Mobile ad-hoc networks( MANET)

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Mobile ad-hoc networks( MANET)
Wireless mobile ad-hoc networks are characterized as networks without any physical connections. In these networks there is no xed topology due to the mobility of nodes. It is self configuring network of mobile devices connected by wireless links Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Ad-hoc networks are infrastructure less networks. Wireless networks can be classified in two types:- infrastructured network and infrastructure less (ad hoc) networks. Infrastructured

network consists of a network with fixed and wired gateways. A mobile host communicates with a bridge in the network (called base station) within its communication radius. The mobile unit can move geographically while it is communicating. When it goes out of range of one base station, it connects with new base station and starts communicating through it. This is called handoff. In this approach the base stations are fixed. In contrast to infrastructure based networks, in ad hoc networks all nodes are mobile and can be connected dynamically in an arbitrary manner. All nodes of these networks behave as routers and take part in discovery and maintenance of routes to other nodes in the network. Ad hoc networks are very useful in emergency search-and-rescue operations, meetings or conventions in which persons wish to quickly share information, and data acquisition operations in inhospitable terrain.

1.2 Routing
Routing is done in the network layer of common TCP/IP. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks or a large network, the connecting devices called routers or switches route or switch the packet to their final destination.

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Routing is the act of moving information from a source to a destination in an internetwork. The routing concept basically involves, two activities: rstly, determining optimal routing paths and secondly, transferring the information groups (called packets) through an internetwork. The later concept is called as packet switching which is straight forward, and the path determination could be very complex Routing protocols use several metrics to calculate the best path for routing the packets to its destination. These metrics are a standard measurement that could be number of hops, which is used by the routing algorithm to determine the optimal path for the packet to its destination. The process of path determination is that, routing algorithms initialize and maintain routing tables, which contain the total route information for the packet. This route information varies from one routing algorithm to another.

1.3 Routing Tables

A router has a routing tables with an entry for each destination or a combination of destinations, to route IP packets. The routing can be either static or dynamic. Static routing tables contains information entered manually. The administrator enters the route for each destination into the table. When a table is created, it cannot update automatically when there is a change in the internet. The table must be manually altered. Dynamic routing tables is updated periodically by using any of the dynamic routing protocol. Whenever there is change in the internet such as shut down of a router or breaking of a link, dynamic routing protocols update all the tables in the routers automatically Format

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Mask ..

Network Address .

Next hop Address .

Interface

Flags

Reference Count .

Use ..

Fig.1: Common fields in a routing table

Mask: This field defines the mask applied for entry. Network address defines the address to which packet is finally delivered Next hop address defines the address of the next hop router to which packet is delivered. Interface shows the name of interface. Flags defines upto 5 flags. These are U(up), G(gateway), H(host-specific), D(added by redirection), M(modified by redirection). U flag indicates the router is up and running. If this flag is reset it means router is down and packet is not forwarded. G flag indicates that destination is in another network. H flag indicates that the entry in the network address field is the host specific address Reference count: This field gives the number of users of this route at the moment Use: this field allows the number of packet transmitted through this router for the corresponding destination

Mobile ad-hoc networks( MANET)

CHAPTER 2 ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET

2.1 Routing protocols
Since the advent of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) packet radio networks in the early 1970s, numerous protocols have been developed for ad hoc mobile networks. As shown in Fig. 2, these routing protocols may generally be categorized as: Table-driven Source-initiated (demand-driven) Solid lines in this figure represent direct descendants, while dotted lines depict logical descendants. Despite being designed for the same type of underlying network, the characteristics of each of these protocols are quite distinct.

Ad- hoc routing protocols

Table - driven

On- demand

DSDV

WRP

AOD V

DSR

LMR

ABR

CGSR Fig.2: Categorization of ad-hoc routing protocols

TORA

SSR

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2.2 Table driven routing protocols (Proactive)

In Table-driven routing protocols each node maintains one or more tables containing routing information to every other node in the network. All nodes update these tables so as to maintain a consistent and up-to-date view of the network. These protocols are also called as proactive protocols since they maintain the routing information even before it is needed. Each and every node in the network maintains routing information to every other node in the network. Many of these routing protocols come from the link-state routing. There exist some dierences between the protocols that come under this category depending on the routing information being updated in each routing table. The proactive protocols are not suitable for larger networks, as they need to maintain node entries for each and every node in the routing table of every node. This causes more overhead in the routing table leading to consumption of more bandwidth.

2.2.1 Destination sequenced distance vector routing Every mobile node in the network maintains a routing table in which all of the possible destinations within the network and the number of hops to each destination are recorded. Each entry is marked with a sequence number assigned by the destination node. The sequence numbers enable the mobile nodes to distinguish stale routes from new ones, thereby avoiding the formation of routing loops. Routing table updates are periodically transmitted throughout the network. The packets may be transmitted containing the layer 2 or layer 3 address. Routing information is advertised by broadcasting or multicasting the packets which are transmitted periodically as when the nodes move within the network. The DSDV protocol requires that each mobile station in the network must constantly, advertise to each of its neighbors, its own routing table. Since, the entries in the table my change very quickly, the advertisement should be made frequently to ensure that every node can locate its neighbors in the network. The data broadcast by each node will contain the following information for each new route: The destination address

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The number of hops required to reach the destination and The new sequence number, originally stamped by the destination. The broadcasting of the information in the DSDV protocol is of two types namely: full dump and incremental dump. Full dump broadcasting will carry all the routing information while the incremental dump will carry only information that has changed since last full dump. Irrespective of the two types, broadcasting is done in network protocol data units (NPDU). Full dump requires multiple NPDUs while incremental requires only one NPDU to t in all the information. When an information packet is received from another node, it compares the sequence number with the available sequence number for that entry. If the sequence number is larger, then it will update the routing information with the new sequence number else if the information arrives with the same sequence number it looks for the metric entry and if the number of hops is less than the previous entry the new information is updated (if information is same or metric is more then it will discard the information). While the Nodes information is being updated the metric is increased by 1 and the sequence number is also increased by 2. Similarly, if a new node enters the network, it will announce itself in the network and the nodes in the network update their routing information with a new entry for the new node. Operation

Fig.3: Movement of a node in ad-hoc network

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Consider the above g.3 which has 8 hosts in the network. The changes to the MH4 routing table with reference to the movements of MH1 has been seen. Initially, all the nodes advertise their routing information to all the nodes in the network and hence the routing table at MH4 initially looks like TABLE 1: Routing table at MH4 Destination MH1 MH2 MH3 MH4 MH5 MH6 MH7 MH8 Next hop MH2 MH2 MH2 MH4 MH6 MH6 MH6 MH6 Metric 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 3 Sequence number S406 MH1 S128 MH1 S564 MH1 S710 MH1 S392 MH1 S076 MH1 S128 MH1 S050 MH1

But, when the host MH1 moves its location as shown in the g.3 nearer to MH7 and MH8 then, the link between MH2 and MH1 will be broken resulting in the assignment of infinity metric at MH2 for MH1 and the sequence number will be changed to odd number in the routing table at MH2. MH2 will update this information to its neighbor hosts. Since, there is a new neighbor host for MH7 and MH8; they update their information in the routing tables and they broadcast. Now, MH4 will receive its updated information from MH6 where MH6 will receive two information packets from dierent neighbors to reach MH1 with same sequence number, but dierent metric. The selection of the route will depend on less hop count when the sequence number is the same. Now the routing table will look like TABLE 2: Routing table after the movement of MH1 Destination MH1 MH2 Next hop MH6 MH2 Metric 3 1 Sequence number S516 MH1 S238 MH1

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MH3 MH4 MH5 MH6 MH7 MH8

MH2 MH4 MH6 MH6 MH6 MH6

2 0 2 1 2 3

S674 MH1 S820 MH1 S502 MH1 S186 MH1 S238 MH1 S160 MH1

2.2.1.1 Advantages of DSDV We can avoid extra trac with incremental updates instead of full dump updates. Path Selection: DSDV maintains only the best path instead of maintaining multiplepaths to every destination. With this, the amount of space in routing table is reduced. 2.2.1.2 Disadvantages of DSDV Wastage of bandwidth due to unnecessary advertising of routing information even if there is no change in the network topology. DSDV doesnt support Multi path Routing. It is dicult to maintain the routing tables advertisement for larger network. Each and every host in the network should maintain a routing table for advertising. But for larger network this would lead to overhead, which consumes more bandwidth.

2.2.2 Clusterhead gateway switch routing The mobile nodes are aggregated into clusters and a cluster-head is elected. All nodes that are in the communication range of the cluster-head belong to its cluster. A gateway node is a node that is in the communication range of two or more cluster-heads. In a dynamic network cluster head scheme can cause performance degradation due to frequent cluster-head elections, so CGSR uses a Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm. In LCC, cluster-head change occurs only if a change in network causes two cluster-heads to come into one cluster or one of the nodes moves out of the range of all the cluster-heads.

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The general algorithm works in the following manner. The source of the packet transmits the packet to its cluster-head. From this cluster-head, the packet is sent to the gateway node that connects this cluster-head and the next cluster-head along the route to the destination. The gateway sends it to that cluster-head and so on till the destination cluster-head is reached in this way. The destination cluster-head then transmits the packet to the destination.

Cluster head gateway Node

Fig.4: CSGR routing from node 1 to node 8 In addition to the cluster member table, each node must also maintain a routing table which is used to determine the next hop in order to reach the destination. On receiving a packet, a node will consult its cluster member table and routing table to determine the nearest cluster head along the route to the destination. Next, the node will check its routing table to determine the next hop used to reach the selected cluster head. It then transmits the packet to this node. 2.2.3 Wireless routing protocol The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) described is a table-based protocol with the goal of

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maintaining routing information among all nodes in the network. Each node in the network is responsible for maintaining four tables: Distance table Routing table Link-cost table Message retransmission list (MRL) table Each entry of the MRL contains the sequence number of the update message, a retransmission counter, an acknowledgment-required flag vector with one entry per neighbor, and a list of updates sent in the update message. The MRL records which updates in an update message need to be retransmitted and which neighbors should acknowledge the retransmission Mobiles inform each other of link changes through the use update messages. An update message is sent only between neighboring nodes and contains a list of updates (the destination, the distance to the destination, and the predecessor of the destination), as well as a list of responses indicating which mobiles should acknowledge (ACK) the update. Mobiles send update messages after processing updates from neighbors or detecting a change in a link to a neighbor. In the event of the loss of a link between two nodes, the nodes send update messages to their neighbors. The neighbors then modify their distance table entries and check for new possible paths through other nodes. Any new paths are relayed back to the original nodes so that they can update their tables accordingly. Nodes learn of the existence of their neighbors from the receipt of acknowledgments and other messages. If a node is not sending messages, it must send a hello message within a specified time period to ensure connectivity. Otherwise, the lack of messages from the node indicates the failure of that link; this may cause a false alarm. When a mobile receives a hello message from a new node, that new node is added to the mobiles routing table, and the mobile sends the new node a copy of its routing table information. In WRP, routing nodes communicate the distance and second-to-last hop information for each destination in the wireless networks. WRP belongs to the class of pathfinding algorithms with an important exception.

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It avoids the count-to-infinity problem by forcing each node to perform consistency checks of predecessor information reported by all its neighbors. This ultimately (although not instantaneously) eliminates looping situations and Provides faster route convergence when a link failure event occurs.

2.3 Source initiated on demand routing (Reactive)

A different approach from table-driven routing is source-initiated on-demand routing. This type of routing creates routes only when desired by the source node. When a node requires a route to a destination, it initiates a route discovery process within the network. This process is completed once a route is found or all possible route permutations have been examined. Once a route has been established, it is maintained by a route maintenance procedure until either the destination becomes inaccessible along every path from the source or until the route is no longer desired. 2.3.1 Ad-hoc On demand routing (AODV) AODV is a very simple, ecient, and eective routing protocol for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks which do not have xed topology. This algorithm was motivated by the limited bandwidth that is available in the media that are used for wireless communications. Obtaining the routes purely ondemand makes AODV a very useful and desired algorithm for MANETs Operation Each mobile host in the network acts as a specialized router and routes are obtained as needed, thus making the network self-starting. Each node in the network maintains a routing table with the routing information entries to its neighbouring nodes, and two separate counters: a node sequence number and a broadcast-id. When a node (say, source node S) has to communicate with another (say, destination node D), it increments its broadcast-id and initiates path discovery by broadcasting a route request packet RREQ to its neighbors. The RREQ contains the following elds: source-addr source-sequence# - to maintain fresh info about the route to the source.

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dest-addr dest-sequence# - species how fresh a route to the destination must be before it is accepted by the source. hop-cnt As RREQ travels from node to node, it automatically sets up the reverse path from all these nodes back to the source. Each node that receives this packet records the address of the node from which it was received. This is called Reverse Path Setup. The nodes maintain this info for enough time for the RREQ to traverse the network and produce a reply to the sender and time depends on network size. If an intermediate node has a route entry for the desired destination in its routing table, it compares the destination sequence number in its routing table with that in the RREQ. If the destination sequence number in its routing table is less than that in the RREQ, it rebroadcasts the RREQ to its neighbors. Otherwise, it unicasts a route reply packet to its neighbor from which it was received the RREQ if the same request was not processed previously (this is identied using the broadcase-id and source-addr). Once the RREP is generated, it travels back to the source, based on the reverse path that it has set in it until traveled to this node. As the RREP travels back to source, each node along this path sets a forward pointer to the node from where it is receiving the RREP and records the latest destination sequence number to the request destination. This is called Forward Path Setup. If an intermediate node receives another RREP after propagating the rst RREP towards source it checks for destination sequence number of new RREP. The intermediate node updates routing information and propagates new RREP only If the Destination sequence number is greater, OR If the new sequence number is same and hop count is small, OR Otherwise, it just skips the new RREP. This ensures that algorithm is loop-free and only the most eective route is used.

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The below g 5 is an example, which shows how the route to the destination is found by AODV routing protocol. Source S Initiate route discovery by sending RREQ to A,B,C nodes Receive RREP from A,B,C nodes Choose path via C as it has greatest sequence dest. No. Set info in route table Start comm. with the destn. Via a chosen path

A Check for dest route No route found Set reverse path Propagate RREQ Send RREP with hop count c2

B Check for dest route Route found with hop count c1 and dest sequence #s1 Send RREP

Check for dest route No route found Set reverse path Propagate RREQ to D,E Receive RREP from D Send RREP

D Check for dest route Route found with dest seq. #s2 Send RREP

E Check for dest route No route found Set reverse path Propagate RREQ to F,G Delete reverse path after timer is out

RREP RRrr RREQ

F Check for dest route No route found Fig.5: ad-hoc on demand routing protocol

G Check for dest route No route found

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2.3.1.1 Advantages of AODV Because of its reactive nature, AODV can handle highly dynamic behavior of Vehicle Ad-hoc networks. Used for both unicasts and multicasts using the J (Join multicast group) ag in the packets. 2.3.1.2 Limitations of AODV The algorithm expects/requires that the nodes in the broadcast medium can detect each others broadcasts. No reuse of routing info The messages can be misused for insider attacks including route disruption, route invasion, node isolation, and resource consumption. AODV lacks support for high throughput routing metrics.

2.3.2 Dynamic source routing protocol The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol is a source-routed on-demand routing protocol. A node maintains route caches containing the source routes that it is aware of. The node updates entries in the route cache as and when it learns about new routes. The two major phases of the protocol are: route discovery and route maintenance. When the source node wants to send a packet to a destination, it looks up its route cache to determine if it already contains a route to the destination. If it finds that an unexpired route to the destination exists, then it uses this route to send the packet. But if the node does not have such a route, then it initiates the route discovery process by broadcasting a route request packet. The route request packet contains the address of the source and the destination, and a unique identification number. Each intermediate node checks whether it knows of a route to the destination. If it does not, it appends its address to the route record of the packet and forwards the packet to its neighbors. To limit the number of route requests propagated, a node processes the route request packet only if it has not already seen the packet and it's address is not present in the route record of the packet.

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A route reply is generated when either the destination or an intermediate node with current information about the destination receives the route request packet. A route request packet reaching such a node already contains, in its route record, the sequence of hops taken from the source to this node.

Fig.6(a): Building route record during route discovery

Fig.6(b): Propagation of the route reply with the route record

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As the route request packet propagates through the network, the route record is formed as shown in figure 6a. If the route reply is generated by the destination then it places the route record from route request packet into the route reply packet. On the other hand, if the node generating the route reply is an intermediate node then it appends its cached route to destination to the route record of route request packet and puts that into the route reply packet. Figure 6b shows the route reply packet being sent by the destination itself. To send the route reply packet, the responding node must have a route to the source. If it has a route to the source in its route cache, it can use that route. The reverse of route record can be used if symmetric links are supported. In case symmetric links are not supported, the node can initiate route discovery to source and piggyback the route reply on this new route request. DSRP uses two types of packets for route maintenance:- Route Error packet and Acknowledgements. When a node encounters a fatal transmission problem at its data link layer, it generates a Route Error packet. When a node receives a route error packet, it removes the hop in error from it's route cache. All routes that contain the hop in error are are truncated at that point. Acknowledgment packets are used to verify the correct operation of the route links. This also includes passive acknowledgments in which a node hears the next hop forwarding the packet along the route. 2.3.3 Associativity- based routing (ABR) A totally different approach in mobile routing. The Associativity Based Routing (ABR) protocol is free from loops and defines a new routing metric for ad hoc mobile networks. In ABR, a route is selected based on the degree of association stability of mobile nodes. Each node periodically generates a beacon to signify its existence. When received by neighboring nodes, this beacon causes their associativity tables to be updated. For each beacon received, the associativity tick of the current node with respect to the beaconing node is incremented. Associativity ticks are reset when the neighbors of a node or the node itself move out of proximity. A fundamental objective of ABR is to derive longer-lived routes for ad hoc mobile networks. The three phases of ABR are:

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Route discovery Route reconstruction (RRC) Route deletion The route discovery phase is accomplished by a broadcast query and await-reply (BQ-REPLY) cycle. A node desiring a route broadcasts a BQ message in search of mobiles that have a route to the destination. All nodes receiving the query (that are not the destination) append their addresses and their associativity ticks with their neighbors along with QoS information to the query packet. A successor node erases its upstream node neighbors associativity tick entries and retains only the entry concerned with itself and its upstream node. In this way, each resultant packet arriving at the destination will contain the associativity ticks of the nodes along the route to the destination. The destination is then able to select the best route by examining the associativity ticks along each of the paths. When multiple paths have the same overall degree of association stability, the route with the minimum number of hops is selected. The destination then sends a REPLY packet back to the source along this path. Nodes propagating the REPLY mark their routes as valid. All other routes remain inactive, and the possibility of duplicate packets arriving at the destination is avoided.

Fig.7(a): Route maintenance for a source move

Fig.7(b): Route maintenance for a destination move

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RRC may consist of partial route discovery, invalid route erasure, valid route updates, and new route discovery, depending on which node(s) along the route move. Movement by the source results in a new BQ-REPLY process, as shown in Fig. 6a. The RN[1] message is a route notification used to erase the route entries associated with downstream nodes. When the destination moves, the immediate upstream node erases its route and determines if the node is still reachable by a localized query (LQ[H]) process, where H refers to the hop count from the upstream node to the destination (Fig. 6b). If the destination receives the LQ packet, it REPLYs with the best partial route; otherwise, the initiating node times out and the process backtracks to the next upstream node. Here an RN[0] message is sent to the next upstream node to erase the invalid route and inform this node that it should invoke the LQ[H] process. If this process results in backtracking more than halfway to the source, the LQ process is discontinued and a new BQ process is initiated at the source.

2.4 Hybrid routing

In the recent days several hybrid protocols are also proposed. A hybrid protocol is a combination of both the reactive and proactive protocols. It includes some of the characteristics of reactive protocols and some of the characteristics of proactive protocols. Example of a hybrid protocol is TORA. In addition to the unicast routing protocols, several multicast routing protocols have been also proposed like ODMRP, MAODV, CAMP etc. The multicast routing protocols for ad hoc networks can be classified into two categories: tree-based and mesh-based protocol. Mesh based routing protocols use several routes to reach a destination while the tree-based protocols maintain only one path. Tree-based protocols ensure less end-to-end delay in comparison with the mesh-based protocols. Besides all of these, in the recent times, some geocast routing protocols are proposed which aim to send messages to some or all the wireless nodes within a particular geographic region. LBM, GeoTORA, voronoi-diagrams-based routing protocols etc. are some of them. Protocol NAMP is a tree based, hybrid multicast routing protocol that has proactive nature for collecting neighbor information but a route is created from a sender to a destination based on demand (reactive nature).

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2.5 Comparisons
2.5.1 Comparison of Table driven routing protocols TABLE 3: Comparison of table driven routing protocols Parametres Routing philosophy Loop free DSDV Flat Yes CGR Hierarchical Yes WRP Flat Yes (but not instantaneously) Multicast capability Number of required tables Updates transmitted to No Two Neighbors No Two Neighbors &(cluster head Utilizes sequence numbers Utilizes hello messages Critical nodes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes (cluster head) Routing metric Shortest path Shortest path Shortest Path Yes Yes No No Four Neighbors

As stated earlier, DSDV routing is essentially a modification of the basic Bellman-Ford routing algorithm. The modifications include the guarantee of loop-free routes and a simple route update protocol. While only providing one path to any given destination, DSDV selects the shortest path based on the number of hops to the destination. However, DSDV is inefficient because of the requirement of periodic update transmissions, regardless of the number of changes in the network topology. In CGSR, DSDV is used as the underlying routing protocol. Routing in CGSR occurs over cluster heads and gateways. A cluster head table is necessary in addition to the routing table.

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The WRP protocol differs from the other protocols in several ways. WRP requires each node to maintain four routing tables. This can lead to substantial memory requirements, especially when the number of nodes in the network is large. During link failures, WRP has lower time complexity than DSDV since it only informs neighboring nodes about link status changes. 2.5.2 Comparison of source initiated on-demand routing protocol TABLE 4: Comparison of source initiated routing protocol Parameters Routing philosophy Loop free Multicast capability Multiple route possibilities Routes maintained in Routing configuration methodology Routing metric AODV Flat Yes Yes No Route table Erase route; Notify source Freshest and shortest path DSR Flat Yes No Yes Route cache Erase route; Notify source Shortest path SSR Flat Yes No No Route table Localized broadcast query Associativity and shortest path

AODV employs a route discovery procedure similar to DSR; however, there are a couple of important distinctions. The most notable of these is that the overhead of DSR is potentially larger than that of AODV since each DSR packet must carry full routing information, whereas in AODV packets need only contain the destination address. Similarly, the route replies in DSR are larger because they contain the address of every node along the route, whereas in AODV route replies need only carry the destination IP address and sequence number. A further advantage of AODV is its support for multicast. None of the other algorithms considered in this article currently incorporate multicast communication. On the downside, AODV requires symmetric links between nodes, and hence cannot utilize routes with asymmetric links. In this aspect DSR is superior, since it does not require the use of such links

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and can utilize asymmetric links when symmetric links are not available. An advantage of DSR over some of the other on-demand protocols is that DSR does not make use of periodic routing advertisements, thereby saving bandwidth and reducing power consumption. Hence, the protocol does not incur any overhead when there are no changes in network topology. Additionally, DSR allows nodes to keep multiple routes to a destination in their cache. Hence, when a link on a route is broken, the source node can check its cache for another valid route. If such a route is found, route reconstruction does not need to be reinvoked. In this case, route recovery is faster than in many of the other on-demand protocols. However, if there are no additional routes to the destination in the source nodes cache, route discovery must be reinitiated, as in AODV, if the route is still required. ABR is a compromise between broadcast and point-to-point routing, and uses the connectionoriented packet forwarding approach. Route selection is primarily based on the aggregated associativity ticks of nodes along the path. Hence, although the resulting path does not necessarily result in the smallest possible number of hops, the path tends to be longer lived than other routes.

2.5.3 Overall comparison of table driven and on-demand routing protocols The table-driven ad hoc routing approach is similar to the connectionless approach of forwarding packets, with no regard to when and how frequently such routes are desired. It relies on an underlying routing table update mechanism that involves the constant propagation of routing information. This is not the case, however, for on-demand routing protocols. When a node using an on-demand protocol desires a route to a new destination, it will have to wait until such a route can be discovered. Since both bandwidth and battery power are scarce resources in mobile computers, this becomes a serious limitation. Table 5 lists some of the basic differences between the two classes of algorithms.

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TABLE 5: Comparison of on-demand and table driven routing protocols Parameters Availability information Routing philosophy Periodic route updates Signaling traffic generated Flat Not required Grows with of On- demand routing Available when needed Table driven Always available regardless of need Mostly flat, except CGSR Required increasing Greatest than that of ondemand routing Inform other nodes to achieve A consistent routing table

mobality of active routes Coping with mobality Use localized route discovery

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CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION
There is a descriptions of several routing schemes proposed for ad hoc mobile networks. There is a classification of these schemes according to the routing strategy. Two categories of routing protocols were discussed. Table-driven and on-demand routing protocols. In table-driven protocols, each node maintain up-to-date routing information to all the nodes in the network where in on-demand protocols a node finds the route to a destination when it desires to send packets to the destination. Several table-driven protocols were discussed. DSDV and WRP are table-driven protocols that use destination sequence numbers to keep routes loop-free and up-to-date. CGSR is a clusterbased routing protocol where nodes are grouped into clusters. On-demand routing protocols were also discussed. In on-demand protocols, a route creation is initiated by the source when the source wants to communicate to the destination. AODV ondemand version of DSDV routing protocol. DSRP is a source routing mechanism where the route is in each packet. ABR uses the degree of associativity to select routes.