half of the invalidity pension. Dependents of the ascending line, aged not less than 60 years, are entitled to one-half of the widows pension if the deceased leaves no widow or orphans. Pensioners disabled by at least 20 percent and widows are entitled to annual supplements for dependent children of 540 francs for each of the first two children; 675 for the third and fourth; 825 for the fifth and sixth; and 990 francs for each additional child. Funeral expenses are defrayed by the fund.

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Sickness and Maternity.--For sickness occurring during a voyage, after the expiry of the shipowner's liability, the Provident Fund defrays expenses of the hospital, medical attendance, and pharmaceutical supplies within prescribed limits. The limit on medical attendance is six months from the day when the seaman left shore, except in case of-disablement. Sick benefit is one-half of the wages. Provisions for children's supplements and the duration of medical and cash benefits are the same as under the accident insurance scheme for seamen who are left ashore. Funeral expenses are also defrayed by the Fund. To receive benefits for sickness or accident not occurring during a voyage the seaman must have paid contributions for at least 50 days during the last 90 days or 200 days during the 12 months prior to the first medical diagnosis. Expenses of transport, hospital treatment, medical attendance, and pharmaceutical benefits are paid subject to a 20-percent contribution by the seaman. Liability for medical treatment is assumed by the Fund for six months, except in case of permanent incapacity. The daily allowance is payable from the fourth day after the first medical diagnosis. It is equal to one-half of the wages and may not be paid for more than six months. Child allowances and duration of benefit are the same as in cases of industrial accident. The wife of the seaman and dependent children receive the same reimbursement for sickness or accident as the seaman who incurs an accident other than in the course of a voyage. Lump-sum payments in respect of childbirth, medical grants, and medical attendance are made to women employed on general duties and the wives of insured seamen. The insured woman also receives a rest allowance equal to one-half of the wages and payable for six weeks before and after confinement. Supplements are granted for children. To qualify for benefit the insured woman or her husband must have paid 200 daily contributions in the 12 months prior to childbirth. Injury outside employment.--In cases of sickness or accident not caused in the course of employment a seaman may, if suffering incapacity after six months, receive invalidity benefit if the working capacity is impaired by He must have been a member of the Provident Fund for at least two-thirds. at least two years on the date of the first medical diagnosis and have paid If the sickness occurs during a voyage a minimum number of contributions. The pension is to one year's membership. the qualifying period is reduced equal to 50 percent of the annual wage and is payable as long as the working Medical and pharmaceutical capacity does not increase beyond 50 percent. If the pensioner dies, benefits are limited to five years of invalidity. the widow or orphans receive half of the invalidity pension. Ascendants receive pensions under the same conditions as in case of death owing to industrial accident. Both disabled seamen and widows are entitled to children's allowances.

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Old-age and survivors' insurance.--Old-age and survivors' insurance is governed by the April 12, 1941 law covering French seamen employed on board merchant ships, fishing vessels or pleasure boats and persons employed in the catering and clerical departments on board vessels receive pensions from the Seamen's Pension Fund. Natives who are French subjects are not included as the terms extend only to citizens. The act applies to Algeria and to the colonies in which shipping registration is in force. The Seamen's Pension Fund administers the system and is a department of the National Institution for Disabled Seamen. Rates of contribution to the Fund are 5 percent for the insured and 4.25 percent for the employer except for natives and aliens for whom the employer pays the whole contribution of 4.25 percent and 9.25 percent, respectively. Benefits for French seamen who have completed 300 months' service since attaining the minimum age for entry into the occupation are entitled to pensions for length of service at the age of 50 years. Registered seamen of foreign origin are entitled to pensions. Supplementary or proportionate pensions are granted to those French seamen who have not ceased to be employed at sea more than five years and who have completed not less than 180 months' service including 18 months during the three immediately preceding years. Both pensions must be paid before the seaman is 50 years of age, if he is totally and permanently incapacitated for sea service. Socalled exceptional pensions are paid to seamen who have become officers or officials of the Secretariat of State for the Marine when they become pensioned, and for those who are appointed harbor officers or masters, at the time of their appointment. The old-age pension for length of service consists of a basic wage of from 5,000 francs a year for ordinary seamen to 10,000 francs for a master in distant trade or a first-class engineering officer. Supplements are granted if the annual average pay exceeds the minima prescribed varying from 6,000 to 14,000 francs, according to rank. The supplement paid the pensioner is one-half of the part of the average pay in excess of the minimum to 18,000 francs; two-fifths of the part in excess of 18,000 francs but not in excess of 30,000 francs; and one-third of the pay in excess of 30,000 francs. The supplements are adjusted according to job, service, etc. In no case may the total pension exceed average annual pay. It is increased by 5, 10, and 15 percent for pensioners who have maintained two, three, or more children, respectively. The'proportionate and exceptional pensions are at the rate of one-three hundredth of the pensions, computed as shown above for each month of service. Allowances for dependent children are the same as are granted under the General Provident Fund. Widows of seamen are entitled, at age 40 years or if there are children, to pensions equal to 50 percent of the pensions the seamen were receiving or could claim on account of actual service. In addition, each orphan receives a supplement ecual to 10 percent of the seaman's pension but the widow and children together may not receive more than the amount of the seaman's pension. If the mother dies, her pension rights accrue to the children

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and orphans' pensions become payable only in respect to the second and each succeeding child. Widows of seamen who had 180 months of service credited toward a pension receive an annual allowance depending on the length of service and rank of the seaman. This provision applies if the widow is not entitled to a pension. Employees engaged in catering and clerical departments are entitled to the same pensions and allowances as seamen, except that the husband of a woman so employed is not entitled to a survivor's pension; pensions and supplements are payable exclusively for service performed since January 1, 1930; and the insured are assigned to one or the other of the categories in which seamen are ranked for the purpose of calculating pensions and supplements. Railwaymen Employees of the main railway systems are compulsorily insured under special regulations. The system is governed by the Act of July 24, 1909, decrees of April 19 and October 30, 1934, October 30, 1935, and October 28, 1941,and the Finance Acts of 1934, 1935, and 1937. All permanent employees of the railway companies are covered by the system, subject in some cases, as regards sickness benefits, to an income limit. The cost of sickness and maternity benefits is borne by the companies, while invalidity, old age, widows' and orphans' insurance is financed An assby contributions by the insured persons and the railway companies. essment system was substituted for the accumulation system in 1934. The railway companies pay the amount necessary to bring the resources up to the level of thier total expenditure. Benefits.--Medical and dental treatment, as provided without charge by the railway's medical officers in case of sickness and maternity and pharmaceutical supplies, hospital treatment, and surgical appliances are provided, subject to certain qualifying conditions as regards income. Cash benefits are paid in sickness and maternity cases and birth and family allowances are granted. Invalidity pensions, proportionate to theemployee's wage and years of membership, are paid. Old-age pensions are payable at the age of 55 years, the amount depend 1 . on the employee's wage and years of membership. Employees in receipt of oldage pensions are entitled to the old-age allowance granted by the decree of October 28, 1941, reduced by the amount of their pension. Survivors' pensions are payable to the widow and children under 18 years of age, proportionate to the length of membership and the wages of the deceased member and supplements for family responsibilities are provided. Employees of secondary railways, local railways, and tramways are covered by special provisions in case of invalidity, old age, and death under an act of 1922.

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Public emoloyees Civil servants and State agents and employees are insured against invalidity, old age, and death under the Acts of April 14, 1924, June 29, 1927, and March 21, 1928 as amended and completed by the Acts of July 3 and September 18, 1941. All employees and officials covered by the civil pension scheme are protected against occupational risks, industrial accidents and diseases,by earlier laws. Special conditions apply to different categories of officials and employees as regards sickness benefits. Data are available only as regards the pension schemes. Civil servants.--All permanent officials are subject to compulsory insurance and pay a contribution amounting to 6 percent of their salaries, any deficit being made up by the Government. Pensions are payable at the age of 60 after 30 years' service or at the age of 55 after 25 years' service if the employee was employed in other than sedentary work for at least 15 years. The pension amounts to not less than 50 percent of the last 3 years' salary or three-fifths of the salary if this does not exceed a prescribed amount. The pension is increased by one-sixtieth of the salary for each year of service over the qualifying period of 30 years and one-fiftieth over that of 25 years, and supplements for dependent children under 16 years of age are paid subject to a maximum of three-quarters of the average salary or of a prescribed sun. If an insured person leaves service without having acauired the right to a pension, his contributions, with interest are transferred to the National Pension Fund to establish an endowment insurance. Invalidity pensions are payable for disabilities incurred in the line of duty equal to one-third of their last wages or a long-service pension eoual to one-thirtieth or one-twenty-fifth of the minimum old-age pension for each year of service. Reduced invalidity pensions are also payable for disability not incurred in the line of duty. An old-age pensioner may claim, at age 65, an old-age allowance provided under the Act of March 14, 1941 from Which his pension is then deducted (Act of September 18, 1941). A widow of an insured official is entitled to a pension equal to 50 percent of her husband's actual or prospective pension increased by 10 percent for each dependent child under the age of 21. Orphan's who have lost both father and mother receive the pension due the widow plus 10 percent of the father's salary for each child after the first. Workers employed bythe State.--Workers in State industrial undertakings are covered by a superannuation scheme set up under the Acts of April 14, 1924, March 21, 1928, and August 4, 1929 as amended August 29, 1942. The staff of the National Printing Office is insured under the Act of June 29, 1927 as amended.

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The scheme applies to such State establishments as tobacco and match

factories, transit depots, general stamp factories, post and telegraphic administration, mint and metal departments, establishments under the military, naval, and air authorities, and roadmenders employed on national highways. The fund administered by the Deposit and Trust Fund is formed by contributions by the employees and the State. Insurance covers the risks of old age, invalidity and death. Old-age pensions are payable at the age of 60 for men and 55 for women and are based on the wages earned during the three best years of employment. The minimum pension is computed according to the same principles as for State officials. By an Act of July 3, 1941 the benefits granted under special pension schemes to employees of local authorities or contractors are limited tothe benefits granted under the Civil Pension Scheme. Public utility employees.--An Act of December 4, 1941 amended by decrees of December 4, 1941, March 27, 1942 and May 14, 1942 created a special pension scheme for employees of power stations and gas workes. It covers both manual and non-manual workers. The system is financed by contributions by the employees amounting to 6 percent of wages up to 40,000 francs per year and by employers an amount equal to 10 percent of wages, at the most. Provision is made for old age, invalidityand death. The pensionable age is 55 for 25 years of service for those with at least 15 years of active service and 60 years for those with 30 years of service and engaged in sedentary work.

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(b) Unemployent Relief and Comnensation

Aid to unemployed persons in France takes two forms--unemployment assistance and a system of voluntary insurance subsidizes' by the State. A decree of May 6, 1939 consolidated the laws relating to unemployment and amended certain provisions. Numerous decrees have been issued since that time for the purpose of remedying anomalies and reforming the systems in view of the abnormal conditions brought about by the war sand the armistice. Unemployment assistance, in which there is no element of invutrance, dates from the establishment of a. temporary national unemployment fund in August 1914 to meet an abnormal economic situation. In establishing it the Government did not intend to create a permanent instituition, but the fund was continued under the pressure of circumstances and in recent years has been administered under an orgalic decree of Pecenber 28, 1926. Unemdecree of September 9, 1905, which ployment insurance was established by provided that a Government subsidy should-' be naid to the voluntary uner'ployment-insurance finds ma..tained br the trade-unions and mutual-aid associaThe two tions, on the basis of tne financial assistance rendered. by them. organic decrees of 1905 and 1926 have been amended by 26 decrees and a great number of regulations. Some of these have been repealed, but 65 others have been issued for the purpose of prolonging provisions having a temporary character.

Pre-Far Systems
The 1939 law provided that vwhatever the forms of the unemploymentassistance funds, whether communal, intercommunal, or Departmental, their establishment eras on a voluntary basis. In revising the legislation it was considered necessary to centralize all unemployment activities in a. locality in a single fund. Payments from the public unemployment finds could be made only to French citizens or to nationals of States which had concluded a reciprocal unemployment treaty with France. The law established a means test, as it provided that the resources of the unemployed persons must be Thereafter the taken into consideration in making unemployment allowances. State subsidy would not be payable on allowances paid for Sundays and holidays. The law established a maximum limit for the payment of benefits when, for a specific occupation, the employment offices are regularly receiving In order to insure the financial ecuilibrium of the offers of employment. been increased. insurance funds, the minimum number of members reouired h On the other hand, however, the State subsidy has been lowered appreciably.

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Unemployment funds established by trade-unions or mutual-aid associations, and all professional or interprofessional associations having a civil personality, could,if they were maintained in part by the contributions of their members and satisfied the prescribed conditions, receive the State subsidy provided in the annual budget of the Minister of Labor. These funds were formed for the purpose of compensating wage earners for total or partial unemployment and independent workers who were entirely without work. Groups which paid benefits for either total or partial unemployment or both were

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required to create a separate and distinct fund for each kind of unemployment, and the accounts had to be kept entirely separate from other services provided by the group. The regulations of the fund required the approval of the Minister of Labor in order to receive the State subsidy. The fund insured a free employment service for the members and could do this through an agreement with the public employment office. Changes After the Armistice As a consequence of the invasion of France the relief and insurance systems broke down; and after the Armistice, emergency measures had to be taken for the immediate relief of the unemployed, who numbered at that time about one million. A new system of unemployment relief was set up by an Act of October 11, 1940, which also reorganized the public employment services. Unemployment relief Aid granted to unemployed workers varies according to whether the workers are wholly unemployed or only partially unemployed. The cost of aid to unemployed workers is divided between the State and the localities. The prefect fixes the local contribution in consultation with the postmaster-general of the Department. The local contribution may not be less than 5 nor more than 20 percent of the total cost. Wholly unemployed workers.-To be eligible for aid a wholly unemployed person must prove that he has been engaged in a trade or occupation for at least 6 months preceding his unemployment, that he has been a resident of a commune for a minimum of 3 months, and has been registered with the public employment office, and has been unable to find work. Allowances, and supplementary grants paid at a uniform rate for the wife or husband and dependents (excluding children benefitting from family allowances), vary according to the population of the place of residence. An unemployed head of a household receives from 7 to 14 francs per day, according to whether he lives in a locality of less than 5,000 inhabitants or in the Department of the Seine. For the husband or wife and other dependents (excluding children drawing benefit under the family allowance scheme), the allowance ranges from 3 france 50 centimes to 7 francs per day, according to the size of the place of residence. The allowances and additional grants may be supplemented by the family allowances and the special allowance paid to discourage multiple earnings in a family. The average departmental wage used for calculating the special allowance is fixed at the same amount as that taken as the basis for the family allowance scheme. Moreover, as in the case of the family allowances, the special allowance to qualified single-income families is paid so long as the child is below the normal school-leaving age.

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Thus, in the Paris region, an unemployed worker whose wife is not gainfully employed and who has a child of less than 5 years of age and two children between 5 and 15 years of age, would be entitled to receive a total net sum of 1,230 francs per month: 420 francs for the head of the household (14 times 30), 210 francs for the dependent wife or husband (7 times 30), and 600 francs for the children (30 percent of the average wage of 1,500 francs is 450 francs, plus an additional 150 francs or 10 percent of the average wage for the youngest). The average wage base for Paris is 1,500 francs. It is lower in other epartments. Under the Act of October 11, 1940 an unemployed worker in receipt of a daily allowance may be reouired to work in return for his allowance for a period of two hours per day. The type of work which may be reouired is, in principle, work on roads or housing for men, and mending and sewing for women.

If the work on which the persons receiving allowances are engaged should happen to include periods of more than two hours, an extra allowance must be paid for the additional hours worked, calculated on the basis of an hourly wage of 50 percent of the average departmental hourly wage. However, the employment recipients of relief on these types of work must not result in any reduction bf the persons normally employed by the local authorities. Moreover, employment of persons on relief for more than two hours a day must not be a continuous practice and they must not be employed for more than four hours on any one day, as a rule. For the rest, the localities are free to arrange the hours of work for relief recipients in periods which may be varied according to the nature of the work and the age and former occupation of the workers in question. Refusal of work offered by the employment office where the worker is registered involves (after consultation with the office's advisory committee) disqualification for further allowances, regardless of the nature and location of the work offered. Partially unemployed workers.--Allowances for partial unemployment are payable only for the time lost under an average workveek of 40 hours. For each hour of work lost under this average, the allowance is fixed, under the terms of the decree of January 8, 1941, at one-fortieth of the allowance to which the worker would be entitled if he were wholly unemployed. In all cases, this allowance may be paid only where, added to the wages received from work, the total amount from both sources does not exceed three-fourths of the average departmental wage. Wage-earners legally working longer than 40 hours per week, re ceive an allowance for each hour of work lost equal to the amount of the weekly allowance paid to an unemployed worker divided by the number of hours worked in a normal workweek. The maximum of threefourths of the average departmental wage applies in this case as well.

Voluntary unemployment insurance The voluntary system provides relief for wholly or partially unemployed wage earners and may assist independent workers under the terms of the May 6, 1939 decree. Right of membership ih an unemployment fund is not restricted by nationality or citizenship. An insured worker may draw benefit after two months' membership in the fund. Partially unemployed workers must prove they have worked at least 4 months in the undertaking. Each unemployment fund determines other condi-ions for receiving benefit. An unemployed worker must accept employment offered him by the unemployment insurance fund or the employment office. Contributions by the workers vary from one fund to another. Funds which pay benefit for partial unemployment may make the payment contingent on an employer contribution. In general, the State subsidy may not exceed 33 percent of the benefits but this maximum may be increased to 40 percent for funds which operate in at least 3 Departments and have at least 1,500 active members, and also for funds set up by independent workers. There is no legal limit on the. benefit period. Each fund may fix the duration of benefit, subject to the condition that the fund must maintain its financial stability.

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(c) Workmen's Compensation Coverage

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General.-Basic French legislation covering compensation for industrial injuries was enacted on April 9, 1898 and has been amended frequently. As amended by the Acts of July 1, 1938 and April 3, 1942 the workmen's compensation law applies to all manual and nonmanual workers, whatever their trade or profession. Persons (and their survivors) who were previously barred from benefits because their occupation was outside the scope of the law are now entitled to pensions assessed on the basis of annual earnings of 15,000 francs, even though their accidents occurred before they became subject to the terms of the workmen's compensation law. Agricultural labor is covered but seamen have a separate system. Industrial diseases.--Compensation was extended to industrial diseases caused by lead and mercury poisoning by law of October 25, 1919. Notification of all diseases of an occupational character caused by listed hazardous substances became compulsory by law of October 16, 1935. Under the Acts of October 25, 1919, January 1, 1931, and July 12, 1936 occupational diseases caused by the following substances or exposures became compensable: Lead and its compounds Mercury and its compounds T etrachlorethane Crude or rectified benzene White phosphorus Action of certain radio-active substances Sewers Cement (causing skin lesions) Dermatosis caused by the action of trichloronaphthaline Contributions Employers are not obliged to insure their risks but may insure with the National Accident Insurance Fund (against permanent incapacity and death of employees, only) or with private institutions subject to the conIn case the introl and supervision of the administrative authorities. surer or the employer fails to pay compensation to which an injured worker or his dependents are entitled, the amount of compensation due is payable out of a guarantee fund administered by the National Old Age Pensions Fund. Regardless of the funds from which compensation is paid the employers bear the cost as they pay all insurance premiums, direct benefits to the injured if they are not insured, and maintain the guarantee fund by their contributions.

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Risks All accidents occurring in the course of or arising out of employment are compensable, regardless of where the work is performed, provided that the injured person was carrying out a contract for- the hiring of his services in any capacity (including trial or apprenticeship) at the time of the accident. Benefits Benefits to which the injured person is entitled are medical fees; the expenses of pharmacentical supplies; the cost of transportation to his home or the hospital; and hospital expenses. Temporary incapacity.-For temporary incapacity the injured person receives a daily allowance equal to 50 percent of the daily wage earned at the time of the accident. Benefit is paid from the first day following that on which the accident occurred, both in respect of working days and holidays, excepting holidays immediately following the day of the accident. Full wages must be paid by the employer covering the day of the accident. In general, the daily wage is one-sixth of the weekly wage but if the wage varies cash benefit is equal to one-half of the average earned on working days during the month preceding the accident. If the work is intermittent, benefit is assessed by dividing the annual wage by the number of days worked. The rate of benefit is increased to two-thirds of the wage as from the thirtythird day after the accident. Permanent incapacity.-For permanent partial incapacity the worker receives a pension equal to one-half of the reduction in the average annual wage which is due to the accident in respect of the first 50 percent of the incapacity and the whole of the reduction in respect to incapacity in excess of 50 percent. For permanent total incapacity the pension equals 75 percent of the average annual wage. Before April 1, 1942, in assessing the pension, full account was taken of the average wages up to the sum of 15,000 francs a year, the pension being reduced by three-quarters for the fraction of the wage between 15,000 and 25,000 francs, and by seven-eights for the fraction over 25,000 francs. Since April 1, 1942 pensions based on annual earnings of less than 15,000 francs have been increased by the difference between the rate based on the annual earnings and the rate obtained on the basis of 15,000 francs, except where the degree of incapacity is less than 20 percent, bringing the minimum pension for total incapacity to 11,250 francs a year. The pension is increased to 100 percent of the yearly earnings if the totally incapacitated person requires the constant assistance of another person. Since April 1, 1942 an additional allowance of 3,000 francs has been granted in such cases over and above the supplement that brings the pension up to 15,000 francs a year.

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Injured persons are entitled to the supply or renewal of artificial limbs or an allowance to cover the cost. Vocational training is also Part of the pension may be commuted for a lump included in the benefits. sum or converted into a reversionary annuity for the surviving spouse, in which case the increase granted under the April 3, 1942 law is calculated as though these operations had not been effected. Death benefits.--Funeral benefits are payable by the employer or inThe widow or widower of the deceased surer of from 300 to 1,000 francs. receives a pension, amounting to one-fourth of the victim's annual average earnings. The children under age 16 are entitled to pensions as follows: 15 percent of the victim's annual earnings for one child; 25 percent for two children; 35 percent for three children; and 10 percent for each additional child. If the children have lost both parents the pension is increased Other descendants who were to 20 percent of the earnings for each child. Relamaintained by the victim are entitled to the same pensions as children. tives in the ascending line, dependent on the victim's earnings at the time pension of 10 percent of the earnings for of the accident, receive a life The condition of dependency is waived if the victim each such dependant. leaves no wife or husband nor children, provided the relative proves that he would have been able to obtain a maintenance allowance from the injured In the aggregate, pensions to ascendants may not exceed 30 percent person. of the deceased person's average earnings.

Selected List of References for Labor Conditions in France

France: Journal Officiel de la Republique Francaise, Lois et decrets, Paris et Vichy.Bulletin du Travail, Ministere du Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale, Paris (quarterly) Bulletin de la Statistique Generale de la France, Paris (quarterly) R4sultats Statistique du Recensement G&nerale de la Population, Mars, 1931, and Tome 1, premiere partie, Mars, 1936. The French Yearbook, 1919 International Labor Office: Legislative Series - France International Labor Yearbooks I.L.O. Yearbook of Labor Statistics International Labor Review (monthly) La reglementation du travail dans l'industrie, Par Louis Bouquet, Paris, Berger-Levrault et Cie, 1904 Lois du travail industrial et de la prevoyance sociale. Bry. Paris, Recueil Sirey, 1921 Par Georges

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review. (various articles)

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