Receiver Design Tutorial

James B. Offner (Author)

Harris Corporation Government Communications Systems Division 2400 Palm Bay Rd Palm Bay, Florida 32905
AbstractNumerous interrelated trade-offs are undertaken for any receiver or receive chain design, which must be jointly optimized for the intended operational environment. Some of the requirements resulting from this environment are: noise figure (NF), input 3rd order intercept point (IP3), input 1dB compression point (P1dB), dynamic range, input desensitization level, non-damage input power, out-of-band (OOB) interference rejection, gain and output power. This paper focuses on these requirements and the subtleties associated with achieving them. Keywords-receiver; receive chain; frequency plan; spur analysis; spur; cascade analysis; Out-of-band; interference; noise source; AGC; ALC; Monte-Carlo; intermodulation

I.

INTRODUCTION

Receive (Rx) chain design is grouped into six key areas listed below, which are then expanded and treated more fully. 1. Frequency planning / spurious (spur) analysis 2. Cascade analysis of device Gains, NFs, IPs, P1dBs and damage levels 3. Non-standard noise sources other than from cascade (wideband amplifier, image, LO, and reciprocal mixing) 4. Out-of-band interference rejection 5. Automatic Gain or level Control (AGC, ALC) 6. Statistical parameter variation, gain alignment and compensation Many of these topics are interrelated, where optimization of one area often negatively impacts one or more of the others. An optimized receiver design globally optimizes all six key design areas with equally weighted margins across all parameters. II. FREQUENCY PLANNING / SPUR ANALYSIS One of the first things to do for any Rx chain design is to develop a frequency plan and perform a spur analysis (SA) on that plan. The frequency planning process determines the RF, IF, and LO frequency ranges. Usually the RF is given for a receiver, but sub-bands of RF may be more palatable to deal with by using a switched filter bank. Without the aid of a good frequency planning tool, this can be a time consuming, bring me a rock exercise, where the optimum plan may not be discovered or worse, the complexity, cost and performance are subpar. All Rx chains are susceptible to in-band and OOB spurious responses, which must be

managed to provide robust performance in a receiver intended for hostile signal and interference environments. Filter quantity and complexity, as well as gain and phase linearity, are directly impacted by the frequency plan. The number of filters in a RF switched filter bank for a wideband receiver can be influenced by the IF selection, and an IF switched filter bank (selectable IFs after the first conversion stage) can reduce the RF filter quantity. Also, multiple conversion stages may reduce the total filter count and are often necessary to meet spur requirements for wide frequency ranges and large ratios of RF to final IF. A frequency planning tool facilitates finding an IF that is spur free or exhibits the lowest spur levels possible, given the input signal and interferer levels, selected mixer spur responses, and required bandwidths (BW) or tuning range at each mixer port. More than one IF may be usable for a given conversion stage and the best one will optimize all of the above parameters as a group. Once a frequency plan is chosen, it can be further refined by modeling actual RF and IF filter responses and performing a SA given the RF, LO and IF frequency ranges developed using the frequency planning tool. The SA takes into account the filters rejection of OOB input levels, which can significantly improve the resulting output spur levels that are caused from these OOB input frequencies. The process of frequency planning and evaluating the plan via SA can be iterative, where the frequency plan may need updating based on SA results. Down converters (DC) are either non-inverting (NIDC) using a low-side LO (1x-1), or inverting (IDC) using a highside LO (-1x1), where 1x1 represents the MxN mixing product of M x Fin plus N x FLO at the IF output. An IDC often times yields better spur performance but at the price of a higher frequency LO and greater LO phase noise. Primary spurs to manage for either DC are those with M=-N, which includes the image response. The image response is removed by filtering or using an image reject mixer or both. Spur management consists of four primary controls: Signal power at the mixer input: determined by gain distribution and required NF OOB power at the mixer input: determined by filtering and influenced by frequency plan LO power: higher levels (within limits of chosen mixer) raises the mixers input IP, and hence, lowers spur levels, however, it does not increase P1dB significantly [1]. Mixer type: class I, II and III (+7 dBm, +17 dBm and +27 dBm nominal LO drive levels) for low, medium and high mixer input IP The measured power in a given spur will vary as (P[MxN])dB = (PRF)dB x |M|, (1)

where PRF is the change in input RF power of the signal producing the spur [2] [3]. At higher input powers (positive

978-1-61284-080-2/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE

performed or updated with more accurately predicted spur levels. As the design progresses, more detail is added to the cascade analysis, such as actual part values, gain variation (R[MxN])dB = (PRF)dB x (|M| 1). (2) due to device tolerance and gain versus frequency and temperature (see the final section below for an expanded discussion on parameter variation, alignment and Additionally, [2] states that for doubly balanced diode compensation). Space limitations prohibit deriving and mixers, the LO drive level can also be taken into account to detailing the equations used to obtain overall performance predict changes in spur levels from measured values as values for a string of cascaded devices which make up a (R[MxN])dB = (|M| 1) [PRF - PLO], (3) subsystem. However, most of these equations are readily available in the literature and on web sites [4]. where PLO is the change in LO power. Spur levels decrease Some commercially available analysis programs for lower input powers (negative PRF) and higher LO estimate the overall P1dB of a subsystem by approximating power (positive PLO). the Pout vs Pin compression curve using individual device Single vs. dual or triple conversion depends on the BW PSAT and P1dB values. P1dB of a subsystem is not a fixed or required at each mixer port: a tracking filter or switched typical number of dBs below its IP3 as is often used in filter bank may allow a dual conversion, where triple would approximations for an individual device, the cascading otherwise be necessary. The choice of an IF frequency may mechanism and equations being different for the two be dictated by component capability (i.e., performance and parameters. Input IP3 degrades two to three times faster cost). A trade-off must be made between continuous tuning than does P1dB (in dBm) with additional devices of equal with increased intermod (IM) levels for tracking filters vs. contribution. The relative softness or hardness of the fixed-tuned filter quantity in a filter bank when dealing with compression curve depends on = PSAT P1dB of the high power inputs. device. s greater than 3 dB yield soft curves and are Some final notes on frequency conversion: indicative of low power solid state devices and high power traveling wave tubes (TWT). High power solid state PAs Harmonics of the LO should be filtered, otherwise a SA for each LO harmonic as the actual LO (SSPA), linearized TWTs, and mixers have s on the order frequency should be performed with the desired of 1 dB, representing a hard curve. A piece-wise linear input and output frequency ranges (this type of SA curve is approached as tends to 0 dB, where device gain is should also be done when using sub-harmonic constant below an input power of PSAT Gain (small signal) mixers). and output power is constant above. This is not realistic for Assess the MxN mixer spurs resulting in a dual or any device and care must be exercised when using a higher conversion from LO#1 leakage through the program which models compression using the method. If first conversion stage and mixing with LO#2 in the the value is set arbitrarily too low or a default value near 0 second mixer (a 1x1 CW product could exist, dB is used, the resulting prediction for P1dB will be too high which requires significant IF filtering if not and possibly not discovered until test. discovered during the frequency planning stage). Power levels at which damage occurs throughout the Rx For multi-stage conversions, assess spurs that are chain should be determined using the compression OOB at the 1st stage IF but higher than the in-band characteristics of each device and not their linear gains. For requirement. These spurs may become in-band at the specified high level, non-damage inputs an input limiter final output IF. For example: two relatively poor st may be necessary to protect the front end. However, even spurs, a -1x2 produced in the 1 conversion stage nd though the front end is protected, its saturated output level and a -1x3 in the 2 stage, can combine to become may not protect downstream components, and a lower in-band at the final IF output. power downstream limiter may also be required to protect When de-hopping a spread waveform, better spur components from high saturation levels of preceding stages. performance is usually obtained by de-hopping with When assessing damage levels throughout the Rx chain, the highest frequency LO (smallest percentage BW) keep in mind that the P SAT and P1dB values used in the III. CASCADE ANALYSIS. analysis for the basic G/L distribution are worst-case (lower bound) values and a higher bound set of values is needed for When beginning a new receiver/Rx chain design, a the non-damage assessment. When a device is guaranteed to rough cascade analysis is usually done first, which is provide minimum values, it will by definition exceed those followed by the other key design areas, the exact order values most of the time. As a result, when using the min dictated by overall requirements. Once a top level gain/loss values, maintain at least 2 or 3 dB of damage margin. (G/L) budget has been done, with the resulting gain Receivers typically work over a large range of input distribution satisfying the basic in-band NF, IP, powers and often receive simultaneous in-band signals, compression (P1dB), and non-damage requirements, then some of which are at the very bottom of the power range approximate levels will be known at the mixers. With these while at the same time others exist at the upper end. This levels in hand, a frequency plan/spur analysis can be PRF) the spur level increases. The ratio of spur power to input RF power varies as

scenario stresses the receivers sensitivity and power handling capability at the same time; high power can cause suppression of small signals, reducing S/N and removing AM, and it also creates IMs, which may fall on a weak desired signal. This is the near-far problem of receiving weak distant signals in the face of strong, local in-band interferers. The interferer may only be in-band at RF or through the first IF, but the receiver must remain linear wherever the interferer exists. SFDR3 (3rd order spur free dynamic range) is a figure of merit that gives the difference (in dB) between a threshold level PT and the CW carrier power that causes a single 3rd order IM to equal the noise power in a given BW. This parameter is defined by the receiver NF, IP3 and noise power BW as

bandwidth (NBW) are important parameters to determine, maintaining their values within acceptable limits does not necessarily guarantee adequate system performance without also evaluating and controlling these additional sources discussed below.

A. Total Noise Power Total noise power from amplifiers over their individual NBWs, can be much greater than the single fixed NBW used for system evaluation. Crystal filters commonly employed at lower frequency IFs can have 3 dB BWs which are a tiny fraction of the IF amplifier(s) NBW. For example, consider a 10 KHz crystal filter used in a 21.4 MHz IF strip with amplifiers having significant gain out to 300 MHz. The noise power over 300 MHz is 45 dB greater than that over SFDR3 = (IIP3 NF BW + 174) POffset, (4) 10 KHz and could easily compress or saturate the output of an IF strip with relatively high gain and low P 1dB. Even if the total (average) noise power is below P 1dB, the 3 noise where IIP3 is the input IP3 in dBm, both NF and BW are in peaks for additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) are 9.5 dB, and POffset is the difference in dB between PT and the dB higher given N0 = 2 [6]: noise power in BW [5]. This equation is usually shown with POffset = 0 dB. However, it could be set to 10 dB (e.g.) to Pn (3) = [3(N0)]2 BW (5) account for a minimum signal-to-noise (S/N) necessary in BW, raising the minimum useful signal level and reducing = 9 N0 BW, (6) the dynamic range. Note that the IM power in BW will reduce the minimum S/N to 7 dB in this example. where N0 is noise density (W/Hz) and BW is in Hz. These There are several dynamic range definitions, and it is not peaks can get clipped, making it no longer AWGN. It is always clear which one is invoked when a specification important to realize that noise saturation can occur even simply states that the receiver dynamic range must exceed a though the signal is far below P1dB. certain value. Some of these definitions are: B. Image Noise SFDR3 (as defined above) SFDR2: 2nd order SFDR, the difference between a Image noise, without proper filtering prior to each mixer, threshold level PT and the CW carrier level that can increase the standard cascaded NF by up to 3 dB for causes a sum or difference frequency to equal the each conversion stage. To sufficiently lessen the impact of noise power in a given BW. Many times PT is set image noise, an image reject filter must be placed close to equal to the noise power in BW. the mixers input. It is not sufficient to provide image P1dB PNOISE: distance between the input P1dB point rejection to signals only (i.e., input filter followed by gain and the noise power in a given BW referred to the prior to the mixer). The wideband response of the amplifiers receivers input will fold over their noise generated at the image frequency PDESENSITIZATION PNOISE: difference between the into the IF and can impact the system, even though the input power which causes a specified amount of image signals and noise prior to the filter have been degradation (desensitization) and the noise power in adequately suppressed. a given BW referred to the receivers input PCAR_MAX PNOISE: difference between the maximum input carrier power for some specified degradation and the noise power in a given BW referred to the receivers input PCAR_MAX PCAR_MIN: difference between the maximum and minimum input carrier powers for specified degradation(s) Instantaneous SFDR3 same as SFDR3 but with all variable gain amps and attenuators fixed to respond to strong and weak signals with the same gains. IV. NOISE POWER. C. Wideband, Unfiltered LO Noise LO noise leaks through the mixer to the IF (LO-IF isolation) and adds to the cascaded noise floor. The LO chains output noise density at the input to the mixer LO port must be assessed. High gains in the LO chain followed only by a low pass filter (LPF) to remove harmonics guarantee additional noise will be added to the IF, degrading the NF predicted by the cascade analysis. A bandpass filter (BPF) or highpass filter (HPF) D. Reciprocal mixing Reciprocal mixing occurs as a result of the transfer of the LOs phase noise to each of the receive signals (in dBc) via the convolution process of the mixer. Degradation to a

Several additional noise sources should be considered beyond those typically assessed in a generic cascade analysis. While noise floor and noise power within the noise

weak signal can occur when high and low power in-band signals are present that are closely spaced in frequency. The added phase noise from the LO on the high power signal may cover up the nearby lower power signal, significantly reducing its S/N. For extremely large dynamic ranges (PCAR_MAX PCAR_MIN), the AWGN of the LO may also reduce the S/N of weak signals, independent of frequency separation. The equivalent C/kT of the weak receive signal in the presence of a large tone from reciprocal mixing is [7]: ( ) {( ) *( ) + } . The (C/kT)LO term is either the LO carrier to noise density, when assessing LO AWGN impacts, or it is the single side band phase noise at a given frequency offset in dBc. Each term above is in dB and must be converted to watts to do the calculation and then back to dB again (10 log X) to give the equivalent C/kT result in dB-Hz. V. OUT-OF-BAND INTERFERENCE. There are several mechanisms by which strong OOB interferers at the input can degrade the performance of the Rx chain and are similar in nature to how large in-band signals degrade performance. The mitigation approach for most of these involves filtering and higher intercept and compression point devices. Since most microwave filters have a re-entrant passband (PB) at 2Fo or 3Fo, an additional low pass filter (LPF) should also be used to ensure signals in one of these unprotected PBs dont degrade performance. The filters ultimate rejection, which is limited by leakage around it and isolation of its individual elements, is another reason to use additional filters, especially with very high power OOB interferers. The magnitude of an OOB interferer can be 200 V/m in accordance with MIL-STD461/464, incident power levels from some radar systems can be orders of magnitude greater, and local TV stations can have EIRPs up to 5 MW in the UHF frequency range. A. Spurious Responses Spurs in-band to the IF output can also result from high power OOB interferers (includes image spurious response). The power at some OOB frequencies may be many 10s of dBs above the strongest desired in-band signals at the mixer, which can produce very high spur levels relative to the weaker desired signals. For example, consider a -3x2 spur where the OOB interferer power is filtered to not exceed the mixers P1dB point of 0 dBm at its input (60 dB above a desired -60 dBm signal). The mixer data sheet shows the -3x2 spur level to be -50 dBc for an input of -10 dBm. For the interferer level of 0 dBm, the spur relative to the interferers power increases by 20 dB to -30 dBc in accordance with (IAW) (2) (i.e., P x (|M|-1) = [0 dBm (-10 dBm)] x (3-1)). The desired signal is 60 dB below the (7)

OOB interferer, so the spur level with respect to the desired carrier rises 60 dB to +30 dBc. Obviously, keeping the OOB power just below the mixers P1dB point is not sufficient. Additional input filtering is needed to drop the spur power to at least 30 dB below the minimum desired signal level. While this requires a 60 dB spur level reduction, it only requires 20 dB of additional filter rejection. Recall the earlier spur level discussion: absolute spur power at IF (dBm) resulting from an OOB interferer varies IAW (1) as P x |M|. Here we see that for a 3xN spur, an OOB power change of only 20 dB yields the 60 dB spur reduction. B. Compression Compression of the front end and down-stream IF components can occur until sufficient rejection is provided. Compression from a large signal produces small signal suppression of weak signals resulting in receiver desensitization. The effective gain of a compressed stage is reduced, degrading its ability to keep weak signals above the noise floor of succeeding stages. For QAM signals, the distance between the inner and outer points of the constellation become compressed, causing degradation. A weak signal experiences reduced gain from two factors when passing through a stage that is driven into compression by a large signal: device gain compression and small signal suppression. Gain compression is determined from the typical Pout vs. Pin curve as measured with the large signal causing the compression. Small signal suppression is an additional amount of up to 6 dB that only happens to weak signals [8]. Gain seen by the weak (suppressed) signal is given below where compression is < 4 dB: GSUPPRESSED_SIGNAL GSS (small signal) GC (compression) (small signal suppression). For a device at or driven beyond saturation (i.e., > 4 dB compression), the suppressed signal gain is: GSUPPRESSED_SIGNAL GSS 10 dB P, (9) (8)

where P is the amount the interferer power is above PSAT at the input, and the 10 dB is comprised of 4 dB (compression at saturation) and 6 dB (max small signal suppression). The total gain reduction, GR, of a stage is: GR 0 to 4 dB (compression) + 0 to 6 dB (suppression) + P, (10)

where P only applies for a device at or beyond saturation. A rule of thumb to ensure the gain seen by a weak signal is not degraded more than 1 dB is to keep large signals 2 to 3 dB below input P1dB. C. 3rd Order Intermods IMs (in-band) that result from OOB carriers can dominate over those created solely from in-band carriers.

The IM level depends on the IP3 of each stage and the carrier levels throughout the chain, which depends not only on the in-band G/L of each stage but also filter rejection. As a result it is a little more involved to calculate the IM ratio (IMR), the IM level compared to the desired carrier, than for a standard in-band cascade. The individual IM generating carrier levels can have different values at the Rx chain input and typically experience different rejection amounts. Twotone and three-tone IM levels generated in any stage are calculated as described below, with carrier levels defined at the same location as IP3 (input or output). Two-tone IMs are those generated from two carriers with power in Watts defined as follows [9, 10]:

Pspur = Pint (IP2 Pint) 6 dB = 2Pint IP2 6 dB (16)

PIM ( 2 F 1 F2 )

P 2 P2 P P22 1 1 and PIM ( 2 F F ) 2 1 IP32 IP32

A HPF or BPF is used in the IF strip to mitigate for less than octave instantaneous IF BWs, but high IP2H (2nd harmonic IP) is the only mitigation approach for larger BWs. A similar effect occurs for 3rd harmonic generation within the IF strip, where RF input frequencies that are offset from the tuned RF frequency by 2/3 the IF become inband at the IF in two ways: Mixer 3x-3 (or -3x3) spur from RF input and 3rd harmonic of IF/3 (i.e., IF 2/3 IF) In this case the 3rd harmonic is 9.5 dB below 3rd order twotone IMs and experience a 3:1 reduction (dBm) with lower (11) interferer levels [10, 11]. Pspur = Pint 2(IP3 Pint) 9.5 dB = 3Pint 2IP3 9.5 dB (17)

where P1 and P2 are the power in Watts at frequencies F1 and F2, respectively, and IP3 is the 3rd order intercept point in watts of the device creating the IMs. For powers in dBm, the equations become:

PIM ( 2 F1 F2 ) 2P P2 2IP3 1 PIM ( 2 F2 F1 ) P 2P2 2IP3 1

These spur generating frequencies are more easily filtered at RF and in the IF strip than the IF offsets for 2nd harmonic (12) generation. Higher IP3H devices also help to mitigate. (13) VI. AGC/ALC.

Automatic Gain or Level Control is employed in many receivers as a means to increase dynamic range and hold input power to the demodulator constant. There are two main types of AGC by location: Post-demod: reacts to the demodulated signal level (coherent AGC) + noise and any interference, 4 P P2 P3 primarily within the data filter BW. This type 1 PIM ( F1 F2 F3 ) W (14) 2 responds to the desired signal and is relatively IP3 insensitive to undesired signals and interference (due to the narrow data filter BW). The demod must be PIM ( F1 F2 F3 ) 6 P P2 P3 2IP3 dBm (15) 1 locked to the signal for a meaningful output to exist, and the AGC gain is typically at maximum prior to Management of these IMs is accomplished by filter lock (no signal present). rejection, device IP3 and gain, and judicious gain Pre-demod: reacts to Signals + Noise + Interferers + distribution throughout the Rx chain, especially through the Distortion products (spurs/IMs) in the wider IF BW first mixer stage. For very large input levels additional prior to the AGCs detector. This type is used to filters may be necessary to improve the ultimate rejection of mitigate front end compression, desensitization, or the front-end filter(s). small signal suppression at the expense of NF degradation. The benefits of its use are a trade-off D. Harmonics based on the EMI/RFI environment. nd 2 harmonic generation within the IF strip is a spurious Either type can be an analog (continuously variable mechanism that is often overlooked. RF input frequencies attenuation/gain) or digital (step attenuator) implementation. that are offset from the tuned RF frequency by the IF Any AGC can be captured by or AGC on undesired become in-band at the IF in two ways: power. Strong OOB signals can easily exceed the weakest Mixer 2x-2 (or -2x2) spur from RF input and desired signal power at the AGC detector due to insufficient 2nd harmonic of IF/2 ultimate rejection of filters. An additional narrowband filter Both produce CW tone spurs for BPSK modulation (i.e., may be necessary to prevent capture by undesired signals. 0/180 becomes 0/360). Total noise power can also capture a pre-demod AGC. The 2nd harmonic is 6 dB below 2nd order IMs (i.e., The IF BW can be many times larger than the occupied BW F1+F2, F2-F1) and experiences a 2:1 reduction (dBm) with of the desired signal, which affects the accuracy of the lower interferer levels [11]. The 2-tone IMs are 6 dB lower in power than an IM resulting from three carriers (3-tone IM), when the same individual carrier power is used in both cases. The power in a 3-tone IM is defined below [9, 10]:

AGC. As the desired signal level approaches the total power in the noise at the AGC detector, the gain control of the AGC stops responding to the signal and maintains the S+N constant, which is dominated by the total noise power. As a result the signal continues to drop and eventually falls below the operational range of the demod, even though adequate S/N in the NBW may be present. This effect limits the useful range of pre-demod AGCs from the maximum signal level down to a level above the total noise power, which typically is adequate to prevent compression. Another example of AGC noise capture comes from the earlier noise power discussion. Here a high gain IF strip has multiple gain stages with a narrowband XTAL filter after the first stage to limit IM generation. An AGC detector at the end of this IF strip can easily be captured by noise with filter-to-amp NBW ratios of 40 dB to 50 dB. One final note concerns AGC control (or variable gain) elements. Some voltage variable attenuators have the undesirable characteristic that their input IP3 and P1dB do not remain constant as their attenuation is varied. Worse, some can exhibit both increasing and decreasing values (i.e., their behavior is not monotonic). This makes it difficult to predict overall receiver performance with one gain setting. Input power levels must be swept (especially for devices which are not monotonic) to exercise the AGC control element while checking for compression and IMs. PIN diode attenuators typically do not share this behavior. VII. DEVICE PARAMETER VARIATIONS, ALIGNMENT, AND GAIN COMPENSATION.

case condition (i.e., all high or low gains). Then optimize the gain distribution and/or other parameters, as appropriate (e.g., increase IP of the actual dominate component), and rerun the analysis. VIII. CONCLUSION. Six key Rx chain design areas (spurious, cascaded elements, non-standard noise, OOB interference, AGC, and MC analysis) have been presented with several subtleties of each discussed. The approach has been somewhat a design check-list of topics to address for receiver design. The importance of MC analysis to achieve a realizable design that is cost effective cannot be understated. Author. James B. Offner is an RF Systems Engineer with Harris Corporation in Melbourne, FL with over 30 years of experience, working on large multidiscipline programs from mission requirements determination and system analysis through HW/SW implementation. He has contributed to the development of mobile tactical and large fixed strategic satcom terminals, and recently was the RF System Architect /Analyst for the Armys strategic MET terminal development. He has performed analysis for development of Navy shipboard terminals, operating with heavy EMI/cosite interference and has developed analysis programs in use at Harris for RF subsystem design. He was the Chief Systems Engineer for the development of a vehicular, on-the-move communication system, via aircraft relay, using multiple phased array antennas. Jim earned his B.S.E.E. from Michigan State University in 1977. REFERENCES
[1] Daniel Cheadle, Selecting Mixers for Best Interemod Performnace, 1993 Watkins-Johnson Co. Catalog Article [2] William F. Egan, Practical RF System Design, WileyInterscience, 2003, pp. 171-180. [3] Stephen A. Mass, Microwave Mixers, Artec House, 1996, pp. 151-154. [4] William F. Egan, Practical RF System Design, WileyInterscience, 2003, pp. 49-53 and 91-122. [5] William F. Egan, Practical RF System Design, WileyInterscience, 2003, pp. 137-139. [6] John G. Proakis, Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill, 1983, pp. 93. [7] Jim Offner, Internal Harris document, 2011. [8] Robert M. Gagliardi, Satellite Communications, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984, pp. 201-203. [9] Stephen A. Mass, Microwave Mixers, Artec House, 1996, pp. 154-158. [10] Hinrich Heynisch, Useful Design Criteria Predict TWT Intermod, MICROWAVES, March 1980 [11] Keneth A. Simons, The Decibel Relationships Between Amplifier Distortion Products, Proceedings of the IEEE, VOL. 58, NO. 7, July 1970

Parameters should be evaluated over statistical tolerances, and frequency and environmental variations via Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations with gain alignment and compensation applied for each trial of random gain settings. Gain tolerance build up should be removed, and gain compensation applied, often throughout the Rx chain for best performance. MC analysis is necessary to even find the worst-case (or 3) performance condition for anything other than a simple Rx chain which does not use gain alignment, compensation, or AGC. When an analysis is done using nominal values, actual performance can be several dB (e.g., 5 dB) worse than predicted, yielding production problems. On the other hand, designing with absolute worst-case values (simultaneously) will produce units that exceed requirements by as much as 8 dB (depending on the parameter and gain distribution), which leads to an overdesigned unit and higher production costs. MC analysis can make the difference between being able to produce a unit at a reasonable cost versus a no bid for a very difficult set of requirements. Once a MC analysis has been completed, the Rx chain should be evaluated at the condition which yielded the 3 performance for any parameter(s) that are non-compliant. Often the offending part revealed is not the same as that shown under nominal or even absolute simultaneous worst-