PROJECT REPORT

ON ENERGY

METERS

BEING DONE AT SKN- BENTEX

SUBMITTED IN FULFILLING OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SUMMER TRAINING

OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.Tech), 7TH SEMESTER MAHARASHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK

SUBMITTED BY PANKAJ KUMAR 08/BV/LE/EEE/LE/08

BHARTI VIDYAPEETH`S COLLEGE OF ENGNEERING

A-4 PASCHIM VIHAR, NEW DELHI-110063 (AN AICTE APPORVED AND ISO 9001:2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTE)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT CERTIFICATE INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING COMPANY PROFILE ENERGY METERS Introduction to Energy Meters Units of Measurement TYPES of METERS:o ELECTRO-MECHANICAL o ELECTRONIC Testing Of Meters Tampering of Meters FUTURE TRENDS Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) Common Meter Reading Instrument (CMRI) OTHER PRODUCTS OF THE COMPANY Ceiling Fans MCBs Star-Delta Motor Starters Monoblock Pumps SUMMARY

PAGE NUMBER
3 4 5 7 9

52

71

79

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I hereby take this opportune moment to express my deep sense of gratitude to my mentor Mr. Rakesh Chandra Nautiyal for his unstinted support and encouragement. His wonderful style of mentoring has surely made my Vocational Training period a great learning experience. I would also like to offer my indebtedness to Mr. Amit Yadav (Senior Engineer, RND) & Mr. Manoj Tyagi (RND Incharge) for their ever willingness to extend technical support throughout this period. I express my sincere thanks to all the members of SKN-BEXTEX for their friendly and helpful attitude.

PANKAJ KUMAR
(ENGINEER TRA

INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING
Training is a process of learning. Training is an organized procedure during which people learn knowledge and skill for the definite purpose. It is a short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure in which non-managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. It refers to instruction in technical and mechanical operations like operation of a machine. It is for a short duration and for a specific job related purpose. Training is very difficult from education. Training is vocational where as education is general. Training is job-oriented whereas education is personoriented. However, it is difficult in practice to differentiate between education and training because in many cases both of them occur simultaneously. The two are complementary and both involve development of talent and human potential. Generally, every level needs training. Training is not something that is done once to new employees; it needs to be done continuously.

IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING:
Training leads to higher productivity. It leads to better quality of work. It leads to cost reduction. It leads to high motivation and morale of employees. The organizational climate gets improved. It leads to self-satisfaction of the employees. Supervision gets reduced. It leads to good cordial relation between employer and employee. It leads to development of new skills in the employees.
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SCOPE OF SUMMER TRAINING:

The summer training programs are designed for the students to master their technical skills. The summer training should include the following objectivesa) Correlate courses of study with the way industry or potential work place operates its business or work using technology. b) Work on implementing what has been learned in school or college. The engineering and professional courses including MCA, B.E., B.TECH, BCA amongst other have undergraduates needing internship in fields of computer science, electrical and electronics, mechanical, civil, bioinformatics, etc. The students for professional programs are required as a part of courses to undergo a few weeks (or months) training. Summer training is a good strategy with variations suiting the individuals tastes by improving their experience and making them reach a good enough company or workplace just in time. This training can result in learning of open source technology as a user of technology. That technology can be applied to improve the college infra-structure. The objective of training in Modern Office Practice is to give a perspective about the organization and functioning of all the areas of management in an industrial unit.

SKN - BENTEX GROUP OF COMPANIES

COMPANY PROFILE:
SKN-BENTEX group started operations 50 years back at Delhi, the capital state of India with manufacturing of Electrical items. Chopra Brothers Mr. Satish Chopra, Mr. Kapil Chopra & Mr. Nishit Chopra has promoted the group. SKN-BENTEX Group products are at the forefront of innovation in industrial and agricultural field for protection and control of Electric Motor. It is the pioneers and leaders in the field with latest international engineering products based on the worlds best technology since last four decades. SKN-BENTEX Group has a rich history of success, which has been achieved through dedication, teamwork and visionary thinking and sincere service of pride in result oriented performance. SKN-BENTEX Group has been continuously restructuring to set up state-of-the-art electrical products manufactured at their own plants under strict quality control standard. In this thrust , most of group companies adopted International Quality Standard and have been certified for ISO-9001 Certification and products are also available on ISI-Marked. The SKN-BENTEX Group of Companies engaged in wide range of products and has mainly three subgroups of electrical product range such as SKN, SKN Bentex Linger BENTEX-Linger with their separate products line and SKN-BENTEX Group is a collection of smaller companies specialist in a specific range of products. Besides this SKN-BENTEX group engaged in the field of, LPG Home Appliances, LPG Regulators, Building Construction and Export Activities. Home Appliances: LPG Gas Stove , Cooking Range (OTG & Oven), LPG Burner, LPG Regulator & Adaptor, Gas Stove with Copper Brazed Cylinder, Hotel Equipments: Kitchen Equipments, Service Trolleys, Deep & Vertical Freezers, India Railways: Water Tanks, Luggage Racks, Doors, Pantry Equipments for Coaches. Electrical Appliances: MCB, MCCB, ELCB, Energy Meter, Motor Starters & Complete Range of Electrical Products. Mono Block Pump, Exhaust Fan, Auto LPG Conversion Kit with Cylinder, CNG Conversion Kit, Building Construction Township Development, Hotel & Clubs, Retail Shopping Malls, LPG Dispensing Station To undertake Turnkey Project for installation & Commissioning. Haryana City Gas To Undertake Turnkey Project for distribution of Natural Gas to Domestic, Commercial, Industrial and Transport sector. Firm Type :Proprietorship Nature of Business :Manufacturer,Export/Import Level to Expand :International Today, with the above wide range of products SKN-Bentex group is a well-recognized name in Indian Household. Group has already achieved turnover of USD 50.00 Mn and has employed more than 1000 employees in 8 manufacturing locations in National Capital region of Delhi and regional offices supporting our business through- out the country. After making its presence felt in the domestic market, Group has already spread wings in internationally n started exports to various countries through a separate export division.

ENERGY METERS

INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY METERS:

An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to or produced by a residence, business or machine. Electricity is a clean, convenient way to deliver energy. The electricity meter is how electricity providers measure billable services. The most common type of meter measures kilowatt hours. When used in electricity retailing, the utilities record the values measured by these meters to generate an invoice for the electricity. They may also record other variables including the time when the electricity was used. Since it is expensive to store large amounts of electricity, it must usually be generated as it is needed. More electricity requires more generators, and so providers want consumers to avoid causing peaks in consumption. Electricity meters have therefore been devised that that encourage users to shift their consumption of power away from peak times, such as mid-afternoon, when many buildings turn on air-conditioning. For these applications, meters measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. In some areas, the meters charge more money at certain times of day, to reduce use. Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential equipment. Providers are also concerned about efficient use of their distribution network. So, they try to maximize the delivery of billable power. This includes methods to reduce tampering with the meters. Also, the network has to be upgraded with thicker wires, larger transformers, or more generators if parts of it become too hot from excessive currents. The currents can be caused by either real power, in which the waves of voltage and current coincide, or apparent power, in which the waves of current and voltage do not overlap, and so cannot deliver power. Since providers can only collect money for real power, they try to maximize the amount of real power delivered by their networks. Therefore, distribution networks always incorporate electricity meters that measure apparent power, usually by displaying or recording power factors or volt-amp-reactive-hours. Many industrial power meters can measure volt-amp-reactive hours.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT:
The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour, which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI megajoule instead. Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter or half hour. Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (varh) in kilovar-hours. A "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have negative reactive power. A "leading", or capacitive load, will have positive reactive power. Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and amperes. Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is the ratio of resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a fillament lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads such as computer power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall within specified limits.

Other units of measurement:

In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are available. Meters which measured the amount of charge (coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was not a likely circumstance with most supplies. Some meters measured only the length of time for which current flowed, with no measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current being made. These were only suited for constant load applications. Neither type is likely to be used today.

TYPES OF METERS:
Modern electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) and finding the product of these to give instantaneous electrical power (watts) which is then integrated against time to give energy used (joules, kilowatt-hours etc). The meters fall into two basic categories, Electromechanical and Electronic.

ELECTROMECHANICAL METERS

10

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL METERS
INTRODUCTION:
The most common type of electricity meter is the Thomson or electromechanical induction watt-hour meter, invented by Elihu Thomson in 1888. The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an aluminium disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small amount of power, typically around 2 watts. The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power being used. The disc drives a register mechanism which integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used over a period of time.

The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils. 11

CONSTRUCTION:
The construction varies in details from one manufacturers product to the next. However, the differences are very minor in nature. There are four main parts of the operating mechanism: 1. Driving System 3. Braking System 2. Moving System 4. Registering System

Driving System
The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets. The core of the electromagnets are made up of silicon-steel laminations. The core of one of the electromagnets is excited by the load current. This coil is called the current coil. The coil of second electromagnet is connected across the supply and, therefore, carries a current proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil. Consequently the two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively. Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The position of these bands is adjustable. The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage.

Moving System
This consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets. The upper bearing of the rotor (moving system) is a steel pin located in a hole in the bearing cap fixed to the top of the shaft. The rotor runs on a hardened steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a jewel bearing. The pinion engages the shaft with the counting or registering mechanism. A unique design for the suspension of the disc is used in the floating shaft energy meter. Here the rotating shaft has a small magnet at each end, where the upper magnet of the shaft is attracted to a magnet in the upper bearing and the lower magnet of the shaft is attracted to a magnet in the lower bearing. The moving system thus floats without touching either bearing surface, and the only contact with the movement is that of the gear connecting the shaft with the gear of the train, thus the friction is drastically reduced.

12

Braking System
The permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the of the Aluminium disc forms the braking system. The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking torque. The position of the permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by shifting the permanent magnet to different radial positions.

Registering System
The function of a registering or a counting mechanism is to record continuously a number which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears the pinion on the rotor shaft drives a series of five or six pointers. These rotate on round dials which are marked with ten equal divisions.

OPERATION
The supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil. The pressure coil winding is highly inductive as it has very large number of turns and the reluctance of its magnetic circuit is very small owing to presence of air gaps of very small length. Thus the current I through the pressure coil is proportional to the supply voltage and lags it by a few degrees less 13

than 90. This is because the winding has a small resistance and there are iron losses in the magnetic circuit.Current produces a flux. This flux divides itself into two parts. The major portion of it flows across the side gaps as reluctance of this path is small. The reluctance to the path of flux is large and hence its magnitude is small. This flux goes across aluminium disc and hence is responsible for production of driving torque. Flux is in phase with current I and is proportional to it. Therefore flux is proportional to voltage V and lags it by an angle a few degrees less than 90. Since flux is alternating in nature, it induces an eddy emf E in the disc which inturn produces eddy currents.The load current I flows through the current coil and produces a flux. This flux is proportional to the load current and is in phase with it. This flux produces eddy current Ies in the disc. Now the eddy current Ies interacts with flux to produce a torque and eddy current interacts with flux to produce another torque. These two torques are in opposite direction and the net torque is the difference of these.

Diagram 468 Missing

Some Important Readings:

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Lag Adjustment Devices:

Meter will register true energy only if the angle is made equal to 90. Thus the angle between the shunt magnet flux and the supply voltage V should be equal to 90. This requires that the pressure coil winding should be so designed that it is highly inductive and has a low resistance and the iron losses in the core are small. But even with this the phase of flux is not 90 wrt V but a few degrees less than 90 Diagram 469 missing

The required mmf is obtained from a lag coil which is located on the central limb of the shunt magnet close to the disc gap and links with the flux that cuts the disc. The arrangements for adjusting the mmf of the lag coil are: 1. Adjustable Resistance : A few turns of fairly thick wire are placed around the 15

central limb of the shunt magnet and the circuit is closed through a low adjustable resistance. The resistance of this circuit is altered to adjust the lag angles of flux. The resistance of the lag coil is so adjusted that angle becomes equal to 90. 2. Shading Bands : In this, copper shading bands L are placed around the central limb of shunt magnet instead of a lag coil with adjustable resistance. The adjustment can be done by moving the shading bands along the axis of the limb. As the shading bands are moved up the limb, they embrace more flux. This results in greater values for induced emf, current and mmf AT produced by the shading bands and therefore the values of lag angle decreases. When the shading bands are moved down limb, mmf AT decreases and the lag angle is reduced. The adjustment is so done that angle is equal to 90 degrees.

Light Load or Friction Compensation:

Despite every care taken in the design of both the jeweled-pivot bearing, which forms the lower bearing for the spindle, and of the simple sleeve pin-type bearing at the top of the spindle, friction errors are liable to be serious particularly at light loads. In order to ensure accurate registration at low loads, it is therefore necessary to arrange for small torque, practically independent of the load on the meter, which acts in the direction of rotation and which is nearly as possible equal in magnitude to the friction torque. This is usually obtained by means of a small shading loop situated between the centre pole of the shunt magnet and the disc and slightly the one side of the centre-line of the pole.

CREEP:
In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is obtained even when there is no current flowing through the current coil and only pressure coil is energized. This is called creeping. The major cause for creeping is over-compensation for friction. If the friction compensating device is adjusted to give a driving torque to compensate for starting friction which is bigger than the running friction, there is a tendency for the disc to run even when there is no current through the current coils because the friction compensation torque is independent of the load current as the compensating device is voltage actuated. The other causes for creeping are excessive voltage across the potential coil, vibrations, and stray magnetic fields. In order to prevent this creeping two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in the disc, the disc will come to rest with one of the holes under the edge of a pole of the shunt magnet, the rotation being thus limited to a maximum of half a revolution. In some cases a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc. The force of attraction exerted by the brake magnet on the iron piece is sufficient to prevent creeping of disc.

Overload Compensation
Its customary to add an overload compensating device. This usually takes the form of a magnetic shunt for the series magnet core. The magnetic shunt approaches saturation and so its permeability decreases at overloads. Thus at large currents the magnetic shunt diverts less of series magnet flux, so that a larger portion of the flux appears in the disc air gap and contributes to driving torque. 16

Voltage Compensation
A certain amount of variation is permitted in the declared voltage of supply. Therefore, energy meters must be compensated for this variation. Voltage variations cause errors owing to two reasons: 1. The relationship between shunt magnet flux and the supply voltage is not linear owing to saturation in iron parts; 2. The shunt magnet flux produces a dynamically induced emf in the disc which in turn results in a self-braking torque which is proportional to square of the supply voltage.

Temperature Compensation
An increase in temperature is accompanied by a rise in resistance of all cpooer and aluminium parts and results in: 1 A small decrease in the potential coil flux and a reduction in angle of loag between V and flux. 2 A decrease in torques produced by all shading bands 3 An increase in the resisitance of the eddy current paths 4 A decrease in the angle of lag of the eddy currents

ERRORS IN SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METERS

The errors caused by the driving system are: 1. Incorrect magnitude of fluxes : This maybe due to abnormal values of current or voltage. The shunt magnet flux maybe in error due to changes in resistance of coil or due to abnormal frequencies. 2. Incorrect phase angles : There may not be proper relationship between the various phasors. This maybe due to improper lag adjustments, abnormal frequencies. Change in resistance with temperature etc. 3. Lack of Symmetry in magnetic circuit : In case the magnetic circuit is not symmetrical, a driving toque is produced which makes the meter creep. The errors caused by the Braking system are: 1. Changes in strength of brake magnet 2. Changes in disc resistance 3. Self braking effect of series magnet flux 4. Abnormal friction of moving parts

ADJUSTMENT IN SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METERS

Some adjustments are carried out in energy meters so that they read correctly and their errors are within allowable limits. The sequence of these adjustments are: 1. Preliminary Light Load Adjustment : The disc is so positioned that the holes are not underneath the electromagnets. Rated voltage is applied to the potential coil

17

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

with no current through the current coil. The light load device is adjusted until the disc just fails to start. Full Load Unit Factor Adjustment : The pressure coil is connected across the rated supply voltage and rated full load current at unity power factor is passed through the current coils. Lag Adjustment(Low Power factor adjustment) : The pressure coil is connected across rated supply voltage and rated full load current is passed through the current coil at 0.5 p.f. lagging. The lag device is adjusted till the meter runs at correct speed. With rated supply voltage, rated full load current and unity power factor, the speed of the meter is checked and full load unity p.f. and low p.f. adjustments are repeated until the desired accuracy limits are reached for both conditions. Light Load Adjustment : This is done so that meter runs at correct speed. Full load unity power factor and light load adjustments are again done until speed is correct for both loads i.e full load as well aslight load. The performance is rechecked at 0.5 p.f. lagging. Creep Adjustment

READING ELECTROMECHANICAL METERS

The aluminium disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. It should be noted that with the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism. The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol Kh which is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is commonly seen. Using the value of Kh, one can determine their power consumption at any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch. If the time in seconds taken by the disc to complete one revolution is t, then the power in watts is

P = 3600. Kh t
For example, if Kh = 7.2, as above, and one revolution took place in 14.4 seconds, the power is 1800 watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of household devices by switching them on one by one.

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Most domestic electricity meters must be read manually, whether by a representative of the power company or by the customer. Where the customer reads the meter, the reading may be supplied to the power company by telephone, post or over the internet. The electricity company will normally require a visit by a company representative at least annually in order to verify customer-supplied readings and to make a basic safety check of the meter.

ELECTRONIC METERS
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INTRODUCTION
Electronic meters compared to traditional mechanical solutions in use offer several additional advantages to the utility market. The metering utilities that can be replaced are gas, water and electricity. The advantages are: Better reliability Better accuracy Ease of calibration Anti-tampering protection Automated meter reading Security Advanced billing Of particular importance to the utility company is the tampering of meters. It is estimated that millions of dollars are lost due to the tampering of these meters. Among the tampering are temporary meter disconnect for a period of time before the readings are taken, the use of permanent magnets to saturate current transformers and insertion of mechanical devices to slow down the mechanical turning of the disc. Electronic energy meters are replacing traditional electromechanical meters in many residential, commercial and industrial applications because of the versatility and low-cost afforded by electronic meter designs. Single- and multi-chip meter designs are helping meter manufacturers and their customers realize these benefits. Thanks to these 20

continually evolving metering ICs, meter builders can implement many features that were impractical with the older mechanical designs. For example, an electronic design can protect against meter tampering and theft of service. It also can measure and record energy usage at different times of the day, so utilities can bill customers for energy based on time of usage. An electronic energy meter also can enable automatic meter reading (AMR), whereby energy metering data is transmitted to the utility over an RF, power line or even infrared communications link. Furthermore, electronic meters pave the way for submetering of smaller operating units (for example, metering each apartment rather than just the building). Improved accuracy and lower power consumption are other benefits of electronic metering. With a mechanical meter, the error in the basic energy usage measurement is on the order of 1%. But with an electronic implementation, it is possible to reduce that error to less than 0.1%. Moreover, running the mechanical meter with its continuously spinning dial may require hundreds of milliamps. That power consumption can be reduced to a couple milliamps in an electronic energy meter, producing big power savings for the utility.Electronic meter designs also change the economics of manufacturing energy meters. A single hardware design may be customized for different customers and markets through changes in software. In addition, calibrating the finished meter at the factory is much easier with an electronic meter design.Another consideration is the demand for mechanical-meter replacements that are as inexpensive as possible. In parts of the developing world where many new customers are being connected to the grid, the low cost of the electronic meter is its main attraction.

IC Development:
Since the late 1990s, semiconductor vendors with mixed-signal and data conversion expertise have been developing ICs for electronic energy metering applications. In varying degrees, these components have integrated the energy measurement, calculation and communication functions required to build electronic energy meters ranging from simple function, mechanical-meter replacements to advanced function all solid-state designs.

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As in most areas of silicon development, the level of integration for these components grows with time, so that newer ICs offer more functionality and/or less cost. Consequently, the cost of electronic metering is coming down, which, in turn, is affecting the types of meters that are being built. As the metering ICs evolve, there is also a trend to higher accuracy, which is reflected in the energy measurement linearity of the new ICs. The energy metering market is far from monolithic, so metering ICs target different applications. One way to differentiate these chips is by the number of phases that must be measured. Some ICs target single-phase applications, while others are crafted for multiphase (or poly-phase) applications. Within these categories, the chips also are distinguished according to whether they target residential, commercial or industrial applications. Another way to segment the energy metering ICs is according to the desired level of meter functionality.

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23

CONSTRUCTION:
As in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, A processing and communication engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as RTC, LCD display, communication ports/modules and so on. The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage reference, samplers and quantisers followed by an ADC section to yield the digitised equivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a Digital Signal Processor to calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc. The largest source of long-term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by the precision of the voltage reference. Both of these vary with temperature as well, and vary wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterizing and compensating for these is a major part of meter design. The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating the various derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine. This also has the responsibility of communication using various protocols and interface with other addon modules connected as slaves to it. RTC and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and communication section for various input/output functions. On a modern meter most if not all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the Real Time Clock (RTC), LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital converters.

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WORKING:
Kilowatt-hour meter for determining, from voltage and current signals, the total energy passing through an alternating electrical supply circuit comprises a clock signal generator for generating timing signals at a frequency which is a multiple of the alternating supply frequency, the timing signals being synchronised in phase with the incoming supply frequency, pulse sampling means controlled by said clock signal generator and arranged to sample simultaneously the magnitude of the voltage on and the current in said supply circuit at a predetermined time instant or instants in each cycle and digital data processing means arranged to process the sampled data to determine energy consumption during successive predetermined periods of time and to integrate the successive determinations of energy consumption. Such an arrangement may be used with a three phase supply in which case the three phase voltages and phase currents are separately sampled or it may be used with a single phase supply in which case only a single voltage and current has to be sampled. The digital data processing means, which is typically a microprocessor system, effects the required computations from the sampled values. If a single phase supply is considered with the circuit carrying a current I at a voltage V and with a phase lag (or phase lead) between the current and voltage of , then if the waveforms were sinusoidal, the power consumption is VI cos . Conveniently, this can be measured by pulse sampling during the peak of one of the waveforms. Preferably the measurement is made at the peak of the voltage waveform, so as to determine the instantaneous peak value of V and of I cos . The r.m.s. product can be readily determined by processing of this information. It may be preferred to average successive determinations of V and of I cos separately over a number of cycles of the alternating 25

supply frequency, typically a few hundred cycles, before determining the product and hence the energy consumption during this period. The output from the clock signal generator may be integrated, e.g. counted in a digital counter to provide clock time. If a data link is provided, the aforementioned clock signal generator may be utilized to provide clock timing for time-controlled operations, e.g. for example, the customer's data processing means may compute monetary charges; to ensure correct clock time, the integrated output from the clock signal generator may be periodically updated over the data link. It will be understood that such periodic updating is required to correct the clock in the event of any interruption of the supply. Such a clock may be used, for example, for effecting changes in the data processing related to absolute time; e.g. variation of charging rates in accordance with time.

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TESTING OF ENERGY METERS

27

The various tests performed on Energy meters are:

a) TEST OF INSULATION PROPERTIES
b)

TEST OF ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS

c) TEST OF ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

d)

TEST FOR ELCTROMAGNETIC COMPATABILITY TEST FOR CLIMATIC INFLUENCES TEST FOR MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

e) f)

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A) TEST OF INSULATIONPROPERTIES
1. Impulse Voltage Test 2. AC Voltage Test 3. Insulation Test

B)

TEST OF ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS

1. Test on Limits of Error 2. Interpretation of Test Results 3. Test of Meter Constant 4. Test of Starting Condition 5. Test of No Load 6. Test of Ambient Temperature Influence 7. Test of Repeatability of Error 8. Test of Influence Quantities

C)TEST

OF ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS
1. TEST OF POWER CONSUMPTION 2. Test of Influence of Supply Voltage 3. Test of Influence of Supply Heating 4. Test of Influence of Heating 5. Test of Influence of Immunity to Earth Fault

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D) TEST

FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILTY

1. RADIO INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS 2. FAST TRANSIENT BURST TEST 3. TEST OF IMMUNITY TO ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES 4. Test of Immunity to Electromagnetic HF Field

E)

TEST FOR CLIMATIC INFLUENCES

i. Dry heat Test ii. Cold Test iii. Damp Heat Cyclic Test

F)

TEST FOR MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

i. Vibration Test ii. Shock Test iii. Spring Hammer Test

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iv. Protection against Penetration of dust and water v. Test of Resistance to Heat and Fire

TAMPERING OF ENERGY METERS

31

TAMPERING OF ENERGY METERS

TAMPERING METHODS
Tampering methods can be broadly categorized as Frauds related to meter installation/connections Frauds related to data Frauds related to meter installation/connections

Tampering methods generally employed to fraud the revenue meters can be categorized as Voltage circuit connection tamper Current circuit tampers. External tampers Alternate connections tampers Meter configuration change tampers

Tamper attempts are made to affect metering installation/connections. These are done at the metering unit, cables, Test Terminal Blocks (TTBs) and meters. The tamper can be of a permanent nature, to steal the energy continuously, or it may be through remote controlled devices, where the energy is stolen during the period when the remote control device is activated. Such remote controlled tampering attempts are generally done in an intelligent manner, and it is difficult to locate such cases unless a vigilance team zeroes down on the meters and carries out an installation audit. The different methods for tampering are explained in following sections: Voltage Circuit Tampers: The different types of voltage circuit tampers are: Phase and neutral interchange. Looping of voltages Phase association change between voltage and current circuits Phase to phase interchange Rotating phases in forward or reverse direction. Voltage circuit disconnection (missing potential) Disturbance on neutral. 32

Injection of high voltage DC

Injection of high frequency noise. Shifting the neutral. Voltage reduction By injecting reverse voltage Voltage circuit impedance changing Neutral disconnection

Current Circuit Tampers: The different types of current circuit tampers are: Reversing current circuit (CT reversal) Reverse current injection Earthed loads Current circuit open Current circuit by-pass / shorting Current imbalance Rectifier load CT saturation CT secondary burden change Over burdened CT secondary Current circuits in series (3P3W meter) Excessive burden Higher CT rating Wrong CT ratio

External Tampers: External tampers are caused by: Abnormal magnetic influence High temperature Chemical injection Burning the meter

Alternate connections tampers: These are caused by/at:

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Mobile substations Direct taping

Meter configuration change tampers: These types of tampers are created by: Adjusting the calibration Changing the time of the meter Resetting or altering energy registers. Resetting or altering maximum demand and/or billing registers Changing the values for meters CT and/or PT ratios Changing meter configuration, DIP, kVA definition etc.

Frauds related to data: Frauds related to data cover the following: Noting meter readings incorrectly Resetting Maximum Demand and/or making adjustments Coffee shop reading Unauthorized downloading of data from meter Altering/modifying data at source or at the billing centre Meter spoofing

TAMPER DETECTION MEASURES

AND

REVENUE

PROTECTION

Metering technology has a seen sea change to suite the utilities requirements for revenue protection. With the advent of electronic metering, it has been possible to detect various tampers. The technology is keeping pace with the newer methods of tamper and various features are developed in electronic meters to cater to these ever changing needs. Various principles deployed for different tamper methods and are follows Prevention method Here, steps are taken to make the metering installation secure from unauthorized access. This is done by providing proper seals on meters, and a more effective method is to mount the metering equipment inside a box or cubicle, which can be locked/sealed. Detection method

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Technical methods to subject possible frauds to detection are now being programmed in intelligent electronic meters. These capabilities are built into the new generation of meters. More and more of such detection methods have been possible as and when the meter industry has come to know of the newer methods of tampering. Connection frauds are basically detected by the position of the current and voltage vectors, where the logic deployed is to detect illogical electrical conditions. Normal conditions are defined as set of electrical conditions and tamper conditions are defined as set of electrical conditions beyond certain threshold limits. Hence the change of electrical conditions beyond the designed threshold limits can be detected by the meter. Transition from normal conditions to tamper condition and vice-versa, i.e. tamper conditions to normal conditions, are detected as occurrence and restoration events for each type of tamper. Method to create an evidence Creating an evidence for a tamper is one of the methods. For creating evidence, tampering attempts are detected by the meter (based on tamper logics) and recorded in the meter memory together with a date and time stamp. The occurrence and restoration events in form of snapshots are logged and a chronological record is logged in the meter. This record can produce evidence for assessment of theft (known as assessment) and deciding on penalties (known as settlement). Nearly all types of connection related frauds are detected and logged in modern meters. Isolation method Intelligent electronic meters are designed to isolate some methods of tampering, like neutral related tampering. In the past, electronic meters invariably stopped when the neutral connection was removed. The new generation meters are now designed to work on any two wires. If neutral is removed or one neutral and phase wires are removed from the meter terminal, the meter will continue to function normally and record the energy as per prevailing electrical conditions. The injection of external signals through the neutral wire (like DC & high frequency signals which can affect the meter functioning) can now be detected by the meter and the signals can be filtered by the meter to make it immune to such signal injection. Deterrence method Attempts to tamper with the electricity meters are basically by people with malafide intentions. The entire effort is aimed at stealing energy so that they do not have to pay for it. Generally, when such attempts are detected the consumers are penalized. An effective alternative is to discourage such attempts. In the deterrent method the meter detects the tamper attempt and records higher energy than normal consumption by self-introducing positive errors. This method is employed for magnet related tampers. Tamper evidences are also produced along with excessive energy recording.

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Deficiency metering Certain types of connection frauds can be detected and self-corrected by the meter. By using this self-correction feature, the meter can compute the loss of energy on line. In addition to this self correction, the tamper attempt is also logged as an event to provide evidence. In case of 3 Phase 4 Wire meters, one current circuit reversal can cause less recording of energy. Electromechanical meters had reverse stop feature to prevent the meter to run in reverse direction under current reversal condition. Electronic meters can detect such reverse current flow and continue to record the energy in forward direction. Audits Audits for the quality of installation and energy & revenue audits are other mechanisms to detect and address tampering. This is a vast subject by itself. REVENUE PROTECTION FEATURES Unlike electromechanical meters, electronic meters have a number of hardware features for revenue protection, based on the product type and application. These hardware features support the necessary software features to provide evidence for tampers, and its necessary deterrence etc. Revenue protection features in meters can be viewed as: Hardware features Software features

Hardware features for revenue protection: The hardware features generally provided for revenue protection can be examined for (i) Single phase meters. (ii) Three phase meters. Hardware features in Single Phase Meters: Most of the connection related (or wiring related) frauds/tampering are taken care of in the hardware design. Intelligent microprocessors used in electronic meters provide deficiency metering so that the meter is capable of measuring the correct energy under certain types of deficiencies in the connections.

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The hardware features provided for revenue protection for single phase meters are: Double current sensors Electronic Display Optical reading Features to deter magnetic field based frauds Features to prevent breaking open the meter case

Each of these is explained below: Double current sensors Electronic meters are provided with two current sensors for meeting the requirement of normal measurement and deficiency metering. Here, the current is measured in the phase circuit as well as in the neutral circuit, and the higher of the two currents is internally used by the meter for calculating the power, energy, etc. computation. Most of the connection/wiring related frauds are taken care of by the above method. two current sensors. The possible connections tamper conditions are shown in annexure 1. Electronic Display Meters with counter type display are prone to display related errors and defects. Some electronic meters use a stepper motor or impulse counter type display. These are easily influenced by external influences like magnetic fields; bringing a magnet in close proximity to the meter will affect the functioning of the display and altering the reading of meters is possible. These problems are overcome by providing electronic display in the meters, like LED, LCD display. Optical reading One of the many causes of loss of revenue, and a significant cause, is errors or frauds in meter reading (by meter readers). This problem can be eliminated in electronic meters by having a mechanism for optical meter reading. Here, the meters are provided with an optical port for transferring meter data (i.e. meter readings) to hand held electronic devices like hand a computers or CMRI (Common Meter Reading Instrument). As the manual reading & noting of meter readings by a meter reader is eliminated, these types of data errors or frauds can be eliminated.

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Features to deter magnetic field based frauds Normal magnetic fields do not affect the performance of a meter. However, if we subject the meter to very strong magnetic fields (like bringing a powerful magnet close to the meter), the meter will register/record a much lesser energy. Modern electronic meters can be made to record a much higher energy (instead of a lesser energy) under such influence, thereby deterring such frauds. Features to prevent breaking open the meter case Opening the case (or cover) of a meter and making modifications inside the meter, tampering with the hardware/implanting radio controlled switches, adjusting the calibration etc. are known methods of tampering. These tampers are hard to detect, as there is not external evidence of tampers. A method to deter such tampering is to make the meter case in such a manner that anyone who tries to tamper cannot open the meter case without damaging the meter. Ultrasonic welding of meter, with base and cover with snap fit arrangements in meter case, is an effective method to prevent this type of fraud. In case someone tries to break open the meter case, the meter cover/body will show damage marks and provide physical evidence that the meter has been tampered. Hardware features in three phase meters The hardware features provided for revenue protection for three phase meters are described below. These cover all types of three phase meters namely LT whole current meters, LT CT meters, and HT meters (i.e. CT/PT connected meters) The hardware features provided for (or linked to) revenue protection for three phase meters are: Two wire operation features 4th current sensor for LT meters Phase to phase protection Features for Real Time Clock Magnetic influence detection Optical reading port Transparent terminal block covers Front sealing

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These are explained below: Two wire operation features In two wire operation features, the meter is made to function as along as any two live wires are connected to the meters. That is the meters will function even if any phase or neutral is missing from the meters. This may not make accurate energy recording possible, but the meter will remain powered to log the tamper event with date/time stamp, and the electrical snapshot as evidence. 4th current sensor for LT meters Three sensors are used for energy measurements for 3 element meters (i.e. 3 phase 4 wire meters). Generally three sensors are used, with one sensor for each of the three phases. However, to detect current circuit tampers, advanced electronic meters have a fourth sensor used in neutral circuit. Current circuit tampers like CT reversals can be detected with three current sensors. But in case we rely on only three current sensors, there can be a zone of operation possible which may not be due to tamper conditions but will appear to be a tamper. This makes it difficult to detect genuine tampers, and ignore conditions that are not really tampers. Hence the 4th sensor helps in arriving at unambiguous tampers. The principle of operation for the 4th sensor based hardware, is explained in later sections. Use of correct installation practices are necessary for 4 sensor meters, to prevent false tamper alarms, which may came about in case a consumer uses phase to ground loads (in place of phase to neutral load). It is worth noting that load unbalance conditions can be distinguished from current circuit tampers by use of the 4th sensor. Phase to phase protection There are enough reasons to damage the meters intentionally by making wrong connections. This is true particularly with LT meters where phase and neutral is swapped and meters get damaged. The protection eliminates such possibility and avoids damage due to system faults. Features for Real Time Clock The Real Time Clock (RTC) provided in electronic meters is used to record the date/time stamp for occurrence & restoration of tamper conditions, thereby providing time-base evidence. The RTC is otherwise an essential part of electronic meters as it provides the time

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reference to the meter. The meter is able to provide various time based features like billing data, Maximum Demand registers, tamper event logging with date and time, recording load survey etc. Magnetic influence detection Magnetic material used in meters can be affected by abnormal external magnetic influences, and this will affect proper functioning of the meter. For example, the CTs used in meters (for sensing currents) are affected by magnetic influence. The effect is either change in magnitude of primary or secondary current, which in turn can introduce large errors in measurement. Magnet sensors provided in modern electronic meters can detect the presence of abnormal magnetic fields and provide evidence by logging it as a tamper. Optical reading port The optical port enables the data transfer electronically and eliminates the possibility of data frauds, as explained for single phase meters. Transparent terminal block covers Making the terminal block cover of a transparent material is one of the ways to keep connections visible. This meter reader or vigilance team can observe connection/wiring related frauds without the need for opening the terminal cover. Front sealing The rear side sealing arrangement of a meter is generally difficult to check. It is recommended that electronic meters should be provided with front side sealing arrangements, so that the seals are clearly visible, easily accessible and periodically auditable. Software features for revenue protection Software features programmed in electronic meters enhance the capabilities of electronic meters. Revenue protection related software features make the meter more versatile. The various software features are described below: Billing data with billing date Load survey Tamper event logging Tamper event type The details are given below: Billing data with billing date

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Adjustments in minimum charges and false resetting of the MD (Maximum Demand) potential tamper possibilities in meter reading. It is difficult to spot such errors by energy audit methods as simultaneous readings of all meters connected to a feeder are never read at the same time. This problem can be addressed by incorporating logic in the meters so that the MD of all meters is automatic reset on a pre-programmed date/time of a month. Here, there is a copy operation too, where the energy reading is copied to a billing registers on the predefined date(s). With these arrangements, the meter reader can take the reading any time (between two consecutive billing dates) and obtain the billing parameters pertaining to the pre-defined date. Apart from the meter billing data, history of previous billing data can also be stored in the meter memory. Six or twelve history data can be stored for future reference and settlements. This is a useful feature and is at times used by utilities in case last billing data has been lost/corrupted while transferring the meter data to billing centres. A month by month energy comparison is possible with these features and deviation in energy consumption from predefined limits (or abnormal change in consumption trends) can be found at billing station for investigating tamper possibilities. Load survey Profiling of the average load values over the time of day, at pre-decided intervals of time is called load survey data. The average load for the interval duration is recorded on a real time basis. This interval duration for the load survey data, is referred to as Survey Integration Period (SIP) and energy or other averaged parameters are recorded for each SIP. Typically the Survey Integration Period is hour, but SIP of hour (i.e. 15 minutes) is also used. In earlier days, some meters logged the load survey parameters on an hourly basis. This SIP may or may not coincide with the Demand Integration Period (DIP) used for the MD & other purposes, though generally most SIPs are same as the DIPs. Load survey parameters are averaged quantities like active energy, reactive energy, average voltage, average power factor, etc. or instantaneous parameters like voltage, current, frequency etc. at a predefined instant during the SIP interval. These load survey parameters can be configured in the field, but through proper authentication and sufficient software security arrangements. The load survey data is utilized for a number of purposes like assessing pilfered energy (in case of tampers), identifying the number times the MD has been violated, day-wise, week-wise & month-wise energy accounting or computations, identifying the power ON/OFF events and comparing with other consumers on the same feeders, arriving at power quality like voltage conditions at consumer-end etc. Experience has shown that load survey information has been a very useful feature of electronic meters for utilities.

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Tamper event logging Frauds/tampers related to the way the meter is wired (i.e. connection related frauds) are detected by electronic meters and logged as an event in the meters memory. Once an event is detected, not only the occurrence of event is logged, but the restoration of the event back to normal conditions is also logged together. The number of such events that can be logged by a meter is generally limited by the memory sector allocated for the purpose. Hence there is a need to clear the event logs (i.e. record of such events) on a periodic basis typically during the next meter reading, so as to make space for newer events. Various options/features are provided for event logging. These are: Event logging type Compartment wise events Snapshots of electrical parameters

Event logging type Two types of event logging are generally implemented. One type is a stay put type, and the other type is a rollover type. In the stay put type, events are logged in memory until the memory is full. Once the memory is filled up, in the stay put logic, the new events are not recorded. Stay put type event logging is less preferred since the tamper logs need to be reset after the memory is full. Another reason why the Stay put type is not preferred is that in this type of logic the entire tamper data can be lost when reset, thereby removing all evidences of tampers. In the rollover type, events are logged in memory until the memory is full (i.e. similar to above), but with a difference. The different is that once the memory is full, the new events are recorded by over-writing the oldest records. In his type the recent tamper events are not completely lost. Apart from logging the events a count of the tamper events is also maintained by the meter. This tamper count is based on the occurrence of similar events, and there can be different counters for different types of events. The billing data tamper count values can be utilized to identify the total number of tamper attempts made in the previous month/billing period. Compartment wise events Different memory compartments are allocated for different types of tampers, so that a

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few frequently occurring tampers will not over-crowd the memory and over-write other types of tampers. For example, suppose a missing potential tamper or a current circuit reversal has been recorded as an event by the meter, corresponding to a genuine tamper event. Suppose there were no separate memory compartments for different types of tampers, there will be a possibility that these tampers information will be over-written by the Power ON/OFF events or current imbalance events if these latte happen too frequently. By having different compartments for different types of tampers, and by allocating fixed memory (or number of each type of events the meter can record), we can cater to such eventualities. It is very desirable to keep a record of each type of event the meter has encountered, while allowing for logging latest events. Each compartment is of a roll over type, and thus maintains latest and important information about attempts to tamper. Snapshots of electrical parameters The tamper events are supported by a snap shot of electrical parameters. Instantaneous value of electrical parameters at the time of detecting occurrence or restorations is called as snapshot. The electrical parameters are voltage, current and power factor with appropriate sign are logged as snap shot. Energy values are also logged at the time of event logging. The electrical snap shot is used for assessment of theft, vector analysis of tamper condition etc. Tamper event type Various tamper conditions are identified by examining the electrical conditions, and each abnormal type of electrical conditions is stated to be a tamper. Threshold values are used by the meter to define a tamper, or an abnormal electrical condition. Careful specification of these threshold limits is an art, and effective tamper identification is dependent on how thoughtfully these threshold values have been arrived at. The threshold values are needed at the manufacturing stage. The following types of events (tampers) are dealt with in this paper: Missing potential Invalid voltage Voltage imbalance Current reversal 43 Current circuit bypassed Current imbalance Magnetic influence Neutral disturbance

Current circuit open

Power On/Off

The tamper type and related logic for each of the above is described below: Missing potential In this type of tamper, the voltage component in is made zero. Accordingly the power computed by the measuring element becomes zero, and the energy recording is less by one phase. This is a common connection fraud usually deployed in meters. Dropping the potential links in the whole current meters, removing the potential leads from meter terminal, TTB or metering equipment terminal fall under this tamper type. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below: If voltage is absent and current is present, the logic senses a possible tamper condition, and examines the next possibility to re-confirm itself If current and voltage both are missing than this could also be a system condition, and hence not recorded as a tamper If however voltage is less than Vth (Where Vth is the threshold value of voltage set for the tamper), and line current is more than Lth. (Where Lth is the threshold value of the line current), the condition is recognized as a tamper, but it is logged as a tamper only if it passes the next logic step If this tamper condition persists for a pre-defined persistence time, the event is finally logged as a tamper. Once this tamper is logged, the corresponding tamper count is incremented.

The tamper is restored when voltage restores to more than the preset restoration threshold value. The normal voltage value (i.e. the restoration voltage value) is now monitored, and if it remains above this value for a predefined persistence time, the tamper is considered as restored Invalid voltage When one voltage is fed to all voltage terminals or two voltages are shorted and connected to one voltage input, the condition is different from missing voltage, but yet it is a tamper because the voltage angles are no more valid. In tamper logics, this condition is detected and classified as invalid voltage input. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below:

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If Voltage is more than Vth. And if, Voltage angles are not valid And if, the condition persists for more than persistence time, the event is recorded as a tamper Once this tamper is logged, the corresponding tamper count is incremented The tamper is restored when voltage angles have being restored to their logical values for more than the preset restoration threshold value Voltage imbalance Voltages are normally balanced. However there may be some unbalance due to loading conditions which may not be a tamper. But, by tinkering with electronic components, or making a wrong connection like swapping the phase wire with neutral wire etc. one may cause a voltage imbalance being recorded by the meter. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper is explained below Compute voltage imbalance with respect to maximum voltage Check if Imbalance is more than Vimbalance is more than the threshold value set for Vimbalance .Monitor the condition for persistence time and log tamper event & increment in tamper count The restoration logic is similar to that defined for other types of tampers i.e. restoration of normal conditions for a persistence time Current reversal Under normal loading conditions and connections, current vector cannot move beyond 90 lag or lead with respect to voltage vector. However due to some system conditions the current vector may go beyond 90. As most electricity consumers do not generate electricity (or if backup generator is installed they do not operate it in synchronism with utility supply system), the net active power cannot be negative. However, if someone tampers with the connections and reverses the current polarity (in one of the terminals), it is possible that the current vector will move beyond 90 with respect to voltage vector. This vector position is used by the meter to identify a current reversal tamper. As system conditions may overlap with reverse current condition, to eliminate the possibility of system conditions a 4th sensor in form of an internal CT is used inside the meter to sense a neutral imbalance current. Now, under these circumstances the vector sum of three phases and one neutral current determines the abnormality in current circuit. Complex logics are used to detect whether this is a tamper (or not), and this is done by examining the current vector in pre-defined zones to detect whether the current has been actually reversed. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below:

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Check normal three phase voltage Check if any current has a negative polarity (from vector position) Then check If line current is more than Lth (line current threshold) Check if the 4th CT flag has been set Check if power factor is more than 0.1 Check whether these conditions persist for persistence time Log occurrence of event as a tamper and Increment tamper count If the current now becomes positive once again for the pre-defined persistence time, than log restoration of the event.

Current circuit open This is a new method of tampering the current circuit. The current is bypassed or secondary circuit is made open in such a way that current is flowing in the load circuit but does not flow into the meter circuit. As genuine no load conditions are not really tampers, the condition has to be recognized by the meter for detecting this tamper. A 4th sensor (4th CT in neutral) is necessary for detecting this type of tamper. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below: Normal three phase voltage are present Now, if vector sum of currents is not zero And, difference current is more than Lth Then, the 4th CT flag is internally set by the meter Check if none of the current is negative (from vector position) Check whether line current is less than Lth open. Check whether this condition persists for persistence time, then record current open occurrence event Increment the tamper count for current open For restoration, check if the 4th CT flag is reset Check whether average line current is more than Lth Check if these restoration conditions persists for the pre-defined persistence time Log the event as a current open restoration event

Current circuit bypassed While tampering with this method, consumers put a small shorting link across the meter current circuit. The shorting can be made any where in the current circuit like in the primary circuit of CTs, secondary circuit, inside the meter etc. While doing so some amount of current is flowing in the meter is measured, but a substantial part of current is by passed and does not flowing into the meter. Thus the meter will record less energy. The 4th CT is essential to detect this type of tamper. Delta connected HT systems which 46

use 3 phase 3 wire metering (2 element metering) and therefore take currents from two phases are incapable of detecting this type of tamper. Only in case of 3 phase 4 wire metering (where 3 CTs or 3 current paths are externally available) can support this type of tamper recording. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below: The meter first checks if normal three phase voltages are present The current vectors are summed, and the meter checks if the difference is more than Lth The meter first checks all logics for current reversal and current open tampers. If they are not, then. If the condition persists for persistence time the event is logged as a current bypass tamper & the tamper count is incremented When the occurrence condition is restored, the restoration event is logged after persistence time has elapsed

Current imbalance The traditional method of detecting the current open or by pass tamper was to measure current imbalance. As some current imbalance is always there in the system, current imbalance tampers, which can be caused by partial bypassing of current, is difficult to detect. Certain intelligent logics have been developed to detect this type of tamper. This method is generally used for 3 phase 3 wire meters only, as for 3 phase 4 wire meters the current bypass logic is sufficient. The logic steps to detect this type of tamper are explained below: The meter first checks if normal three phase voltages are normal The meter checks if line current is more than Lth (for imbalance) If the Current imbalance is more than Imbth If the conditions persist for the persistence time, the event is logged as a current imbalance tamper event and the tamper count is incremented When current imbalance becomes is less than threshold value and remains for the persistence time, the event is restored Magnetic influence Magnetic effect on metering equipment was studied by various utilities. It was seen that strong permanent magnets are available in the market, and over a period of time even stronger magnets are now available. Today, even strong AC electromagnets are being used for tampering meters. Meters use magnetic material in voltage and current measurement circuits. The power supply also uses small transformers which are susceptible to magnetic fields. Functioning 47

of sensors or power supply components is affected under abnormally high magnetic fields. The effect is generally to saturate the core of the sensors or distort the flux in the core so that output is erroneous. The net effect is less energy recording.

Counter type electronic meters using impulse counter or stepper motor type counters are seriously affected by strong magnetic fields. These can either be stopped or rotated in any direction to change the energy register values. The effect of magnetic fields can be suppressed or substantially reduced by increasing the gap between the sensors and magnet, or by shielding the sensors. New generation electronic meters have capability to detect the presence of abnormal magnetic field in the vicinity and log the event as a magnet tamper. To deter the consumer from magnet related tampering, a method now used is to increasing the energy recording by the meter under these conditions. Thus, once the purpose of tampering is defeated and consumer does not attempt tampering with this method. Neutral disturbance Neutral related tampering is often done by consumers by tampering with the neutral at source side i.e. before the meter. Disturbances like DC voltage or HF signals are superimposed on neutral wires causing disturbance to the metering process. This tampering may reduce the energy recording or stop the meter functioning altogether. Electronic meters are now designed to detect such disturbances and isolate the neutral connection internally in the meter, and continue to record normally by creating an artificial neutral. As this condition can be sensed by the meter, as a deterrent the meter can be made to run at the Imaximum current, together with an event record that the meter has been tampered in the neutral. Power On and Off Meters are powered Off by removing all the voltage connections or by other means. To make such information available to the utility, the meter records power failure and power up condition as power OFF and ON events. These events can be compared with power failure records from the substation or feeder meter data (or by comparing with neighbouring consumers). The event date and time logging is enough to identify these abnormal power failures and its duration. SYSTEM CONDITIONS The detectable and undetectable tampers need to be dealt carefully. Software and

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hardware logics work to certain extent to declare the conditions as a tamper. However, due to a variety of field conditions, not all cases of tampering can be detected with certainty. The unambiguously identifiable tamper conditions are called detectable tampers. Some system conditions may reflect as tamper conditions and vice versa. Most of the system conditions are taken care by intelligent tamper logics and by carefully selecting the tamper threshold limits. Tamper threshold limits also depends on installation practices, system conditions and conditions which need to be defined as tamper. Like fore example, single phasing conditions or 2/3 connections on HT side are the system conditions and need not to be detected as tampers. Some of the installations have PT primary side fuses. There may be PT primary fuse failures which are not really tamper but cause revenue leakage. Connection (i.e. wiring) related tampers are intended to reduce the recording or stop it altogether. These are detected by software logics vector positions and thresholds. The vector positions are very much dependent on system conditions are well as the combination of various tampers. The system conditions and configurations which are responsible for overlapping with tamper conditions (and hence difficult to detect) are as follows: Source transformer Secondary Star Secondary Delta Source neutral grounded Source neutral ungrounded Line fuse failure 2-by-3 connections Single phasing Metering PT Star-Star Delta- Delta Star point grounded Star point ungrounded Type of Metering 3 Phase 3Wire 3Phase 4Wire PT primary fuse failure. Load / distribution transformer Star - Star Delta - Star Delta - Delta 49

Load condition Inductive load like welding transformers Balanced Unbalanced Capacitive load Faulty capacitor Capacitor fuse failure Phase to phase loads Earthed load Combination of all above system conditions

CONCLUSION:
Electronic meters are capable of dealing with a very wide range of tampers. To enable proper tamper logging, it is worth having 3 phase 4 wire meters (3 element meters) wherever possible, as this will enable the 4th sensor to identify a range of tampers. Special care need to be taken for selecting the threshold limits, as effectiveness of tamper logics depends to a reasonable extent on these threshold values. Tamper recording features need to be backed with (i) suitable mass data and tamper data analysis software, and (ii) feeder-wise & distribution transformer wise energy audits. These will help in filtering out temporary conditions (which might have been caused due to system conditions. The energy audits will fill in the gaps. Energy audits together with tamper logics in meters is a must, and this will help provided the system (feeder) meter & distribution transformer meter functional specifications have been carefully selected to support energy audit & correlated tamper analysis. Correlation of the tamper events, mass tamper & load survey data analysis and energy audits only when considered together will provide a comprehensive revenue protection to the utility.

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AUTOMATIC METER READING (AMR)

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What is Automatic Meter Reading?

Automated Meter Reading (AMR) refers to the technology used for automating collection of water and energy (electricity or gas) consumption data for the purposes of real-time billing and consumption analysis. At any given time, the AMR system gathers real-time data and transfers the information gathered to the central database through networking technology. This advance mainly saves utility providers the expense of periodic trips to each physical location to read a meter. Another advantage is billing can be based on near real time consumption rather than on estimates based on previous or predicted consumption. This timely information coupled with analysis, can help both utility providers and customers better control the use and production of electric energy, gas usage, or water consumption. AMR technologies include handheld, mobile and network technologies based on telephony platforms (wired and wireless), radio frequency (RF), or power line transmission.

Issues with Stand Alone Meter Reading:-

Highly Person dependant. Human errors cannot be avoided. Accessibility of meters in rural/ Agricultural zones. Energy Audits performed based on bill collection which is highly inaccurate. Billing done mainly on estimated/ monthly average basis Inability to monitor and control discrete loads Billing cycle requires excessive time. Meter data used only for billing, cannot help in analysis like demand analysis, energy audit etc.

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Smart Metering and IT: An opportunity to Leapfrog

PAST

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL Low Accuracy Control NIL Communications - Expensive Theft Detection Poor DIGITAL SOLID STATE High Accuracy Control LIMITED NEXT GEN SMART METER & IT SYSTEM Communications External through Retrofit Very High Accuracy Theft Detection Node only Control FULL Communications Built in (on chip / PCB) Theft Detection High (Network level)

CURRENT

LEAPFROG Autom atic Meter Readin g Outage Manage ment Prepayment

Automatic Metering

Active Load Control

Revenue Protection

SubMetering

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How Automated Meter Reading Works

AMR operations are simple on the surface but rather complex underneath. First, the meter must be read by the meter interface. After that, this same interface has to translate the data into digital information to facilitate transmission. There must also be a code added to the meter data reading so that the data can be attributed to the correct subscriber. Once the data is ready, the data has to be picked up by a meter person. Picking up meter data, however, involves digital transfer from the meter interface to a device that the meter reader controls. After that, data collected is downloaded in the office. Data can also be automatically transmitted to the database through automatic data transmission protocols. Technological advances have expanded the scope of AMR activities. Other possible uses for the AMR include monitoring for leaks and theft and detecting meter tampering. Consumer profiling (especially on such points as peak and lean periods of use), providing empirical data on the effects of energy saving devices and mindsets, and so on can also be done.

The Elements of Automatic Reading

An AMR system has a meter interface apparatus. This is generally an integrated component containing power supply, sensors, and control electronics and communications programming. At its heart, the meter interface module aims to translate data gathered from the movement of mechanical dials into digital data as well as to properly identify data for the purposes of correct billing. An AMR system also has a transmission and communications protocol in place for transferring or transmitting data from the meter to the central office. Among the systems developed for AMR are handheld devices (utility company personnel merely have to touch or point their stylus to the meter interface for data to be 'read') or vehiclemounted devices (the meter readers need to pass by the meter for data to be picked up and transmitted). Data is temporarily stored in their device until it's downloaded at the office. Data transmission may also be sent to the office through wires (data is transmitted through Ethernet cables, broadcasting cable, or power lines). Finally, the central office must have the software and hardware for transmitted meter data reception, allocation, analysis and automatic billing.

TECHNOLOGIES:
1. Touch Technology
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2. Radio Frequency Network 3. Power Line Communication TOUCH TECHNOLOGY:

With touch based AMR, a meter reader carries a handheld computer or data collection device with a wand or probe. The device automatically collects the readings from a meter by touching or placing the read probe in close proximity to a reading coil enclosed in the touchpad. When a button is pressed, the probe sends an interrogate signal to the touch module to collect the meter reading. The software in the device matches the serial number to one in the route database, and saves the meter reading for later download to a billing or data collection computer. Since the meter reader still has to go to the site of the meter, this is sometimes referred to as "on-site" AMR.

RADIO FREQUENCY NETWORK:

Radio frequency based AMR can take many forms. The more common ones are handheld, mobile, and fixed network. There are both two-way RF systems and one-way RF systems in use that use both licensed and unlicensed RF bands. In a two-way or "wake up" system, a radio transceiver normally sends a signal to a particular transmitter serial number, telling it to wake up from a resting state and transmit its data. The meter attached transceiver and the reading transceiver both send and receive radio signals and data. In a one-way bubble-up or continuous broadcast type system, the transmitter broadcasts readings continuously every few seconds. This means the reading device can be a receiver only, and the meter AMR device a transmitter only. Data goes one way, from the meter AMR transmitter to the meter reading receiver. There are also hybrid systems that combine one-way and two-way technologies, using one-way communication for reading and two way communication for programming functions. RF based meter reading usually eliminates the need for the meter reader to enter the property or home, or to locate and open an underground meter pit. The utility saves money by increased speed of reading, has lower liability from entering private property, and has less chance of missing reads because of being locked out from meter access. The technology based on RF is not readily accepted everywhere. In several Asian countries the technology faces a barrier of regulations in place pertaining to use of the radio frequency of any radiated power. For example in India the radio frequency which is generally in ISM band is not free to use even for low power radio of 10 mW. The majority of manufacturers of electricity meters have radio frequency devices in the frequency band of 433/868 MHz for large scale deployment in European countries.The frequency band of 2.4 GHz can be now used in India for outdoor as well as indoor applications but few maufacturers have shown products within this frequency band. Initiatives in radio frequency AMR in such countries are being taken up with regulators

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wherever the cost of licensing outweighs the benefits of AMR.

Handheld:
In handheld AMR, a meter reader carries a handheld computer with a built-in or attached receiver/transceiver (radio frequency or touch) to collect meter readings from an AMR capable meter. This is sometimes referred to as "walk-by" meter reading since the meter reader walks by the locations where meters are installed as they go through their meter reading route. Handheld computers may also be used to manually enter readings without the use of AMR technology as an alternate but this will not support exhaustive data which can be accurately read using the meter reading electronically.

Mobile:
Mobile or "drive-by" meter reading is where a reading device is installed in a vehicle. The meter reader drives the vehicle while the reading device automatically collects the meter readings. Often for mobile meter reading the reading equipment includes navigational and mapping features provided by GPS and mapping software. With mobile meter reading, the reader does not normally have to read the meters in any particular route order, but just drives the service area until all meters are read. Components often consist of a laptop or proprietary computer, software, RF receiver/transceiver, and external vehicle antennas.

Fixed Network
Fixed Network AMR is a method where a network is permanently installed to capture meter readings. This method can consist of a series of antennas, towers, collectors, repeaters, or other permanently installed infrastructure to collect transmissions of meter readings from AMR capable meters and get the data to a central computer without a person in the field to collect it. There are several types of network topologies in use to get the meter data back to a central computer. A star network is the most common, where a meter transmits its data to a central collector or repeater. Some systems use only collectors which receive and store data for processing. Others also use a repeater which forwards a reading from a more remote area back to a main collector without actually storing it. A repeater may be forwarded by RF signal or sometimes is converted to a wired network such as telephone or IP network to get the data back to a collector. Some manufacturers are developing mesh networks where meters themselves act as repeaters passing the data to nearby meters until it makes it to a main collector. The Swedish city of Gothenburg is having their electric meters connected in this manner, using the ZigBee protocol.A mesh network may save the infrastructure of many collection points, but is more data intensive on the meters. One issue with mesh networks

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it that battery operated ones may need more power for the increased frequency of transmitting. It also requires that the meter devices be receivers as well as transmitters potentially making individual transceiver cost higher. However, the additional cost may be outweighed by the savings of multiple collectors and repeater antennas and finding places to mount them. Some fixed network systems are also capable of being installed as a hybrid AMR system where mobile and fixed network are intermixed by design. In a hybrid system, part of the system is read by fixed network, and parts may read by mobile or other technology, or both. Utilities with low density rural areas may not cost justify the fixed network infrastructure for parts of their service area, using it only for higher density zones or commercial accounts. Some hybrid networks allow reading of a meter by both methods concurrently as a source of redundancy. In the event of a failure of the network due a natural disaster, sabotage, power failure, or other network interruption, the mobile reading system is available in their disaster recovery plan as an alternative means of data collection to the fixed network.

RF technologies commonly used for AMR

Narrow Band (single fixed radio frequency) Spread Spectrum

o o

Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

There are also meters using AMR with RF technologies such as cellular phone data systems, zigbee, blue tooth, Wavenis and others. Some systems operate with FCC licensed frequencies and others under FCC Part 15 which allows use of unlicensed radio frequencies.

Wi-Fi
The city of Corpus Christi became one of the first cities in the United States to implement city wide Wi Fi, which had been free until May 31, 2007, mainly to facilitate AMR after a meter reader was attacked by a dog.Today many meters are designed to transmit using Wi Fi, even if a Wi Fi network is not available, and they are read using a drive-by local Wi Fi hand held receiver.The meters installed in Corpus Christi are not directly Wi-Fi enabled, but rather transmit narrow-band burst telemetry on the 460 MHz band. This narrow-banded signal has a much greater range than Wi-Fi, so the number of receivers required for the project are far fewer than the number of Wi-Fi access points covering the same area. These special receiver stations then take in the narrow-band signal and report their data via Wi-Fi. Most of the automated utility meters installed in the Corpus Christi area are battery powered. Compared to narrow-band burst telemetry, Wi-Fi technology uses far too much power for long-term battery-powered operation.

Power Line Communication

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(PLC) AMR is a method where electronic data is transmitted over power lines back to the substation, then relayed to a central computer in the utility's main office. This would be considered a type of fixed network systemthe network being the distribution network which the utility has built and maintains to deliver electric power. Such systems are primarily used for electric meter reading. Some providers have interfaced gas and water meters to feed into a PLC type system.

AMR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Connectivity in AMR Architecture:
Two stages of communication in AMR System:-

1. GSM Based Communication

Single stage communication between Meter and central station through GSM Modem

2. Hybrid Communication

GSM Based Communication:

Has mainly two components ie GSM Modem and Antennae

GSM Modem

Dual Band or Triband GSM GPRS modem (EGSM 900/1800MHz) / (EGSM 900/1800 / 1900 MHz ) Designed for GPRS, data, fax, SMS and voice applications Fully compliant with ETSI GSM Phase 2+ specifications (Normal MS) Interfaces RS-232 through D-TYPE 9 pin connector Power supply through Molex 4 pin connector SMA antenna connector Toggle spring SIM holder Red LED Power on Green LED status of GSM / GPRS module

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OUTLAY for GSM Networking:-

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HYBRID COMMUNICATION:
1 Two stages of communication in AMR System Meters and Data Concentrator Unit (DCU): Communication channel used between meters and DCU is Power Line. DCU and Host Central Station (HCS): Communication channel used between DCU and HCS is the standard GSM, CDMA, RF or PSTN Network.

OUTLAY:

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AMR ARCHITECTURE
Central Office Host Computer Station. RF/ PSTN / Modem RF/PSTN / M odem

Distribution Transformer 1.

Distribution Transformer 2.

Distribution Transformer 3.

Data Cocentrator Unit DCU 1 PLCC Meter 1 Meter 2 Meter 3 Meter 4 Meter 5 Meter n

Data Cocentrator Unit DCU 2 PLCC Meter 1 Meter 2 Meter 3 Meter 4 Meter 5 Meter n

Data Cocentrator Unit DCU 3 PLCC Meter n Meter 1 Meter 3

Meter 2

Meter 4

Meter 5

AMR System Overview:

The remote Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) System is a host driven, multi-level network system consisting of a Host Central Station (HCS), Data Concentrator Units (DCU) and Meter Interfacing Units (MIU), with built-in flexibility and expandability. Each HCS, while working independently, can also be integrated with an existing corporate information management system through software interface. With additional hardware and software support, the HCS can function as a workstation

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in an existing Local Area Network (LAN) and becomes a member of the entire system, or several HCS can be connected together to form a network of their own. Archnet Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) system can be connected to any Electricity, Gas, Water and flow Meters with pulse output for Meter Readings.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The DCU and all the MIUs and meters connected to it can be considered as a sub-system of the HCS. The sub-system is set up with a DCU monitoring the low voltage power zone downstream of a Distribution Transformer. The DCU can be viewed as the front end of the sub-system, collecting meter readings from all the MIUs connected to it through the low voltage power line carrier (PLC) and communicating with the HCS through the communication channel. There are two types of MIUs, a single-channel type connected to a single meter only, and a multi-channel type, which can be connected up to 16 meters. In projects where meters are scattered around in an open area, single-channel MIUs are usually used for individual meters. But for projects where meters are grouped together in a meter room or cabinet, Multi-channel Meter Interface Units (MMIU) are more cost effective. There are basically two stages of communication in the system, namely, that between the MIUs

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and the DCU, and that between the DCUs and the HCS. The communication channel or medium used between MIU and DCU is the Power Line; and the channel used between DCU and HCS can be the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), GSM network, radio network, or directly with handheld terminals & notebook PCs with standard RS-232 interface or through a modem.

PLCC Communication:
The communication device for the PLC communication system is a built-in Power Line Modem (PLM), which transmits and receives data over the power line. Both the MIU and the DCU contain the PLM device. The binary data stream is keyed onto a carrier signal by means of the Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) technique. The central frequency is shifted +0.3KHz to represent 1 or 0 of the binary data stream. This signal is then coupled onto the power line by the PLM. At the receiving end, an identical PLM will detect the signal and convert it back to a binary data stream. The PLMs operate in a Half Duplex, two-way, Time Division Multiplex communication mode. Two-way communication between DCU and MIU is essential in establishing a proper communication channel, for system synchronization and status reporting. In AMRS, transmission speed is not a great concern but reliability is important. The data rate of the PLC channel is set at 600 bps, to ensure communication over a longer distance and reduced transmission error. Every MIU is also equipped with repeater function. If required, the DCU can designate any MIU in the sub-system as a repeater to enhance communication with a particular MIU. With the sensitive signal detection and sophisticated digital filtering technique, this PLC communication is highly immune to electrical noise and interference.

PLC Schematics:

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Signal, Data and Information Flow:

The MIU is an intelligent device, which can collect, process, and record power consumption data from the electric meter. It picks up the pulse output of the meter and converts the measurement of the meter into a digital format suitable for data processing. Thus it is possible to monitor the electrical load in real time. The MIU saves the data collected in non-volatile memory, and all data and settings are protected against power failure. It will automatically resume normal operation when power returns after a power failure. After receiving a Multi-rate Tariff command and loading the time-of-use table from the DCU, the MIU will process energy consumption data according to pre-set time intervals. It will update the peak values and their time of occurrence at each tariff rate providing real time information of electrical consumption for the information management system. Data stored in the MIU are transmitted to the DCU via the power line through the built-in Power Line Modems (PLM). Communication is initiated by the DCU, which polls the MIU by calling its address. Data received from different MIUs are stored in the corresponding Load Data Records in the Flash memory of the DCU. The DCU supports communication with any upward equipment in conformity with RS-232 standard, e.g. a handheld computer. In most cases, the DCU communicates with the remote Host Central Station through standard modem via the existing telephone line or the GSM network. The Host Central Station (HCS) is the control center of the system, where all the functions of the system are controlled and monitored. The HCS passes instructions and information requests onto the Data Concentrator Units (DCU) by calling their addresses (or the telephone numbers in case of a public switched network), and the DCU will respond accordingly. The address codes (telephone number) of the DCUs are stored in the HCS. With sufficient mass storage, theoretically all DCUs can be covered by the HCS, in actual fact the maximum number of DCUs can be connected to a HCS is about 1000 as it will be limited by the required response time and efficiency of data management. In case of failures in self-diagnostics or any abnormal behavior of the MIUs, the DCU can also make requests to report by dialing to the HCS. The HCS will convert the data received into a text file compatible with the corporation's existing Meter Reading Management System, and store it in the Hard Disk Drive. File transfer between the HCS and the Corporation's MIS system can be done through standard input/output ports, such as RS-232.

Data Concentrator Unit (DCU)

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The Data Concentrator sits on the loop of secondary of the distribution transformer. Collects meter readings from all the meters using Power Line Communication System at predefined intervals. The DCU and all the meters connected to it can be considered as a subsystem of the HCS. The sub-system is set up with a DCU monitoring the low voltage power zone downstream of a Distribution Transformer.

PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF AMR:

Meter Interface Module Communication System Central Office Equipment

Meter interface module

1. The AMR system starts at the meter. Some means of translating readings from rotating meter dials, or cyclometer style meter dials, into digital form is necessary in order to send digital metering data from the customer site to a central point. 2. Electro - optical interface 3. Signal Processing Electronics 4. RAM & Program Memory

Communication System
Used for the transmission, or telemetry, of data and control send signals
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between the meter interface units and the central office. GSM Network Power Line

Central Office Systems

1 Central office systems equipment includes: Modems Central server Client Software for data acquisition and data analysis

ADVANTAGES OF AMR
ELECTRIC COMPANY BENEFITS
Smart automated processes instead of manual work Accurate information from the network load to optimise maintenance and investments Customized rates and billing dates. Streamlined high bill investigations. Detection of tampering of Meters. Accurate measurement of transmission losses. Precise consumption information Better network performance and cost efficiency. Demandand accurate billing Clear and distribution management. More intelligence to business planning. Better company outage information and faster recovery Automatic credibility. Better and faster customer service

CUSTOMER BENEFITS :

Flag potential high consumption before customer gets a high bill.

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COMMON METER READING INSTRUMENT

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INTRODUCTION
Analogic's CMRI is a State-of-the-art product for Meter Reading needs. CMRI is a Light Weight, Compact Instrument that is 100% compatible to a desktop DOS PC added with portability and ruggedness. The CMRI is compatible with all types of existing Electronic Tri Vector Energy Meters in the market. Analogic's CMRI is designed to run MS-DOS and the vast majority of DOS Based PC applications comes with superlative features like LCD with monochrome CGA text and graphics, high-speed serial ports, 2 MB system RAM, 2MB system FLASH for programs and 2MB static RAM for Data Storage which is expandable upto 16 MB.

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FEATURES
100% PC Compatibility in a Rugged Hand Held Runs MS-DOS and Virtually any PC Program Fully PC Compatible High Speed two Serial Ports with baud rates upto 115.2 kbps Single or Dual key operation for any meter reading CGA monochrome video with Virtual Screen enables to view phasor or load survey graphs on the spot

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Supertwist Liquid Crystal Display Screen with EL Backlight (16 Rows of 24 Characters, 192 by 128 pixel graphics) Write protected memory area for permanent storage of program files with guaranteed 1 million operations 50 years calendar Lithium Battery backed Real Time Clock Latest and State-of-the-art NiMH battery 1.7 Ahr for operating more than 10 hrs in the field. Membrane Keypad (optional Elastomeric) 45, 32, 30, 20 or 15 keys Standard or Custom Keypad layouts Rugged Cycolac ABS Case with rubber boot for extra protection CBIP compliant Customized to your Specification

SPECIFICATIONS:
Power : Battery Power 6 Volts, Nickel Metal Hydride with no charge memory, 3 hrs or less recharge time, 8 hrs (8 Mhz no backlight) charge

Environment: Storage Temperature : -20 C to +70 C Operating Temperature : 0 to +50 C Humidity : 5-95% (non condensing)

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SOME OTHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED IN THE COMPANY

CEILING FANS
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A ceiling fan is a device suspended from the ceiling of a room, which employs hubmounted rotating paddles to circulate air in order to move air.

HISTORY:
The first ceiling fans appeared in the 1860s and 1870s, in the United States. At that time, they were not powered by any form of electric motor. Instead, a stream of running water was used, in conjunction with a turbine, to drive a system of belts which would turn the blades of two-blade fan units. The electrically-powered ceiling fan was invented in 1882 by Philip Diehl. By World War I, most ceiling fans were being manufactured with four blades instead of the original two. Besides making fans quieter, this change allowed them to circulate more air, thereby making more efficient use of their motors.

USES:
Most ceiling fans can be used in two different ways - for heating or cooling. Most fans have a mechanism, commonly an electrical switch, for reversing the direction in which the blades rotate. In summer, when the fan's direction of rotation is set so that air is blown downward, the breeze created by a ceiling fan speeds the evaporation of sweat on human skin, which is experienced as a cooling effect. In winter, buildings in colder climates are usually heated. Air naturally stratifies that is, warmer air rises to the ceiling while cooler air sinks to the floor.

PARTS OF A CEILING FAN:

An electric motor One to six paddles (called "blades"); usually made of wood, MDF, metal, or plastic; which mount under, on top of, or on the side of the motor. Metal arms, called blade irons, which connect the blades to the motor. Flywheel, a metal or tough rubber double-torus which is attached to the motor shaft, and to which the blade irons may be attached. The flywheel inner ring is locked to the shaft by a lock-screw, and the blade irons to the outer ring by bolts that feed into tapped metal inserts. Older flywheels may become brittle and break, a common cause of fan failure. Replacing the flywheel requires disconnecting wiring and removing the switch housing to gain access to the shaft lock-screw. Rotor, alternative to blade irons 72

OPERATION OF A CEILING FAN:

The way in which a fan is operated depends on its manufacturer, style, and the era in which it was made. Operating methods include: 1. Pull-cord control: This is the most common method of operation for household fans. This style of fan is equipped with a metal-bead chain or cloth cord which, when pulled, cycles the fan through the operational speed(s) and then back to off. These fans typically have three speeds (high, medium, and low); 2. Variable-speed control: During the 1970s and 1980s, fans were often produced with a variable-speed control. This was a dial mounted on the fan which, when turned in either direction, continuously varied the speed at which the blades rotatedsimilar to a dimmer switch for a light fixture. 3. Wall-mounted control: Some fans have their control(s) mounted the wall instead of on the fans themselves; such controls and are usually proprietary and/or specialized switches. 4. Wireless remote control: In recent years, remote controls have become an affordable option for controlling ceiling fans. While some models do employ this as their sole form of operation, it is more common for a person to purchase an after-market kit and install it on an existing fan. The hand-held remote transmits radio frequency or infrared signals to a receiver unit installed in the fan, which interprets and acts on the signals.

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MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER MCB

A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

HISTORY:
An early form of circuit breaker was described by Edison in an 1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution system used fuses. Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from accidental short-circuits and overloads.

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OPERATION:
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Mechanical circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and highvoltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: Lengthening of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.

Short Circuit Current:

A circuit breaker must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc.The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to explode when reset.

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STAR-DELTA MOTOR STARTER

An induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3-phase AC line in two different ways:

wye (star in Europe), where the windings are connected from phases of the supply to the neutral; delta (sometimes mesh in Europe), where the windings are connected between phases of the supply.

A delta connection results in a higher voltage to the windings than a wye connection (the voltage is multiplied by ). A star-delta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which produces a lower starting current than delta, then switches to delta when the motor has reached a set speed. Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:

Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant breakaway torque Increased complexty, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye to delta)

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MONOBLOCK PUMPS
A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as gases, liquids or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. One common misconception about pumps is the thought that they create pressure. Pumps alone do not create pressure; they only displace fluid, causing a flow. Adding resistance to flow causes pressure. Pumps fall into five major groups: direct lift, displacement, velocity, buoyancy and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for moving a fluid.

APPLICATIONS:
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc. Because of the wide variety of applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume. Liquid and slurry pumps can lose prime and this will require the pump to be primed by adding liquid to the pump and inlet pipes to get the pump started. Loss of "prime" is usually due to ingestion of air into the pump. The clearances and displacement ratios in pumps used for liquids and other more viscus fluids cannot displace the air due to its lower density.

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Pumping Power:
The power added to the fluid flow by the pump (Po), is defined using SI units by:

Po = . g. H. Q
where: Po is the output power of the pump (W) is the fluid density (kg/m3) g is the gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2) H is the energy Head added to the flow (m) Q is the flow rate (m3/s) Power is more commonly expressed as kW (103 W) or horsepower (multiply kW by 0.746), H is equivalent to the pressure head added by the pump when the suction and discharge pipes are of the same diameter. The power required to drive the pump is determined by dividing the output power by the pump efficiency. Power needed to pump a given flow against a given head and pipe size, can be calculated using this spread sheet. Various aspects of pumping energy usage are covered in "Energy Efficiency in Pumping". Energy is consumed by the pump, and also lost in the pipework.

Pump Efficiency:
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power imparted on the fluid by the pump in relation to the power supplied to drive the pump. Its value is not fixed for a given pump, efficiency is a function of the discharge and therefore also operating head. For centrifugal pumps, the efficiency tends to increase with flow rate up to a point midway through the operating range (peak efficiency) and then declines as flow rates rise further. Pump performance data such as this is usually supplied by the manufacturer before pump selection. Pump efficiencies tend to decline over time due to wear (e.g. increasing tolerances and impellers reducing in size). One important part of system design involves matching the pipeline headloss-flow characteristic with the appropriate pump or pumps which will operate at or close to the point of maximum efficiency. There are free tools that help calculate head needed and show pump curves including their Best Efficiency Points (BEP).[14] Pump efficiency is an important aspect and pumps should be regularly tested. Thermodynamic pump testing is one method.

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SUMMARY
During this complete training, I got well versed with various electrical devices and circuits. Besides this, I did a deep study about the various methods of theft of electricity and also the techniques used to control such theft, the various latest trends in technology used for energy meters to get an accurate energy measurement. Once the Energy meters were deeply studied, I gained knowledge about various other products manufactured by the company like MCBs, Monoblock Pumps, Ceiling Fans and Motor Starters etc. All in all this training has been really beneficial for me in gaining vital practical knowledge about various devices and circuits in the field of Electrical and Electronics.

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