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Redox Definition: reactions which both oxidation and reduction reactions take place at the same time. Oxidation Gain in oxygen Lose of electrons Lose of hydrogen Increase in oxidation state number Reduction Lose of oxygen Gain of electrons Gain in hydrogen Decrease in oxidation state number Fixed Oxidation numbers 0 All elements, noble gases, metals +1 Group 1 ions, H+ +2 Group 2 ions +3 Al3+ -1 Group 7 ions, Oxygen in H2O2, hydrogen in Metal hydrides e.g NaH -2 O2-, S2-. -3 Nitrides N3Enjoy! Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 8:39 AM0 comments Labels: Redox
Rate of Reaction
Rate of reactions Rate of reaction can be calculated and compare by measuring a loss of mass or amount of gas collected. Factors affected rate of reaction Particle size Temperature Pressure (only for all gas system) Catalyst Concentration Use this standard statement to answer your question. Increase in temperature leads to an increase in the energy of the particles which leads to an increase in number of collisions. This leads to an increase in number of effective collisions which leads to an increase in rate of reaction. The Itallic and bold words can be change to accommodate the factors. e.g. Increase in particle sizes leads to an increase in the surface area of the reagent which leads to an increase in number of collisions. This leads to an increase in rate of reaction which leads to an increase in rate of reaction. GOT IT? When plotting graphs, the number of moles of products determine the end point of the reaction! Enjoy! Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 8:36 AM0 comments Labels: Rate of Reaction
Energy Changes
Energy Changes Enthalpy change is the amount of heat released or absorbed when a chemical reaction occurs. Exothermic reaction liberates heat energy to the surroundings which results in a general increase in the temperature of the surroundings. Endothermic reaction absorbs heat energy to the surroundings which results in a general decrease in the temperature of the surroundings. Type of reactions Enthalpy Product energy level Exothermic H= - ve because more heat is given out during bond forming than heat taken in to break them Product is at a lower energy compared to reagent. Bonds of products are stronger than bonds in reagent. Endothermic H=+ ve because more heat is taken in to break bonds than heat is given out when bonds form. Product is at a higher energy compared to reagent.
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Electrolytes
5 types of electrolysis systems Molten salt the 2 ions will discharge Aqueous salt hydrogen (unless metal is below hydrogen in that case the metal will discharge) and hydroxide ions (ALWAYS) will discharge Acidic solution - hydrogen and hydroxide ions will discharge Concentrated chlorides solution ALWAYS chloride ions, positive ions the usual method of looking at reactivity series of methods for discharge order. Reactive anode (used in the purification of copper or electroplating) anode dissolves into the solution. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES will cathode dissolve. Even in simple cells the plate that dissolve (i.e. the more reactive plate that dissolves in the anode).
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Bonding
Bonding and Structures Chemical bond is a force of attraction holding atoms together in a molecule or crystal Three types of chemical bonds Ionic bonding Covalent bonding Metallic bonding Ionic bonding involving metal and non-metal elements. Force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. Only exception is compounds like ammonium salts. Although ammonium is made up entirely of NON_METAL, it is still an Ionic compound because it contains charges. Covalent bond formed between 2 combining atoms of non-metallic by mutual sharing of one or more electrons Metallic bonding type of chemical bond that holds the atoms together in a solid metal. Its the attraction between the sea of electrons and the positive metal ions. (more important for pure chem.)
Covalent compounds - simple molecular compounds like hydrogen molecule, water molecule etc. - giant molecular structure like diamonds and silicon dioxide (pure) - graphite Ionic compounds self explanatory Metallic substances pure metals and alloys Types of substances Simple molecular Types of bonds broken during change of state: Intermolecular forces of attraction. Strength of the bond broken:Weak Melting point and Boiling point:Low Giant molecular or Giant Covalent Types of bonds broken during change of state:Covalent Strength of the bond broken:Strong Melting point and Boiling point:High Ionic Compounds Types of bonds broken during change of state:Ionic Bonds Strength of the bond broken:Strong Melting point and Boiling point:High Metals Types of bonds broken during change of state:Metallic Bonds Strength of the bond broken:Strong Melting point and Boiling point:High Enjoy!
Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 8:23 AM0 comments Labels: Chemical Bonding
Greenish Yellow, pungent Turns Blue litmus red and then bleaches red litmus Hydrogen Colorless, Odourless Extinguish lighted splint with a pop sound Oxygen Colorless, Odourless Relights glowing splint Sulphur dioxide Colorless, Choking Turns acidified potassium dichromate from orange to green Nitrogen dioxide Reddish Brown, pungent Turns Blue litmus red Water Colorless Odourless Condenses into cold water. Turns White anhydrous copper sulphate turns blue, Cobalt chloride paper turns blue to pink
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Purification
Note: Methods of purification are used only on mixtures. You cannot separate hydrogen from water using these methods. Separation Techniques Method Filtration Remove insoluble substances from liquids Distillation Obtain solvent from solute (water from salt water) Fractional Distillation
Separate a mixture of miscible liquids (petroleum, ethanol and water) Separating funnel Separate a mixture of immiscible liquids (oil and water) Crystallization Obtain solute from solution (sugar from sugar solution, salts from their own salt solution) Chromatography Separate mixtures that contain chemically similar components. Very often used for identification Crystallization (important for salt making) Steps to take Heat the solution to obtain a saturated solution Once saturated, allow the solution to cool Crystals of the salt will appear Filter the crystals from the solution Dry the salt between filter paper Chromatography (Pure Chemistry only) Rf value = distance moved by the spot/distance move by the solvent front. Rf value cannot be more than 1. Test for purity Test for constant melting and boiling point Chromatography Enjoy! Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 8:05 AM0 comments Labels: Experimental techniques, Purification
Pipette Cm3, fixed volume of 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 Cm3 Burette Cm3, volume nearest o.1 Cm3 Gas syringe Cm3, volume of gas
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As you can see from the diagram, each carbon is only bonded to 3 other atoms and they are arranged in hexangonal layers and the layers are held together by weak intermolecular force of attraction (or van de waal's forces). Lets look at diamond now. Carbon atoms in diamond bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral structure. This rigid and tough structure gives diamond its ultra tough properties, like hardness, high melting boiling points.
For comparison of properties regarding graphite and diamond stay tune! Enjoy! Entry by
2. Add sodium hydroxide from a burette gradually until the indicator changes colour. Note the volume of the sodium hydroxide needed to neutralise the sulfuric acid. 3. Repeat the titration by adding this volume of sodium hydroxide to another 25 cm3 of sulfuric acid. 4. Evaporate the sodium sulfate solution until it becomes saturated. 5. Filter the sodium sulfate crystals formed and dry between filter paper. There you go, this method is salt making for titration. Enjoy! Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 11:50 PM
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Question normally ask you to state which substance has a higher MP or BP and explain why. For our answer, it will be definitely be the ionic compound of magnesium oxide. For those who are lost, this is because ionic compounds have high MP and BP while simple covalent compounds have low MP and BP. If you have no clue how to differentiate between ionic and covalent compounds refer to this post. Now the next step is to explain why does magnesium oxide has high MP and BP. This is the suggested template. a)Start by identify the type of compounds for the substances. For our question magnesium oxide is the ionic compound and the oxide of phophorous is a simple covalent molecule. b) Next, tell the marker the kinds of bonds broken when the substances undergo change of state. This is the general rule of selection when it comes to identifying the kinds of bond broken. Ionic Compounds --- break strong ionic bonds during change of state (aka melting and boiling) Giant Covalent Compounds --- break strong covalent bonds during change of state (aka melting and boiling) Simple Covalent Molecules --- break weak intermolecular force of attraction or van da waal's forces of attraction during change of state (aka melting and boiling) c)Last part sum up your answers by telling the marker the amount of energy needed to carry out the change of state. That's all. I am gonna end this post by writing a sample answer for this type of question. Qn: Which of the 2 substances, magnesium oxide and phophorous oxide has a higher melting point. Explain. Ans: Magnesium oxide is an ionic compound and phosphorous oxide is a simple covalent compound. During change of state, magenesium oxide breaks strong ionic bonds while phosphorous oxide breaks weak intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules. Hence a lot of energy is needed to break the strong ionic bonds therefore MP is high,
while lesser energy is needed to break the weak intermolecular force of attraction hence MP of simple covalent molescules is low. Enjoy! Entry by Json Lim
Below is the flow chart you are expected to observed when an acid reacts with the above substances.
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Cheers Enjoy!
Entry by Json Lim http://www.oleveltuition.com/ Posted by ChemCherat 11:16 PM0 comments Labels: Atomic Structure
Types of Oxide
First of all, what do we consider to be oxides? Generally when a substance is made up of an element and oxygen only, its considered to be an oxide. Meaning The compound CaO, is considered an oxide since it is made up of calcium element and oxygen only. While NaOH, sodium hydroxide is not an oxide as it contains 3 elements. Hence in order to be an oxide it has to follow the sequence below. Element A + Oxygen -----> A Oxide. There are 2 major categories of oxide, namely metallic and non metallic oxide. Metallic Oxide Basic Oxide a)The first type of metallic oxide is known as basic oxide. This group of oxide reacts with acid in a neutralization reaction and if it dissolves in water, it will form alkali (the soluble basic oxides are all the group 1 oxides and calcium hydroxide based on O levels syllabus). Amphoteric Oxides b)The second type of metal oxide is made up of zinc oxide, aluminium oxide and lead (II) oxide. This group of oxides react with both acid and alkalis.
Non Metallic oxides c)Acidic oxides Acidic oxides are non metal oxides that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Otherwise, any non-metal oxides can be classified as acidic oxides. However there are a few exceptions and these are the neutral oxides d) Neutral oxides This last group of oxide are made up of all monoxides (carbon monoxide or nitrogen monoxide etc) and water. They do not have an effect on any indicators. Cheers.
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Number of neutrons: 8 Number of electrons: 10 In this ion, there are 8 positive charges and 10 negative charges, hence it has an overall charge of -2. Therefore the ion of oxygen has a charge of -2. This is how you find the ionic charge of the first 20 elements. Cheers. Enjoy!
Entry by Json Lim www.oleveltuition.com Posted by ChemCherat 8:06 AM0 comments Labels: Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding