SURVEY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR LECTURES PARTS OF SPEECH The words that compose the English language, or any other

r language, can be classified in various ways. Much time and effort has been spent in trying to settle what names should be given to these categories. In this introductory part we are going to give the most general definitions of the parts of speech, in the first place because it is almost impossible to give a definition which is exact and comprehensive, or with which every grammarian would agree, secondly because it is hardly necessary since the conception or the term `noun', `verb', etc. will be familiar to students, in their own native language. Students will be given examples of the various parts of speech and will see how these words behave in a sentence. We will use traditional, most familiar definitions common to speakers of different languages. All words in the English language can be grouped, according to the work they do, into eight classes (IVAN CAPP): 1. NOUNS - Words that are names of people, things or places. Words that do this work, i.e. words that name people, things or places are called nouns. E.g. house, shoe, shirt, table, John, London, beauty, army, team, leaf etc. 2. PRONOUNS - Words that can be used instead of nouns, so that we can refer to people, things or places without really naming them or being compelled to repeat the names too frequently, e.g. he, she, it, you, I, them, us, ourselves, who, that, someone. Instead of saying a clumsy sentence, such as ? John said that John was a waiter in John's own restaurant. we will likely say John said that he was a waiter in his own restaurant. using pronouns instead of noun John to avoid repeating the name too often. 3. ADJECTIVES - words that qualify/modify a noun by making its meaning clearer, fuller or more exact. E.g. a blue skirt, the book is new, a little boy; There are words of various types that are sometimes grouped as adjectives, because of their function (house a house, the house, some houses a, the, some qualify the noun house) e.g. a(n), the, some, each, no, much etc. These are grouped under the name determinatives / determiners (this term determinatives is quite old-fashioned and the term determiners is commonly used instead. The correct translation of this group would be determinatori or odreivai). 4. VERBS - words that express the idea of action or being. Words that affirm that a person or thing is, does or suffers something. E.g. She is an engineer. The girls played volleyball and the boys played football. The rebels were overwhelmed by government forces. 5. ADVERBS - words that qualify a verb, e.g. He ran quickly. She sang beautifully. It is a general misconception that an adverb qualifies only a verb - its primary function is to qualify a verb, but it is not its sole function. It can also modify an adjective, e.g. very big, another adverb, e.g. quite often, sentence etc. - we add it to a verb to make its meaning clearer, fuller or more exact. 6. PREPOSITIONS -words that are used with nouns and pronouns (generally, but not always, being placed in front of them e.g. The wall is too high to climb over.) to show the relation in which these nouns or pronouns stand to some other word in a sentence. They express abstract relationship of case, or of time or place. E.g. I sent a parcel to him. We sat 1

under a tree for shade. The smoke went up the chimney. I saw him at two o'clock yesterday afternoon. 7. CONJUNCTIONS - words that are used to join words We were wet and tired., phrases She's very hard-working but not very imaginative., and sentences We didn't enjoy the day because the weather was so awful. 8. INTERJECTIONS - words express a sudden feeling or emotion. These words do not enter into syntactical construction of the sentence. E.g. Oh! Hey! Ah! It is very important to remember that words are classified into parts of speech according to their function, i.e. according to the work they do and not according to their form. There are a great many words that can be two, three or even more parts of speech according to their function in the sentence. E.g. 1. The fast train to London takes less than an hour. (adjective) 2. You will have to act fast. / He drives too fast. (adverb) 3. Hundreds of prisoners began a fast in protest about prison conditions. (noun) 4. One day a week he fasts for health reasons. (verb) 1. She's been blind since birth. 2. Turning the corner the sun blinded me, so I didn't see the other car. 3. She trains guide dogs for the blind. 1. He always springs to his feet when she walks in the room. 2. It's due to open in the spring. 3. I love spring flowers. Words like drink, look, smoke, wash, drive, swim, try etc. are all generally used as verbs, but, especially in familiar conversation we use `have a' before them. Words like shoulder, head, eye, elbow, hand etc. are generally nouns, but these words can be used as verbs: `head a procession' or We headed south towards the capital. He handed the teacher a slip of paper. The man behind the desk eyed us suspiciously. etc. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence is one that contains a finite verb (only one finite verb a finite verb is a verb that can form the predicate by itself). It does one of four things: 1. makes a statement (statement) Mrs. Jones works as an accountant. 2. asks a question (question) Do you understand me? 3. gives a command or makes a request (order or request) Open the window. Please help me with my paper. 4. makes an exclamation (exclamation) How cold it is! What dismal weather! Sentence is composed of two parts the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE SENTENCE = SUBJECT + PREDICATE

Take this sentence into consideration: SUBJECT The boy The dog The girl The books PREDICATE hit the dog bit the boy. read the books. pleased the girl. The subject of a sentence is the word (or group of words) denoting the person or thing about which something is said. The predicate of a sentence is what is said about the subject. Nouns or pronouns that are in the subject are in the nominative case.

Some verbs express an action that passes over from subject to someone or something else, from the doer of the action to the receiver of the action. For example, in the first sentence the action of hitting passes over from the boy to the dog, in the second the action of biting from the dog to the boy. The receiver of these actions is called the OBJECT. The noun or pronoun that signifies this is in the objective case. The concept of case corresponds to a difference of form only in certain pronouns. Whether a noun is a subject or an object of a sentence is shown not by its form, but by its position in the sentence. That man is an artist. I saw that man. BUT He is an artist. I saw him. SUBJECT Verb The boy The dog The girl The books Hit Bit Bead pleased PREDICATE Object the dog. the boy. the books. the girl.

The verbs in the above table are called TRANSITIVE VERBS the verbs that require an object. There are some verbs that do not take an object, e.g. The dog ran away. The boy cried. The girl laughed. Verbs that do not take an object are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. Many verbs express their meaning intelligibly without an object or an extension, e.g. The baby is walking. The sun shines. Fishes swim. Even transitive verbs are intelligible without an object- hit and bit leave us in no doubt about the action involved. E.g. The boy hit. The dog bit. But this is not the case in such examples as: *Today is. *He seems. *The man became. Something must be added before these become intelligible Today is my birthday. He seems tired. The man became violently angry. The words or phrases my birthday, tired, violently angry are not objects - the action does not pass from the doer to the receiver - verbs be, seem, become are all intransitive verbs. These words or phrases are needed to complement the meaning of the verb, they are called COMPLEMENTS. Verbs like be, seem, become are VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION / LINKING VERBS. The difference between the complement and object can be seen in the following sentences.

The little girl smelt the flowers. (OBJECT) The flowers smell sweet. (COMPLEMENT) I grow courgettes / zucchinis in my garden. (OBJECT) My face grew pale at the news. (COMPLEMENT) A complement may be: 1. A NOUN He is a civil engineer. 2. A PRONOUN It was you. 3. AN ADJECTIVE This milk tastes sour. 4. AN ADVERB The baby is awake. 5. A GERUND He continued fighting. 6. A VERB (INFINITIVE) He seemed to fall. 7. A PHRASE The book was on the table. 8. A CLAUSE That is what I wanted to know. 9. A PARTICIPLE It is annoying to be interrupted. Phrases or words other than objects may accompany both a transitive or an intransitive verb in a sentence. These ENLARGEMENTS of the verb are of various types: We'll have to walk quickly if we want to get there on time. (MANNER) They walked slowly through the woods. (PLACE) Many shops don't open on Sundays. (TIME) My plane was delayed because of the thick/dense fog. (REASON) There may also be enlargements of the nouns forming the subject or the object of the sentence. Take this sentence in consideration: A bright little boy with rosy cheeks put three metal-topped bottles of milk quietly on my doorstep before seven o'clock. SUBJECT Subject word Enlargement of Subject Boy a bright little, with rosy cheeks Verb put PREDICATE Enlargement Object of Verb quietly bottles (manner), on my doorstep (place), before seven o'clock (time); Enlargement of Object three, metal topped, of milk

All the complements mentioned so far have been complements of the subject SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. But there are also OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS they occur with verbs that take an object but still need some other word or words to complete the predicate. OBJECT OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 4

They made The jury found He likes The pain nearly drove

him the prisoner his desk him

king. guilty. to be tidy. mad.

The commonest verbs of incomplete predication are: appear, break (break loose), come (his dreams came true), continue, fall (he fell ill), fly (the door flew open), get (get well), grow, keep (keep well), look, make, prove, remain, run, stay, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn, wear (cloth wears thin), work (the screw worked loose). WORD ORDER IN SIMPLE SENTENCES DECLARATIVE SENTENCES In declarative sentences the usual word order is SUBJECT + VERB + (OBJECT): SVO Mary can play the guitar. SV The children were playing in the field. The negative of a declarative sentence is formed in two ways: 1) by inserting NOT immediately after the verb SUBJECT + VERB + NOT. This method is used only with special finites (be, have, modal verbs). In informal style not may coalesce with the special finite to form one word: She is not (isn't) a writer. He can not (can't) speak Russian. The children were not (weren't) playing in the field. 2) By using do, does, did with not and the present infinitive. SUBJECT + DO/DOES/DID + NOT + PRESENT INFINITIVE This construction is used with all verbs except the special finites. She does not (doesn't) visit him every day. They did not (didn't) come yesterday. The auxiliary do is not used with another negative or partly negative word such as never, hardly, scarcely. He scarcely spoke at all. I hardly knew him. He never answered my letters. Except for emphasis He never did like mathematics.

QUESTIONS - INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 1) BY INVERSION OF SUBJECT AND VERB V + S Is he your friend? Will they help us? Can he speak German? THIS METHOD IS USED ONLY WITH SPECIAL FINITES. 2) BY USING DO/DOES/DID + PRESENT INFINITIVE: THIS METHOD IS USED WITH ALL VERBS EXCEPT FOR THE SPECIAL FINITES. WORD ORDER: DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + INFINITIVE E.G. Does she visit him every day? Did they come yesterday? 3) BY USING QUESTION WORDS (interrogative pronouns (who, whom, whose, what, which), interrogative adjectives (what, which, whose), interrogative adverbs (where, when, why)) QW + DO/DOES/DID + S + INFINITIVE. The question word always begins the

question. What did he do? When do you usually have breakfast? If the interrogative pronoun or interrogative adjective + noun is the subject of a sentence the word order is: INTERROGATIVE + VERB. Who said that? NOT *Who did say that? Who wrote `Pride and Prejudice'? Whose child broke the window? COMMANDS, REQUESTS AND INVITATIONS In commands and requests there are usually no subjects: Open the door. Come in. Take that dog out. Please lend me your pencil. Pass the sugar, please. For requests and invitations another construction in question form is frequently used: Will you lend me your pencil? Would you mind passing the salt please? Do you mind not smoking?

2 NOUNS
NOUNS CONCRETE ABSTRACT - quality (scent, whiteness) - state of being (health, youth) - activity (laughter, arrival)

COMMON

PROPER (John, London)

INDIVIDUAL COLLECTIVE (man, country) (flock, a crowd, an army) 2. NOUNS

COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE Some nouns can simultaneously be countable and uncountable with some difference in meaning. A glass is made of glass. I had chicken for dinner. There were many chickens in the yard. Have you seen todays paper? There is paper on the wall. GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. SUBJECT The girl visited her grandmother. DIRECT OBJECT I saw the girl. COMPLEMENT OF A VERB She is a clever girl. INDIRECT OBJECT I told the girl a story. IN A PHRASE WITH PREPOSITION I spoke to the girl. AS AN ANTECEDENT OF A RELATIVE PRONOUN the people that live next door

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Names of substances considered generally: bread, sand, cream, cloth, coffee, glass, oil, jam, ice, water, tea, wood, paper etc. - Abstract nouns: advice, experience, information, knowledge, courage, beauty, fear, help, work, mercy, relief etc. - Also considered as uncountable in English: luggage, baggage, weather, furniture, shopping; - Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with a/an. I dont want (any) advice or help. I want (some) information. *I want an information. - Many of the nouns in the above groups can be used in a particular sense and are then countable: Her hair (U) is black. Whenever she finds a grey hair (C) she pulls it out. U knowledge or skill that you gain from doing a job or activity, or the process of doing this; Do you have any experience of working with children? - experience C something that happens to you or something you do, especially when this has an effect on what you feel or think; He had an exciting experience/some exciting experiences. - work U = occupation, job, employment; He is looking for work / for a job. C = works factory, moving parts of a machine, literary or musical composition; Shakespeares complete works NOUNS NUMBER Only countable nouns can be used in the plural, e.g. cat cats, country countries etc. Plural of all nouns is formed by means of adding sibilant suffix s to the singular: day days, fly flies, wife wives. This suffix is written as s or es. It is pronounced in three ways: 1. /s/ after all voiceless consonants except for the hissing sounds /s/ // // cat-cats /kts/; 2. /z/ after all voiced sounds (voiced consonants and vowels) except for /z/ // /d/ dog dogs /dogz/; 3. /iz/ after hissing sounds /s/ /z/ // // // /d/ house houses /hauziz/, match matches /miz/; In writing this suffix is spelt s with these exceptions (when it is spelt -es): 1. after words that end in s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z glass glasses, box boxes; 2. after most words that end in o hero heroes, volcano volcanoes; However, there is an exception to this rule. Words that have been in the language for a long time tend to use es, while those that are felt to be of foreign origin do not, e.g. piano pianos , photo photos, studio studios; -

Changes in spelling: 1. If -y is preceded by a consonant letter, then y changes into -i and es is added / -y is replaced by ies, e.g. lady ladies, story stories. If y is preceded by a vowel, there are no changes in spelling, e.g. toy toys, valleys, donkeys. 2. Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the -f or fe and add ves. They are: half, calf, knife, leaf, loaf, life, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife and wolf: half halves, knife knives, shelf shelves; wife wives, loaf loaves; Other nouns ending in f or fe form plural by means of adding -s: roof roofs, proof proofs, cliffs, turfs, safe safes. Some of these nouns can form plural in two ways mentioned above: dwarf dwarves or dwarfs, scarf scarfs / scarves; IRREGULAR PLURALS A few nouns (eight nouns) form their plural by a vowel change. These nouns are called mutation plurals: man men, woman women, foot feet, tooth teeth, goose geese, mouse mice, louse lice, dormouse (puh) dormice; Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural: one sheep two sheep, deer deer, fish fish (the word fishes exists but is uncommon), e.g. The fish in this lake are good. Sportsmen/Hunters who shoot duck, partridge (jarebica) etc. use the same form for singular or plural, e.g. to shoot duck, to hunt antelope etc. But other people normally use s for plural. Three words make plural by adding en: ox oxen, child children, brother brethren (members of the society or religious order); The unchanged plural is present in some words showing number and measurement of weight: two dozen eggs / half a dozen eggs, two hundred people, three thousand pounds. However, these words take s when there is no numeral in front of them: dozens of eggs, hundreds of people, thousands of pounds.

CONCORD / AGREEMENT (slaganje subjekta i predikata) 1. A singular subject takes a singular verb: My friend is here. My friends are here. 2. Two or more subjects connected by and take plural verb: My friend and her daughter are here. BUT If the two subjects joined by and are considered as one thing singular verb is used: Brown bread and butter is my favourite breakfast. 3. If the subject, though plural in form, is singular in meaning, then we have to use the verb in singular: Five hundred dollars (a sum of money) is a considerable amount of money. Ten years (a period of time) is a long time. 4. If the second noun is merely part of a phrase qualifying the first singular noun the verb is singular: My friend with her daughter is here. 5. Collective nouns, crew, family, flock, herd etc., can take a singular or a plural verb: a) singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit Our team (considered as one unit) is best. The jury is considering its verdict.

b) plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals Our team (each player is considered of as an individual) are wearing their new jerseys.The jury are considering their verdict. 6. Singular subjects joined by or or neither nor take a singular verb, e.g. Neither John nor Mary has arrived yet. BUT If one subject is singular and the other plural, the verb agrees with the nearest one (the rule of proximity): Neither he nor they are to blame. OR Neither they nor he is to blame. 7. The distributives every, each, everybody etc. take a singular verb and a singular possessive adjective: Every boy in the class is present. Everybody brought his friends. BUT In informal English a plural possessive adjective/pronoun is used with distributives: Everybody brought their friends. OR Everybody brought his/her friends. 8. The verb agrees with the pronoun it in identifying or emphatic sentences: It was John and Mary. Its they who did that. 9. The relative pronoun takes the same number and person as its antecedent: This is one of the best books that have ever been written on the subject. 10. If formal subject there is used, the verb agrees with the real subject: There is a book on the table. There are some books on the table. 11. Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb: - clothes, people (this nouns can be used in singular people and have plural peoples but with different meaning narod - kao nacija), police: The police are making enquiries about the murder. - Garments consisting of two parts. The word pair is usually used with these terms: pyjamas, trousers, pants, breeches His trousers were slightly too short. - Tools and instruments consisting of two parts. The word pair is usually used with these terms: glasses, scissors, scales, spectacles, pliers etc. His glasses were on the table. - Some other words including: arms (=weapons), earnings, riches, stairs, valuables, premises/quarters etc. Average earnings have increased by 5 %. - Names of some games: cards, billiards, dominoes etc. Cards are played every evening. - A number of words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, mathematics, statistics, which are plural in form, normally take a plural verb His mathematics are weak. BUT Names of sciences can sometimes be considered as singular. Mathematics is an exact science. 12. Certain words are plural in form but singular in meaning: - news The news is good. - Certain diseases: mumps, rickets, etc. Rickets is very frequent in some countries. FOREIGN PLURALS Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their plural according to the rules of Greek and Latin: crisis /kraisis/ crises /kraisi:z/; anlysis analyses; basis bases; medium /mi:dim/ media /mi:di/; phenomenon phenopmena //; larva /la:v/ larvae /la:vi:/, formula formulae; radius /reidis/ radii /reidiai/, bacillus /bsils/ bacilli /bsilai/

Sometimes there are two plural forms (one form follows English rules for making plural) with different meanings: appendix /pendiks/ (slijepo crijevo) appendixes appendix appendices /pendisi:z/ dodatak knjizi index indexes (in books); index indices (in mathematics) PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS Normally the last word is made plural: boyfriends, travel agents ; BUT where man and woman is prefixed, both parts are made plural: man driver men drivers, woman teacher women teachers; the first word is made plural with compounds formed of noun (verb + er) + adverb passers-by, lookers-on; or with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun : mothers-in-law, ladies-in-waiting initials can be made plural: MPs (Memebers of Parliament), VIPs (very important persons);

NOUNS: GENDER Masculine gender: all words representing males (men, boys, male animals) pronoun he/they Feminine gender: all words representing females (women, girls, female animals) pronoun she/they Neuter gender: inanimate things, animals whose sex we dont know and babies whose sex we dont know pronoun it/they Words which may designate either males or females are sometimes said to be of a common gender: cousin, teacher, friend, child etc. Masculine/feminine nouns denoting people: female forms can be made from the masculine by adding ess: poet poetess, heir heiress, host hostess, actor actress, waiter waitress; (the majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form: cook, artist, driver, doctor, teacher etc.) female forms can be a different word: boy girl, man woman, sir madam, bachelor spinster, bridegroom bride, father mother, husband wife, nephew niece, widower widow, hero heroine, uncle aunt, gentleman lady, wizard - witch; In words of common gender, the distinction could be shown by forming a compound word of which one element denotes the sex, e.g.: boy friend girl friend, man friend woman friend, he-goat she-goat, landlord landlady, salesman - saleswoman; Domestic animals and many of the larger wild animals have different forms: bull cow, cock hen, drake - duck, lion lioness, gander goose, stallion mare, tiger tigress, ram (male sheep) ewe (female sheep);

NOUNS CASE

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Grammatical case is the relation in which one noun or pronoun stands to some other word in the sentence, or the form of the noun or pronoun which shows that relation. The possessive/genitive case 1. s is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s: a mans job the peoples choice mens work the bulls horns a childs voice womens clothes childrens voices the crews quarters 2. A simple apostrophe () is used with plural nouns ending in s: a girls school, the students hostel, the Smiths car, the eagles nest; 3. Classical names ending in s add only the apostrophe: Sophocles plays, Pythagoras theorem; BUT Other names ending in s can take s or the apostrophe alone Mr. Jones house / Mr. Joness house 4. with names consisting of several words and with compounds the last word takes s: my father-in-laws house, my father and mothers friends, Henry the Eighths wives; Pronunciation: we apply the rules of pronouncing plural s to this suffix as well s is pronounced as /s/, /z/ or /iz/; cats /kts/, dogs /dogz/, horses /ho:siz/; The possessive form is used chiefly with the names of human beings and some animals, e.g. a spiders web, Marys bike, my fathers car, etc. With inanimate things we use the of construction the walls of the house, the noise of the traffic etc. NOT *the houses walls, the traffics noise. However there are some exceptions to this rule: a) when denoting measurement, time, space or quantity: four hours sleep, an hours time, two weeks holiday etc.; However, it is often possible to replace noun X + of + noun Y by noun Y + noun X the keys of the car the car keys, the walls of the town the town walls;

Elliptical use of the genitive Genitive is often used elliptically, i.e. without a headword when: a) referring to a business, building, house. You can buy it at the chemists. (chemists shop) I am going to the dentists. (dentists surgery) We met at Annas. (Annas house/place) b) we want to avoid repetition: Whose fountain pen is this? Its Lejlas. (Lejlas fountain pen) The double possessive An idiomatic construction of the language is the use of the s form and of together = THE DOUBLE POSSESSIVE a friend of Johns it could be said if John had only one friend; one of Johns friends - it could be said if John had than one friend; This construction is important since it enables us to make a difference in meaning between: 11

 a criticism of Lawrence (opinion about/on Lawrence) a criticism of Lawrences (opinions by Lawrence) ARTICLES Articles: - definite article: the (properties: it is invariable for gender and number) - indefinite article: a, an (properties: it is invariable for gender, it is not used with plural or uncountable nouns) A before a word beginning with a consonant sound or a vowel with a consonant sound: a book, a table, a child; a university /juniv:siti/ An before a word beginning with a vowel sound: an open book, an interesting novel, an hour /aur/, an heir /eir/; The table, is pronounced // before consonants or a vowel with a consonant sound: the book, the the chair; the // university, is pronounced /i/ before vowels: the /i/ apple, the /i/ hour /aur/; is pronounced /i:/ when specially emphasized. In print it would appear in italics. Are you the /i:/ Mr. Jones?

The indefinite articles (used only before singular countable nouns a/an + C sing) 1. with the meaning one, any, it doesnt matter which; I have a (one) sister and two brothers. Please pass me a fork (any, it doesnt matter which); 2. before singular noun which is countable when it is mentioned for the first time: I live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream. I saw a girl. 3. before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things: A cat is a domestic animal. =All cats are domestic animals.; A child needs love. =All children need love./Any child needs love. 4. with a noun complement. This includes names of professions, trade, religion, class. It was an earthquake. She is a teacher. 5. in certain expressions of quantity: a lot of, a great many, a great deal of, a couple, a dozen (one dozen is also possible); a hundred, a thousand, a million (! Remember two dozen eggs, three hundred people etc. AND A hundred men were there.) 6. before half when it follows a whole number 11/2 kilos - one and a half kilos BUT kg = half a kilo. 7. in certain expressions of price, speed, measurement: 5p a kilo, 10p a dozen, four times a day, sixty kilometers an hour, etc. (a/an = per) 8. In exclamations before singular countable nouns: What a lovely dress! Such a long queue! What a day! BUT What 0 lovely dresses! Such 0 long queues! What 0 weather we are having! What 0 good chocolate this is! 9. a is used before Mr./Mrs./Miss. + surname: A Mr. Smith, A Mrs. Smith a man called Smith the speaker does not know who the man is.

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10. with the meaning same in proverbs and certain fixed expressions: Birds of a feather flock together. They were much of a size (of the same size). Omission of a/an 1. Before plural nouns and uncountable nouns: *a books, *a furniture; However it is used before nouns that are usually uncountable when other information about the quality, feeling etc. is added by an adjective, phrase, or clause: Candidates must have a good knowledge of chemistry. 2. Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective: I had breakfast at 7 oclock. He gave us a good breakfast. The definite article 1. when the object or group of objects is unique the meaning is the only one: the earth, the sky, the equator, the stars, the east, the west; 2. before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time: His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree. 3. before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause: the girl in blue, the road to Sarajevo, the man with the banner, the University of Zenica; 4. Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing: She is in the garden (the garden of this house). Please pass the salt. The postman (our postman), the car (our car) etc. 5. before superlatives used attributively (i.e. before a noun), e.g. the best way, the first week; BUT Our team is 0 best. 6. the + adjective = used as nouns denoting the whole class: the old = old people in general; the rich, the blind; The French cook better than the English. 7. the is used: a) before certain proper names of seas, rivers, oceans, groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, regions: the Atlantic, the Thames, the Azores, the Alps, the Netherlands (BUT the United Kingdom because it is a union of smaller entities) etc. b) the is also used before nouns consisting of noun + of + noun: The Gulf of Mexico, The United States of America, The Cape of Good Hope; c) the is also used before the names of ships, trains and aeroplanes, e.g. The Queen Mary, The Comet; d) the is also used before the names of hotels, shops, institutions: The Ritz Hotel, The Odeon Cinema; 8. before a singular countable noun to make a generalization about a species: The whale is in danger of becoming extinct. The deep-freezer has made life easier for housewives. 9. before names of instruments: play the piano, He is learning the violin. 10. in idiomatic expressions: the + comparative, the + comparative The harder you work, the more you earn; Zero article 0

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The definite article is not used: 1. before abstract and material nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) and plural nouns used in a general sense: Men fear death. Butter is made from cream. Books are my best friends. BUT If these nouns are limited or qualified, then we have to use the: The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader. The books that are on the table are mine. 2. before names of meals used in a general sense: Will you come to dinner/lunch/breakfast with me? BUT the wedding dinner 3. Before lakes, capes, mountains, bays, falls etc. Lake Windermere, Mount Everest, San Francisco Bay, Niagara Falls etc. except when these are followed by of: the Cape of Good Hope, the lake of Lucerne etc. 4. with the names of languages: She speaks English. BUT the English language. 5. with names of streets: Wall Street is a famous financial center in New York. 6. with words like school, hospital, prison, college, university: the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are visited or used for their primary purpose: We go: to hospital - as patients, to school/college/university to study, to prison as prisoners, to court - as litigants. When these places are visited or used for other reason the is necessary: He goes to the prison to give lectures. I went to the school to fix the leaking pipe. 7. before the names of seasons and festivals: We are going there in spring. 8. before predicative superlatives: He is happiest when working.

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NEODREENI LAN (INDEFINITE ARTICLE) 1. Neodreeni lan se upotrebljava da oznai da data imenica predstavlja cijelu vrstu (bioloku ili neku drugu) A cat is a domestic animal. Maka je domaa ivotinja. A bicycle is good for exercise. Bicikl je dobar za rekreaciju. [U mnoini brojivih imenica kao i kod nebrojivih imenica neodreeni lan se naravno gubi jer se on moe upotrebljavati samo sa brojivim imenicama u jednini (vidjeti 1. taku kod nultih lanova) 2. da oznai da se ono na ta se imenica odnosi javlja prvi put u nekom diskursu i da je ranije bilo nepoznato i govorniku i sagovorniku: I saw a man there (that I'd never seen before). Tamo sam vidio jednog ovjeka (koga nikad nisam vidio). We got a new computer in our office. Dobili smo novi kompjuter u uredu. (ukoliko se pomenute imenice ponovo jave u diskursu, potrebno je upotrijebiti odreeni lan; vidj. Odreeni lan upotreba 2)

ODREENI LAN (DEFINITE ARTICLE) 1. Odreeni lan se upotrebljava sa nebrojivim imenicama i brojivim imenicama u mnoini koje, u optem smislu, imaju nulti lan (vidjeti prvu upotrebu neodreenog i nultog lana ) ako je kontekstom, najee neim iza imenice, izdvojen odreen dio/broj onoga to one oznaavaju: npr. Milk is good for you. ALI The milk we bought yesterday is slightly off/ am. a bit sour. Dogs are domestic animals. ALI The dogs in that yard bark too much. Education is very important. ALI The education she received is very good. 2. odreeni lan se upotrebljava i sa antecedentom (iza koga slijedi relativna reenica) ili, openito, sa imenicom iza koje slijedi fraza ili klauza: the girl in blue, This is the hotel which was built last year. , the place where I met him; 3. glavno pravilo za upotrebu ovog lana jeste da je ono to je predstavljeno imenicom sa ovim lanom poznato vaem sagovorniku ili itaocu, bilo to je ranije spomenuto u istom razgovoru, bilo to vam je poznato iz date situacije i/ili vaeg vaeg nesvjesnog vanjezikog znanja. Ako razgovarate u kui koja ima batu, pa kaete She is in the garden morali ste upotrijebiti odreeni lan sa garden, jer va sagovornik odlino zna o kojoj je bati rije. Iz ovog proizilazi da e sve 'jedinstvene' stvari, poznate svim ljudima, uvijek ii sa odreenim lanom: the Earth, the sun, the moon, the stars. 4. Dijelove tijela i odjee radije upotrebljavamo sa prisvojnim pridjevima: She put on her hat, I have a pain in my shoulder. ALI ako je u reenici upotrijebljen pasiv, onda se koristi lan She was hit on the back. Udarili su je u lea. ALI I patted his shoulder. se moe izraziti kao I patted him on the shoulder.

NULTI LAN (ZERO ARTICLE) 1. Nulti lan se upotrebljava sa imenicama u mnoini i sa nebrojivim imenicama da istakne da je imenica upotrebljena u optem smislu: (zero) Cats are domestic animals. Make su domae ivotinje. Life is difficult. Iron is hard.

2. Bez lana, tj. sa nultim lanom idu: - ulice: Downing Street, Sime Milutinovia 16, itd. (rijetko koja ulica da je sa lanom the Strand). - gradovi i drave: London, England (samo pokoji grad i drava idu sa lanom ALI the Hague, the Yemen, the Sudan. ) avenije i bulevari: Fifth Avenue, Sunset Boulevard, - trgovi Times Square - raskrsnice, parkovi: Central Park 3. Bez lana, tj. sa nultim lanom idu: - zaljevi, jezera, vodopadi, planine: Mount Everest, Lake Michigan; - aerodromi: Heathrow Airport - ispred naziva objeda u optem smislu: I had breakfast at 7 o'clock yesterday. ALI (the breakfast we had yesterday wasn't very good, He gave us a good breakfast.)

3. upotrebljava se i ispred imenice u predikatu (imenski komplement) koja oznaava zanimanje ili pripadnost nekoj grupi, biolokoj, vjerskoj, nacionalnoj i sl. He is a doctor. She is a Catholic. An owl is a bird. My friend is an American. Moj prijatelj je Amerikanac. (! najvei broj ovih naziva mogu biti i imenice i pridjevi i treba paziti. Ove reenice mogu i: She is Catholic. My friend is American. Ali npr. English i French su pridjevi i nemaju lana: He is English/French. ILI He is an Englishman. 4. neodreeni lan se nekada moe a

5. odreeni se moe upotrijebiti sa brojivim imenicama u jednini (mada rjee nego neodreeni lan) i da oznai cijelu klasu bia, stvari i sl. ili neku ljudsku instituciju u optem smislu (takva upotreba se zove generika eng. generic) . npr kaemo Telefon je postao potreba i pri tom mislimo na cjelokupan sistem za prenos zvuka na daljinu, tj. na samu instituciju telefona onda emo upotrijebiti odreeni lan The telephone has become a necessity. The traveller pays a fare on entering the vehicle. Putnik plaa vozarinu pri ulasku u vozilo. ALI Ako pak imenica moe biti upotrebljena kao 'nebrojiva', onda nulti lan signalizira generiku funkciju Television is the main pastime of millions of people. Televizija je glavna razonoda milionima ljudi. Kada se imenica man upotrebljava da oznai sva bia, onda se ne upotrebljava the ispred ove imenice. What do you about the origins of man? Generiko the je dosta nerazjanjeno. PRAVILO: Generiko the se mora upotrijebiti sa imenicama koje se odnose na ljudske institucije u irem smislu ili na njihove elemente, dok se generinost ostalih imenica moe obiljeiti i sa a i sa the. 6. upotrijebljen sa pridjevom on podrazumijeva kvalitet, osobinu ili apstraktnu

4. Bez lana, tj. sa nultim lanom

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nekada mora upotrijebiti i umjesto broja 'jedan' a dozen eggs jedno tuce jaja, ali i u izraavanju cijena ili uestalosti u odnosu na neki vremenski period: three times a day, half a day pola dana (ali se moe rei i a half-day). These eggs are sold ten pence a dozen (=per dozen). Ova jaja se prodaju za 10 penija po tucetu. ! 11/2 kg one and a half kilos / a kilo and a half; 1/2 kg half a kilo (no a before half), though a half holiday, a half day excursion. 5. Neodreeni lan dolazi iza What /Such u usklinim reenicama, ali samo iza brojivih imenica u jednini: What a pretty coat! Such a nice day! etc. Kada se elimo 'diviti' nekoj nebrojivoj imenici ili imenici u mnoini onda nema nikakvog lana, tj. ima nilti lan. What nice hair! Kakva divna kosa! 6. ispred Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname: a Mr Smith = a man called Smith he is a stranger to the speaker. (u naem jeziku neki gospodin Smith) 7. sa imenicama u apoziciji kada se za osobu ili stvar pretpostavlja da je nepoznata: Lawrence, an English writer; ALI ako je osoba ili stvar poznata, ili navodimo zanimanje osobe nakon njenog imena, onda se koristi odreeni lan: Rome, the cpital of Italy; Jacson, the butcher; 8. Praktino pravilo upotrebe neodreenog lana jeste da se upotrebljava u svim onim sluajevima kada u naem jeziku moete (ili morate npr. Bio jednom jedan car.) upotrijebiti jedan ili neki ispred imenice.

kategoriju na nain na koji to rade nai pridjevi srednjeg roda odreenog vida: We have to be always ready for the inevitable in life. Uvijek moramo biti spremni za neizbjeno u ivotu. u ovoj upotrebi pridjev oznaava odgovarajuu imenicu u mnoini: the poori, the rich, the old (ovakvih pridjeva je malo), ali se ovo pravilo upotrebljava i sa pripadnicima naroda ije se ime zavrava na /s/ /z/ // ili //: the Swiss vicarci, the English Englezi, the Dutch Holanani itd. 7. kad se imenice to znae istok, sjever, zapad i jug upotrijebe da oznae geografske ili politike pojmove sa njima ide lan: the East End, The South Pole, the north of France, in the south, The West, ali ako slue samo da oznae pravac kretanja, onda nema lana: go west, kao ni u West Germany, North America, South Africa. 8. ispred muzikih instrumenata play the violin BUT I'd like to have a piano. 9. ispred superlativa upotrebljenih atributivno i ispred first, second, only: This is the oldest building in Zenica. the first week, the only way. I ponekad sa superlativnim oblicima upotrebljenim adverbijalno (kao prilog) This is the best I can do. Modern drama interests me the most. ALI Your help was most valuable.

idu: nazivi bolesti: He has cancer/pneumonia/heart trouble/ measles/mumps. ALI a headache, a cold, dok moe (a) fever, (the) flu, nazivi nauka u optem smislu: history (ALI the history of the First World War) priroda u optem smislu: nature bez lana su i izrazi: at work, at home, at church ALI in/at a/the mosque, at sea, in town u (svom) gradu; ispred raznih sportova: play rugby/football. 5. Bez lana, tj. sa nultim lanom idu: - at school/college/university, in prison, in hospital itd. kada su u pitanju institucije kao kola i bolnica onda one idu bez lana ako se o njima govori u kontekstu njihove primarne namjene, a ako ne onda sa lanom uenik je at school, a bolesnik in hospital, ALI majstor koji je doao u kolu da neto popravi je in the school, a ovjek koji je doao u bolnicu u posjetu je in the hospital.

10. odereeni lan se upotrebljava sa: - rijekama, morima, okeanima, (ali se ne upotrebljava sa imenima jezera, zaljeva i vodopada! Vidjeti nulti lan upotreba 2) the Miljacka, the Danube, The Adriatic Sea, the Atlantic Ocean; - sa imenima vozova, brodova i aviona, kao i sa imenima hotela, prodavnica, institucija, novina, i dr. the Evropa Hotel, the Odeon Theatre, The Queen Mary (ship), the New York Times etc. - Veliki broj naziva (naroito geografskih) se izraava strukturom the + opta imenica+ of + vlastita imenica u ovim strukturama the je neprikosnoveno. The Republic of Montenegro, the Municipality of Stari Grad, the Island of Hvar, the University of Zenica, the City of New York i mnoge druge. ALI New York City, Zenica University, Stari Grad Municipality, Hvar Island. 11. ispred komparativa pridjeva (ili priloga) kada elite da pokaete da se 'koliina' vezana za prvi pridjev ili prilog poveava ili smanjuje u odnosu na drugi: The harder you work, the more you will be paid. to vie radi, vie e biti plaen. The sooner that work is finished the better.

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ADJECTIVES - Adjective is a word that qualifies a noun, adds to its meaning, but limits its application: e.g. 'handbag' any handbag 'a leather handbag' tells more about the noun and limits its application; 'the big, new, leather handbag' tells even more and narrows the field even further; Many adjectives may be followed by preposition: good at, tired of, etc. The main kinds of adjectives are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Demonstrative adjectives, i.e. demonstratives: this, that, these, those; Distributive adjectives, i.e. distributives: each, every, either, neither; Quantitative adjectives: some, any, no, little/few, many, much; Interrogative adjectives: which, what, whose; Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their; Adjectives of quality: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy;

Agreement Adjectives in English have the same form for singular and plural, masculine and feminine nouns they are invariable for number and gender: a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls; The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which change to these and those before plural: this cat, these cats, that cat, those cats; The attributive and predicative use of adjectives Adjectives can be used in two ways: a) attributively: adjectives are used attributively when they qualify a noun. They are placed in front of the noun, e.g. a green and brown carpet, He is an honest, hard-working boy. b) predicatively: adjectives are used predicatively when they form the predicate with the verb to be or other verbs of incomplete predication. They function as complements (subjective or objective complements), e.g. The day was cold, wet and windy. Tom felt cold. He made her happy. He grew impatient. The idea sounds interesting. That cake smells good. That is a new book. new is used attributively; Is that a new book? That book is new. new is used predicatively; Is that book new? Most of adjectives can be used attributively or predicatively, but some, especially those that begin with a-, can only be used predicatively: afraid, alike, alive, awake, alone, ashamed, asleep, afraid, unable, content, aware, alive etc. * an asleep baby *Mary is a content woman. Quiet! The baby is asleep. However, some of these adjectives have the related adjectives that can be used before a noun or after linking verb. E.g. The animal was alive. A living animal; afraid frightened, alike similar, alone lone, asleep sleeping; There are some adjectives that are not used predicatively:

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Some emphasizing adjectives (I felt like a complete fool. And absolute, entire, mere, sheer, total) and classifying adjectives (such as occasional, northern, etc.) are not normally used predicatively: *The failure was complete. However, some adjectives have different meaning when used attributively and predicatively: a small farmer, The farmer is small. The countrys economic reforms. The process isnt economic (=not profitable). Many adjectives can be used immediately after a noun: - when adjective is followed by to infinitive or prepositional phrase: He is a man greedy for money. He is a manager capable of taking difficult decisions. - some ible / able adjectives: available, imaginable, possible, suitable; may come after a noun if there is the before it, or it is made definite by relative clause: This was the most difficult decision imaginable. It is a treatment suitable for all children with asthma. - the adjectives concerned, involved, opposite, present, proper, responsible etc. These words have different meaning when used before a noun and after it: All the people present (=who are there) and He asked me for my present address. - when more than one adjective is used with the noun: He is a writer both witty and wise. Orders of adjectives of quality Several variations are possible, but a fairly usual order is adjectives of: a) size (except little) b) general description c) age, and the adjective little d) shape e) colour f) material g) origin h) purpose (these are really gerunds used to form compound nouns: walking sticks, riding horse) e.g. a long sharp knife, a small round bath, an old plastic bag; Adjectives functioning as nouns There are adjectives that can function as nouns. In this case they are always preceded by the definite article: a) they can refer to people plural in meaning and take a plural verb; The poor get poorer, the rich get richer; The French like to eat well. b) they can refer to an abstract quality singular in meaning and take a singular verb; The good in him outweighs the bad. Nouns functioning as adjectives Words that are generally nouns may act as adjectives: a stone wall, a gold watch, a garden flower, etc. - Some of the material nouns have another form which is distinctly adjectival, e.g. wood wooden, silver silvery, gold golden;

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The formation of adjectives from nouns Noun + suffix: - y, -ly, - ful, -less, -en, -ous, -able, -some, - ic, -ish, etc. E.g. cheesy, fatherly, powerful, powerless, humorous, honourable, quarrelsome, photographic, childish etc. Participles used adjectivally: Both present participles (-ing) and past participles (-ed) can be used as adjectives. They can be used predicatively or attributively, they can be modified by adverbs like very, too, quite, etc. The book is full of amusing stories about his childhood. He is very amusing. Ellen seemed amused by the whole situation. He attacked the man with a broken bottle. The CDs player is broken again. ! Care must be taken not to confuse present participle adjectives with past participle adjectives: a) present participle adjectives (amusing, boring, tiring) are active and mean having this effect: The play was boring. The journey was very tiring. b) past participle adjectives (amused, bored, tired) are passive and mean affected in this way: The audience was bored. We were really tired. ! Care must be taken not to confuse participle adjectives with participles forming part of a verb: Is my cough annoying (Adj.)? Is my cough annoying (V) you? I was so tired when I got home from work last night. All that walking has tired me out. The formation of the negative of adjectives and adverbs The negative of adjectives is frequently formed by the use of prefixes or suffixes: un- unkind, unwise, unhappy, unpleasant; in- (im- (before b, p, m ), il- (before l), ir- (before r),): incomplete, immature, impossible, illegal, irregular; dis- disappointing, dishonest -less (adjectives ending in ful make negative by adding less to the root): helpless ( helpful), useless ( useful); COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES When one thing is compared to the other, we use an inflection called comparison. Comparison can express equality (two people or things possess the same quality in the same degree), inferiority or superiority (two people or things possess the same quality in different degrees). There are three degrees of comparison: positive degree (big, interesting) comparative degree (bigger, more interesting) superlative degree (biggest, most interesting)

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Comparison of equality is expressed by the positive degree as + an adjective in positive degree + as + noun; not as / not so + an adjective in positive degree + as + noun; He was as white as a sheet. Your coffee isnt so good as the coffee my mother makes. I cant type as fast as you. I am not as (so) old as you (are). Comparison of superiority is expressed by comparative degree, e.g. Lejla is older than Amir. She is more careful than her brother. With the comparative form we use than: He is stronger than I expected. John is taller than Ann. He makes fewer mistakes than you (do). Gradual increase or decrease is expressed by two comparatives joined by and: The weather is getting colder and colder. Comparison of inferiority is expressed by using less than. Getting out of bed in summer is less difficult than in winter. Tickets were less expensive than I had expected. Its less hot today than it was yesterday. 1 Supremacy is expressed by the superlative degree, e.g. Los Angeles is the biggest city in California. Its one of the oldest buildings in San Francisco. Comparison of 3 or more people is expressed by the superlative the . in/of: This is the oldest theatre in London. The youngest of the family was the most successful. After superlative forms a relative clause with a perfect tense may be used: This is the best film (that) Ive ever seen. That was the best film (that) I had ever seen. Formation of degree of comparison The comparative degree is formed : a) by adding er to the positive: clear clearer, nice nicer; b) by using more with positive: expensive more expensive, splendid more splendid; The superlative degree is formed: a) by adding est to the positive: clearest, nicest; b) by using most with positive: (the) most expensive, (the) most splendid; Method (a) is used with: 1. monosyllabic adjectives (except right, wrong, real): big bigger-biggest; 2. with disyllabic adjectives ending in a vowel sound or syllabic l (when pronounced) OR ending in y, -ow, -le, -er. E.g. pretty prettier - prettiest, friendly friendlier friendliest2, clever cleverer cleverest, simple simpler simplest. 3. with disyllabic adjectives that have the stress on the second syllable: polite, politer, politest; 4. BUT: certain frequently-used disyllabic adjectives that have their stress on the first syllable use method (a) to form their comparative and superlative degree as well, although they do not end in a vowel sound or syllabic -l: quiet quieter quietest, handsome handsomer handsomest; common commoner commonest;
1 2

This construction is rarely used; it would be far more usual to say: It's not so (as) hot today as it was yesterday. Even when we add un- to friendly unfriendly comparative and superlative is made by using method (a): unfriendly unfriendlier unfriendliest;

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Method (b) is used with: 1. most disyllabic adjectives with the accent on the first syllable or adjectives ending in ful, -re: obscure more obscure most obscure, doubtful more doubtful most doubtful; fertile more fertile most fertile; 2. With all adjectives of more than two syllables: frightening more frightening most frightening; interested more interested most interested; One-syllable adjectives One-syllable adjectives normally form comparatives and superlatives with -er and -est. Examples of the comparative and superlative of one-syllable adjectives: adjective comparative superlative cold colder coldest strong stronger strongest fine finer finest rich richer richest big bigger biggest thin thinner thinnest ! More and most are not normally used before one-syllable adjectives: She is two years older than her sister.(* She is two years more old than her sister.) However, more and most do have to be used with the single-syllable adjectives apt, real, right and wrong: 1. He made what he was teaching seem more real, didnt he? (* He made what he was teaching seem realer, didnt he?) 2. You couldnt be more wrong. (*You couldnt be wronger.) 3. She asks him to remember her, and he replies that he is more apt to forget anything else. Two-syllable adjectives Two-syllable adjectives which end in -er, -le or -ow can have comparatives and superlatives either with -er and -est or with more and most. Such adjectives include able, clever, hollow, narrow, simple: Peter is the cleverer brother.(or: Peter is the more clever brother.) The simplest approach is often the best approach.(or: The most simple approach is often the best approach.) The comparative and superlative forms of two-syllable adjectives ending in -y are spelled -ier, -iest. Among the most frequent are: angry, busy, clumsy, easy, friendly, funny, happy, lovely, lucky, pretty, silly, windy. Examples of the comparative and superlative of two-syllable adjectives ending in -y adjective comparative superlative friendly friendlier friendliest lucky luckier luckiest angry angrier angriest Examples: Be careful! Hes clumsier than you think. Its been one of the windiest days on record, with gusts reaching 100 miles per hour.

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Multi-syllable adjectives Multi-syllable adjectives form their comparative and superlative with more and most: He is more interesting than his brother. (* He is interestinger than his brother.) The most intelligent solution would be to do nothing. (*The intelligentest solution would be to do nothing.) Irregular comparison Positive Comparative Superlative best best (well is an adjective in constructions such as worst worst (feel ill, be ill, look ill, fall ill) least most farthest (of distance only) furthest (used more widely; used to mean additional, extra) latest (last) oldest (of people and things) eldest (of people only) foremost, first inmost/innermost outmost/uttermost uppermost

good better well better Im well, look / feel / get well) bad worse ill worse little less many/much more far farther further late old (fore) (in) (out) (up) later (latter) older elder former inner outer/utter upper

1. The weather in Scotland was better than we thought. Im very well Im much better today than I was yesterday. He looks well. He looks better than yesterday. 2. Compared with the other teams in the division, they have had the worst results. 3. He was ill last week; this week he is worse. 4. The same applies to the use of these words in compound adjectives: Dont you think she is better-looking than her sister? That was one of the worst-organised trips Ive ever been on. Some basic remarks: a. older/elder older (for people or things) ; elder (for people) Note that when talking about members of a family, elder/eldest may be used. In other contexts older/oldest are used: 1. Janet is my elder sister but Mary is the eldest.

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2. Their eldest daughter has just won a swimming scholarship to an American university. (preferred to: Their oldest daughter ) 3. The cathedral is the oldest in Northern Europe.(* The cathedral is the eldest in Northern Europe.) Elder is not used with than: My sisters older than me. (* My sisters elder than me.) b. farther/further There is no difference in meaning between farther and further when both refer to distances. York is farther/further than Lincoln or Selby. However, only further is used when the meaning is extra or additional and in this case it is usually used with abstract nouns: 1. I just cant walk any farther. (distance) 2. The farthest/furthest road is sometimes the best road to take. (distance) 3. For further information, see your Weekend magazine supplement this Saturday. (* For farther information see ) c. little smaller; smallest/littlest (small refers to size and is usually the opposite of large, big, little refers to size but also expresses speakers feelings BUT the comparative of little as an adjective of quality is not used, smaller, the smallest is used instead) My car is smaller (not littler) than yours. little less; least (is the comparative form of little as a quantifier adjective / determiner, and, of course, less is used, as well as little, before uncountable nouns. Fewer is used with countable nouns) I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to. d. much/many more, most: much + U, many + Cpl more/most + U, Cpl: More people live in the capital than in the whole of the rest of the country. We spent more time on the last job than usual. Which of you earns the most money? e. late later, latest (being the newest, the most recent) The train was even later than usual. Have you seen her latest movie? f. late latter, last (a. the second of the two; is contrasted with former b. near or towards the end of something), last (final): Of the two suggestions I prefer the latter (one). Celebrations are planned for the latter part of November. The Tempest was the last play that Shakespeare wrote. g. near nearer nearest (refers to distance) / next (refers to order): Wheres the nearest post office? Read the next two chapters before Friday. Some important things: When the same verb is required before and after than and as we can use an auxiliary for the second verb: e.g. I earn less than he does. (INSTEAD OF I earn less than he earns.) - When the second clause consists of than / as + I / we / you + verb and there is no change of tense it is possible to omit the verb: Im not as old as you (are). He has more time than I (have). FORMAL ENGLISH: He has more time than I. INFORMAL: He has more time than me. He is older than I. He is older than me. - When the second clause consists of than / as + he/she/it + verb keep the verb: FORMAL You are stronger than he is. INFORMAL You are stronger than him. I swim better than he does / better than him. FORMAL: he, she, they; INFORMAL: him, her, them; ! There are some adjectives not admitting of comparison: perfect, unique, full, empty, square, round, circular, wooden, monthly, daily, dead etc. 23 -

DETERMINERS articles: a, an, the adjectives of quantity: all, some, several, any, much, many, (a) few, (a) little, no, enough; and all the cardinal numbers one, two, three: demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those; distributive adjectives: each, every, both, either, neither; interrogative adjectives: which, whose, what possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their; nouns and noun phrases in the possessive case: Johns, the old mans, ! Many of these may stand alone as pronouns (This is my book. this is a pronoun), or may qualify nouns This book is mine. this is a demonstrative adjective, i.e. determiner). When they qualify nouns they differ from quality adjectives in two ways: - WORD ORDER: determiner + qualifying adjective + noun - DISTRIBUTION: only one determiner before a noun (jedan moj prijatelj - *a my friend BUT a friend of mine; neke njegove knjige - * some his books BUT some books of his. MUCH, MANY MUCH + U (uncountable (singular) nouns) e.g. I havent got much money. You dont have much time if you want to catch that train. MANY + Cpl (plural countable nouns) e.g. How many cigarettes a day do you smoke? She doesnt have many friends. FEW, LITTLE FEW / A FEW + C pl (plural countable nouns): I have to buy a few things at the supermarket. LITTLE / A LITTLE + U (uncountable singular nouns): Theres little money left. Many of the students speak little German. FEW has negative meaning = not many OR hardly any. LITTLE has negative meaning = not much OR only a small amount or hardly any of something the emphasis is on the scantiness. A FEW has positive meaning = some, though not many A LITTLE has positive meaning = some, though not much. Compare: He has few friends. He often feels lonely. = hardly any He has a few friends who call to see him quite often. = some, a small number Theres (very) little money left. It will hardly keep us in food. = hardly any, a very small amount. He has a little money and can live quite comfortably on it. = some; a small, but a considerable amount

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ADJECTIVES 1. Demonstratives: this, that, these, those; e.g. This book is mine. What did you do with those sandwiches? 2. Distributives: each, every, either, neither; Grill the fish for five minutes on each side. There are shops at either end of the street. 3. Quantitative: some, any, no, little/few, many, much; There's no food left in the fridge. I paid little attention to what the others were saying. There isnt any tea left in the pot. 4. Interrogative: which, what, whose; Which book are you looking for? What colour is the new carpet? Whose keys are those? 5. Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their; Have you seen my car keys? This is her sister. 6. Of quality: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy; Lucy is quite clever and does well at school.

DETERMINERS 1. Demonstrative adjectives: This book is mine. What did you do with those sandwiches? 2. Distributive adjectives: Grill the fish for five minutes on each side. There are shops at either end of the street. 3. Quantitative adjectives: some, any, no, little/few, many, much; There's no food left in the fridge. I paid little attention to what the others were saying. There isnt any tea left in the pot. 4. Interrogative adjectives: Which book are you looking for? What colour is the new carpet? Whose keys are those? 5. Possessive adjectives: Have you seen my car keys? This is her sister. 6. Articles: There is a book on the table. Shall we go to the movies this evening? 7. Nouns and noun-phrases in the possessive case; Johns book;

PRONOUNS 1. Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we, they; I saw you talking to that girl. Who is she? 2. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those: That is my book. This has been the worst year of my life. 3. Distributive: each, either, neither You get two cookies each. 'Would you like tea or coffee?' 'Neither, thanks. I wouldn't trust either of them. 4. Indefinite/quantifier: some, any, (a) few, (a) little, none; I've just made a pot of coffee. Would you like some? Many people expressed concern, but few were willing to help. Is there any of that lemon cake left? 5. Interrogative: who, whom, whose, what, which; Who is that? Which is mine? The smaller one? Whose are those keys? 6. Possessive: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs; These are my gloves. Hers are in the drawer. He is a cousin of ours. 7. Reflexive: myself, yourself, yourselves, etc. Ive bought myself a new coat. The kids seem very pleased with themselves. 8. Relative: Do you know the people who live over the road? the people that live next door Is that the film in which he kills his mother?

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PERSONAL PRONOUNS Nominative case Singular Plural I we you (thou) you he she they it one Objective case Singular Plural me us you (thee) you (ye) him her them it one

1st person 2nd person 3rd person masculine feminine neuter indefinite

In addition to the possessive case, there are the Nominative and the Objective case. The forms of nouns in English are the same, no matter whether they are in the nominative or in the objective case. The case of nouns is shown not by inflection but by word order. However, some pronouns are inflected to show case: The boy hit a dog. He hit it. The dog bit the boy. It bit him. The girl read the books. She read them. ! Objective case is used: when a pronoun is an object of a verb (direct or indirect) and an object of preposition (when it is governed by a preposition): I saw him (direct object). I told her (indirect object) the news. I spoke to her (object of preposition). There are only 6 English words that have different forms for nominative and objective case: I - me, he him, she her, we us, they them, who whom; Formal English: May I speak to Mrs. Jones? This is she. Informal English: This is her. Its me. BUT It was he who told me about it? Formal / Informal Some remarks: - I is written with a capital letter. We is not a plural of I, but I and you, I and he, I and all the others. - We may be used by a newspaper editor or a writer of a paper to use we instead of I from modesty etc. - He masculine nouns, she feminine nouns, it neuter nouns; sometimes: she ships, motorcars, aircraft, animals, countries; - It is normally used for a thing or an animal whose sex we dont know, but it may be used for people in sentences such as: Who is that/Who is it? Its me. - to identify an unknown person: Someone knocked at the door. It was John.

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It is used as a formal subject with verbs denoting weather conditions, expressions of time and measurement, distance: What time is it? Its quarter to six. Its snowing. Whats the date? Its the sixth of November. Its hot/cold/quiet/noisy. To introduce sentences of this type cleft sentences: It was John who lent us the money. = John lent us the money. Its pilots that we need. We need pilots. These types of sentences are used for emphasis. It is a formal subject or object, but the real subject is inside the sentence: Its odd that he hasnt phoned. That he hasnt phoned is odd. It can represent a previously mentioned phrase, clause or verb: He smokes in bed, though I dont like it. (it = his smoking in bed) He suggested flying, but I thought it would cost too much. (it=flying) It also acts as a subject for impersonal verbs: it seems, it appears, it looks, it happens; One as an indefinite pronoun: a. It is used to stand for people, a person, any person in my position: Can one camp in the forest? (you may be used instead Can you camp in the forest? BUT as objects you is the normal pronoun They fine you for parking offences); the correct possessive must be used: One has to show ones pass at the door. One always worries about ones children. You have to show your pass at the door. You are the first one (=person) who has ever explained this clearly. (COMPARE If oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.) b. one (adjective/pronoun) one + other/another: One (boy) wanted to read, another/the other/others wanted to watch TV. c. one (adjective/pronoun) one + day/night/week/month/year/summer/winter: One night there was a terrible storm. One day a telegram arrived.. One (pronoun) of these days Ill go and see him. One (Some) day youll be sorry you treated him so badly. (at some time in future) d. one = only, single: The one man who could have saved this situation is dead. e. The prop-word: in some constructions adjectives can not stand alone and need the prop-word one to support them. If one is not used, then a noun would have to be repeated. What sort of jumper would you like? Id like one with a V-neck. I dont want the yellow jumper, I want the blue one. BUT One can be used only instead of countable nouns singular Brown bread is better than white. (NOT white one). You should change the old money into the new. (NOT the new one) Plural of one used in this way is ones: I prefer red roses to white ones. BUT Did you get a ticket / tickets? Yes, I managed to get one / some. f. The prop-word one is not used with own, some, after these and those and after cardinal number: I cant write with your pen, Id rather use my own. (NOT my own one); Your apples are not the same these ( NOT these ones) are better than those (NOT those ones). BUT I like these blue ones.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ! Possessive pronouns are used when they are not followed by a noun or a noun phrase: Possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs; (thou, thee, thy, thine) This is my/your/his/her purse/ wallet. This purse/wallet is mine/yours/his/hers. This is our house and that is their house. This house is ours, but that house is theirs. 28

Is this coat yours? I cant believe that the house is ours at last. My best wishes to you and yours from me and mine. Its is rarely used, it is often followed by own when used as a possessive pronoun: A cat will use every garden except its own as a toilet. Double possessive: of + possessive pronoun a friend of Johns a friend of mine/his; That bag of yours weighs a ton. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS When followed by noun, demonstratives (this, that, these, those) are adjectives, if they are used without noun they are demonstrative pronouns. This, these nearer in space or time (to the speaker), that, those more distant; These gloves are yours, arent they? These = adjective These are your gloves, aren't they? These = pronoun This can refer to a previous sentence/clause. It is translated as to: A lot of young people smoke; this is bad for their health. to je veoma loe za njihovo zdravlje. Engleski nema posebne zamjenice za ovakav takav onakav, pa se zato upotrebljava this/that kind/sort: We havent had this kind of weather for a long time. Ovakvo vrijeme nismo ve dugo imali. I dont like to read those sorts of books. Ne volim da itam takve knjige (NE takve vrste knjiga) SUCH (adjective, pronoun) Such (demonstrative adjective): such + a/an + C sing OR such + U / C pl: Thats such a good film. Dont be in such a hurry. Such behavior is just not acceptable in this school. They are such nice people! BUT I said no such thing! Such vs. so: such + a noun; so + an adjective: It was so cold we stayed at home. It was such a cold night that we stayed at home. BUT If much/many precede a noun, put so instead of such: So many people complained that they took the programme off. Such (demonstrative pronoun): is not followed by a noun: Birth is a natural process and should be treated as such. Such is life! REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS SINGULAR: 1st person myself, 2nd yourself, 3rd himself, herself, itself; oneself PLURAL: 1st ourselves, 2nd yourselves, 3rd themselves; Self pronouns can be: a. reflexive b. emphasizing Reflexive pronouns: She made herself a cup of coffee. Compare to She made her a cup of coffee. These pronouns are used:

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1.

as objects (direct or indirect) of a verb when the action of the verb returns to the doer, i.e. when subjects and objects are the same person: I cut myself. He cant shave himself. The refrigerator defrosts itself. Tom and Ann blamed themselves for the accident. (Compare to: Tom and Ann blamed each other for the accident.) The visitors helped themselves to the cakes. She saw herself in the mirror. I bought myself a coat. 2. after a verb + a preposition when the action of the verb returns to the doer: I bought this for myself. I want a little time to myself. Did she pay for herself? Shes annoyed with herself. BUT if the pronoun indicates locality or if there is no doubt about the identity of speaker, then the ordinary pronoun in objective case is used: Did you take your dog with you? They put the child between them. 3. reflexive pronoun is sometimes used instead of the ordinary pronoun to clear the meaning or to be/sound more polite (as reflexive pronouns are vaguely felt to be more polite): They recognized her sister but not herself. My husband and myself (instead of I or me) were delighted with the gift. Verbs used reflexively: There are a few verbs used reflexively and this is mentioned in the dictionary: to deny yourself (something) (R) odrei se: He denied himself all pleasures and luxuries.; He absented himself from the meeting. Bio je odsutan sa sastanka. I hope the children will behave themselves. She availed herself of the opportunity. Iskoristila je tu priliku. Emphasizing function/pronouns: 1. they are strongly stressed and they are used to emphasize. They are placed after the noun they emphasize (they may be placed at the end of a sentence): The President himself said that. OR The President said that himself. To je predsjednik lino/sam predsjednik rekao. I saw him do it myself. Tom (Tom and not anyone else) himself went. / Tom went himself. I saw Tom himself. I spoke to the President himself. 2. (all) +(by) + reflexive pronoun = alone, without help: I did it by myself. You cant lift that armchair by yourself! Ne moe sam podii tu fotelju. COMPARE: I did it myself. (OR I myself did it) It was done by me and not by someone else. AND I did it by myself. I did it alone without anyones help. 3. u znaenju takoer: Well walk you home; we are going there ourselves. Otpratit emo vas kui. I mi idemo u tom pravcu. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS subject WHO (pronoun) For persons: object WHOM, WHO (pronoun) possessive WHOSE (pronoun or adjective) subject/object WHAT (pronoun or adjective) For things: subject/object WHICH (pronoun or adjective the choice is restricted) Which time suits you better 12.30 or one oclock? Adjective Which is mine? (pronoun) Who came? Who(m) did you see? Whose is this umbrella? pronoun Whose umbrella is this? adjective What happened? pronoun What books did you buy? adjective

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a. invariable for gender or number; Who broke the window? John/Mary/John and Mary. b. interrogative pronouns may be used to introduce direct or indirect question: What did he say? She asked what he had said. Who keeps the keys? Who(m) did you visit? Which of your parents do you feel closer to? WHO It is used only for persons, it can stand for masculine or feminine nouns; who is the nominative case, whom is objective case, but whom is used only in formal writing, so in conversation it is replaced by who in objective case as well, unless it immediately follows the preposition. Formal English: To whom do you wish to speak? With whom did you go? The same applies to other pronouns as well: To which address did you send it? Informal English: Who do you wish to speak to? Who did you go with? Which address did you send it to? The possessive form is whose: Whose are these rollerblades? WHAT Is used for things, it can be singular or plural, subject or object and it has no possessive form. What is that? Whats your name/address/ phone number? What makes that noise? What did he say? a. what . for? = why What did you do that for? b. What + be + like? is a request for a description and can be used for things or people: What was the exam like? It was quite difficult. Whats the weather like? Its very windy. Used of people it may concern either appearance or character: Whats John like? Hes short and fat and wears glasses. He is a very talkative, friendly man. COMPARE What does John look like? concerns appearance only and can also mean What does he resemble? Hes short and fat and wears glasses. He looks like his father. c. What is he? = What is his profession? What is his father? He is a tailor. COMPARE Who is that man talking to your father? What is that man talking to your father? WHAT OR WHICH What is used to make a selection from an unlimited number; which from a rather limited number. This rule applies to what and which as interrogative pronouns as well as interrogative adjectives: What will you have to drink? We have tea and coffee. Which do you want? I have a problem. *Which problem? What problem? (out of many) What is your name (od svih moguih) etc. Interrogative pronouns whose, what and which may be used as adjectives: Whose book is this? What languages do you speak? Which time suits you better 12.30 or one oclock? To ask about the nature of a thing or person we generally use What kind of ? What sort of? What sort of a girl is she? INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND DISTRIBUTIVES some (somebody, someone, something), any (anything etc.), all, one, none, no, every, other, another, ,much, less, (a) few, (a) little, enough, each, either, neither; Many of these pronouns can be used as adjectives, i.e. determiners.

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ALL Can be used as pronoun or adjective, before singular or plural nouns: All of them were broken. All the town; All (pronoun) = meaning everything All is lost. All are welcome. All (adjective) = meaning the whole of He worked hard all the time he was there. I dont like to speak before all these people. a. when a subject is a noun all may precede or follow it: All my friends agree. My friends all agree. b. When a subject is a pronoun all generally follows it: They all speak excellent English. c. all (as a pronoun) can be followed by of + the/this/these/that/those/possessives/proper nouns. OF is omitted before a singular noun: all the town, all the time, all his life, all (of) Toms boys, all (of) these; d. all + of + personal pronoun OF MUST NOT BE OMITTED: all of it, all of them (SO they all (subject of a verb), them all (object of a verb) = all of them) etc. EXAMPLES: All of them came. = They all came. (subject); I invited all of them. I invited them all. e. subject ( pronoun + all) + verb to be OR auxiliaries in compound tenses the auxiliary precedes all. We are all waiting. You must all help me. (NOT We all are waiting. You all must help me. ) Other verbs follow all: We all have maps. EVERY VS. EACH (DISTRIBUTIVES) Pronominal forms of every: EVERYBODY, EVERYONE, EVERYTHING: Everyone knows that Rome is the capital of Italy. EVERY (only an adjective) total number is more than 2 Every man knows (NOTE that they take a singular verb) EACH (adjective and pronoun) total number is two or more; can be followed by of + the/these/those (plural forms only); takes a singular verb; Each (man) knows what to do. Each of them/us/you has a house. The feeling of distribution is stronger in each than in every. Each a number of persons or things considered individually, every - less emphasis on the individual; Every man had a weapon. all the men had weapons; the speaker counted the men and the weapons; Each man had a weapon. the speaker went to each man in turn and checked if he had a weapon. BOTH (pronoun, adjective) both, like all, indicates totality, but is applied to only two persons or things. It is used only before a plural noun and takes a plural verb. (COMPARE all + singular noun + singular verb; all + plural noun + plural verb; BUT both + plural noun + plural verb) Both (doors) were open. a. when a subject is a noun both may precede or follow it: Both Mike and Jim have red hair. Mike and Jim both have red hair. b. When a subject is a pronoun both generally follows it: We both knew him.

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c. both (as a pronoun) can be followed by of + these/those etc. (plural forms only). Both (of) the towns, both (of) his parents; d. both + of + personal pronoun OF MUST NOT BE OMITTED: both of us, both of them (SO they both (subject of a verb), them both (object of a verb) = both of them) etc. EXAMPLES: Both of them came. = They both came. (subject); I ate both (of) the cakes. I ate them both. I ate both of them. e. subject ( pronoun + both) + verb to be OR auxiliaries in compound tenses the auxiliary precedes both. We are both waiting. You must both help me. We are both ready. (NOT *We all are waiting. *You all must help me. ) Other verbs follow both: We both have maps. EITHER / NEITHER (adjective or pronoun) - Neither = not one and not the other; it takes an affirmative singular verb; It can be followed by a noun/pronoun (adjective) or used by itself or followed by of + the/these/those etc. (pronoun); I tried both keys, but neither of them worked. Neither boy / Neither of them has come yet. Ive read neither of these (books). - Either = one or the other of two, any one of two; it takes a singular verb and can be followed by a noun/pronoun (adjective) or used by itself or followed by of + the/these/those etc. (pronoun); Could either of you lend me five pounds? Either candidate would be ideal for the job. Would you like either of these? - Either + negative verb can replace neither + positive verb except when neither is the subject of the sentence. So the above examples would not be possible * Either boy hasnt come yet. BUT I havent read either of these books. SOME, ANY (adjectives, pronouns) NO (adjective) NONE (pronoun) Corresponding pronouns somebody, someone, something, anyone, anything etc. are used in the same situations as some, any etc. Some and any mean a certain number or amount; they are used with or instead of plural or uncountable nouns. If used with Cpl or U nouns, they are adjectives, if used instead of Cpl or U, they are pronouns. some/ any + Cpl/U a. some is a possible plural form of a, an Have a biscuit / some biscuits. I ate a date/some dates. b. Some, any, none can be used with of + the/this/that/these/those/possessive/personal pronoun; Some of the staff can speak Japanese. Did any of your photos come out well? c. SOME is used: - with affirmative verbs / in positive sentences: They bought some honey. - In questions offers or requests: Would you like some coffee? Could you do some typing for me? - In questions where answer yes is expected: Did some of you sleep on the floor? (I expect so) d. ANY is used: - with negative verbs and positive verbs + never, hardly, barely, scarcely: They didnt buy any honey. I have hardly any spare time.

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without + any = with + no He crossed the border without any difficulty. = He crossed the border with no difficulty. - in questions except the types noted above: Have you got any money? Did he catch any fish? (COMPARE: Are you expecting someone this afternoon? - the answer yes is expected, e.g. the preparations are being made; AND Are you expecting anyone this afternoon? the answer no is expected) e. SOME and ANY can be used before singular, countable nouns (Csg): - some = an unspecified / unknown; Some idiot parked his car outside my garage. - Any = practically every, no particular one; Any dictionary will give you the meaning of these words. f. NO (adjective) and NONE (pronoun): + affirmative verb = express negative meaning; I have no oranges. I had some last year, but I have none this year. - no + noun, none + of + noun (may take either a singular or a plural verb) subjects of a sentence: No work was done. No letter(s) arrived. None of the tourists wanted to climb the mountain. None of my children has/have blonde hair. g. someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything, no one, nobody, nothing: - compounds of some, any and no follow the above rules: Someone wants to speak to you on the phone. Somebody gave me a free ticket for the concert. Nobody/ No one has ever given me a free ticket for anything. Nikad mi niko nije dao besplatnu kartu ni za ta. Do you want anything from the chemist? Anyone will tell you where the house is. (Svako, bilo ko) - these compounds can be possessive: Someones passport has been stolen. I dont want to waste anyones time. - possessive pronouns with these compounds are his/her, colloquial English their: Has anyone left their luggage on the train? No one saw Tom go out, did they? BUT with something, anything, nothing we use it: Something went wrong, didnt it? OTHER, ANOTHER (adjective, pronoun) other is invariable as an adjective; as a pronoun it is countable and has the plural form others. An + other = another a. other the second of two; one another/other(s); some others: One student suggested a play, another (student)/other students/others wanted a concert. Some tourists went on the beach, others explored the town. b. Other = additional, extra, remaining; I have no other friend than you. c. Another: 1. an additional one Im going to have another piece of cake. 2. a different one One day he will say one thing and on another day something quite different. EACH OTHER , ONE ANOTHER These are used after transitive verbs to express reciprocity. Both each other and one another can be used of two or more, but each other is frequently preferred when there are two this usage is often not applied: Tom and Ann looked at each other. Little children love one another. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHAT, WHICH, THAT

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Defining relative clauses: SUBJECT For persons For things who, that which, that

OBJECT whom, (that) which, (that)

OBJECT + PREPOSITION to whom, (that) .... to for/to which, (that) ... for/to

POSSESSIVE whose whose, of which

Non-defining relative clauses: SUBJECT For persons For things who which

OBJECT whom which

OBJECT + PREPOSITION for/to whom for/to which,

POSSESSIVE whose whose, of which

Who (whom, whose) are used for persons; The man who told me this refused to give me his name. People whose rents have been raised can appeal. Which is used for things or animals. If animal is named, it is necessary to use who. The dog which was lost was found. BUT Our dog Jock, who had been lost for two days, was lost. With collective nouns two options: which if the noun is regarded as singular / a group, who if each individual is considered separately / the noun is regarded as plural. The London team, which played well last season, has done badly this season. The team, who are just getting their tickets, will meet at two oclock. Which is used when the antecedent is the whole sentence: He invited us to dinner, which was very kind of him. That is invariable; it is used for persons or things in defining relative clauses; it cannot be preceded by preposition, as which or whom can. This is the picture which/that caused the sensation. Everyone who/that knew him liked him. Here is the car that I told you about. Here is the car about which I told you. That (not who/which) is used: a. after superlatives (including first and last) and indefinite pronouns: This book is the best that has ever been written on the subject. He never says anything that is worth listening to. b. after the opening It is /it was: Its the manager that we want to see. (BUT when the subject is a proper noun, who may be used: It was Tom who helped us. It was Ann that we saw. ) c. when the antecedent is both a person and a thing;

VERBS Though it is possible to have a sentence without a verb (e.g. What a nice dress!, Goodbye! Less noise there! etc.), the verb is the word that plays the most important part in the sentence. It is the action word in the sentence doing the action, having the action done to a person or thing, the idea of being. A verb is:

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a) a word that says something about a person or thing; b) a part of speech by which we are able to say what a person or animal or thing is, or does, or what is done to the person, animal or thing. c) the part of speech that predicates, assists in predication, asks a question and expresses a command. Verbs indicate time of an action, duration, completeness or incompleteness of the action, they can show whether a person is doing or receiving an action. Verbs: a) auxiliaries (special finites): a.1. auxiliaries be, have, do a.2. modal auxiliaries must, can, may etc. b) lexical / main verbs: speak, swim, take, try etc. (this group comprises verbs of incomplete predication / linking verbs) Verbs: a) finites can form the predicate by themselves b) non-finites infinitives, participles (present and past participles), gerunds; Most English verbs have four inflectional forms: play, plays, played, playing, some have five: swim, swims, swam, swum, swimming, the verb to be has eight inflectional forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being. All verbs have finite and non-finite forms, even some auxiliaries (be, do, have, need, dare), but modal auxiliaries do not have (may, might, can etc.) Verbs: a) regular: form past and past participle by adding ed. b) irregular: form their past tense and past participle by a change of vowel. - // /^/ begin, began, begun; drink, drank, drunk (there is drunken as well, but it is used only adjectivally The drunken man had drunk a lot of wine. He was drunk.); swim, swam, swum; etc. - /^/ /^/ win, won, won; strike, struck, struck (there is another form stricken, but it is used in certain expressions: poverty-stricken, stricken with disease but struck by lightning ) - /ou/ /ou/ break, broke, broken; choose, chose, chosen; wake, woke/waked, woken/woke/waked; - /o:/ /o:/ bear, bore, borne/born The sound of music was borne along on the wind. ; I was born in Zenica. Tear , tore, torn; - /o:/ /o:/ teach, taught, taught; think, thought, thought; - /e/ /e/ bleed, bled, bled; sleep, slept, slept; meet, met, met; weep, wept, wept; read, read, read; - /u:/ /o:/ draw, drew, drawn; withdraw, withdrew, withdrawn; - /ou/ /i/ drive, drove, driven; thrive, throve, thriven; write, wrote, written; - /-end/ /-ent/ /-ent/ lend, lent, lent; etc. Verbs: - Transitive: when the action expressed by a verb goes from a subject to an object. Verbs can be monotransitive (He opened the door.) or ditransitive (He gave Mary some money.)

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Intransitive: the action does not go beyond the person performing the action; Intransitive verbs may have cognate object = object that is more or less implied in the verb itself, e.g. He lived a happy life. She slept a peaceful sleep and dreamed a happy dream. Some verbs may be T or I: The door opened. He opened the door. However, some verbs have different forms for transitive and intransitive use: lie lay; rise raise; A cat lay in front of the fire. She laid the baby on the bed. The sun rises in the east. He raised the window and leaned out. Causative use of verbs: transitive use is causative with some verbs: The boy ran well. Do you know how to run (cause to operate) this sort of machinery?

Tense vs. time We have to make a clear distinction between tense and time. The notion of time (present, past, future) is universal, and is the same for all languages; Tense is a linguistic device and it varies from language to language. 1. E.g. Cats drink milk. Dogs bark. He smokes. drink, smokes, bark are in the present tense, but the action does not necessarily express present time. He has smoked for a few years in the past time as well, and he will probably continue smoking. Thus, the Present Tense expresses past, present and future time. 2. It is time I went. If I were you, I wouldnt do that. These two verbs are in the Past Tense, but they denote a present or a future time If I were you - now, going home - in future. Tense does not express only time, but completeness or incompleteness (continuous tenses) etc. Tenses: a) Simple: The Present Simple Tense, The Past Simple Tense b) Compound: all the other tenses, because they consist of two or more verb forms; VERS (TENSES) PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE In the affirmative form the Present Simple has the same form as the infinitive (base form), but adds S for the third person singular. I/you/we/they work Do you work? We do not (dont) work. Do they not work? / Dont you work? He/she/it works Does he work? She does not (doesnt) work. Does she not work? / Doesnt she work? Spelling notes: - verbs ending in ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, -o + ES: she kisses, she brushes, he watches, he goes, she does etc. - C + Y Y-I + ES: she cries, he copies BUT she obeys, he plays. USES: a. For a habitual, permanent or repeated action. I go to school every day. He smokes too much. I always take sugar in my coffee. This tense does not tell us whether or not the action is being performed at the moment of speaking and if we want to make this clear, we will have to use the Present Continuous. The Present Simple Tense is often used with

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b. c. d.

e.

f. g.

adverbs of frequency or other adverb phrases: often, occasionally, often, sometimes, every week, on Mondays, in winter: It rains a lot in autumn. I often get up at 8. For a general statement, or a proverb, where no particular time is thought of, e.g. The Earth moves round the sun. His family comes/come from Wales. Actions speak louder than words. In subordinate clauses of time (in clauses that begin with when, as soon as, until) or condition expressing a future action, e.g. When you see (NOT: will see) Jack tomorrow, remember me to him. Dont write until I tell you. Sometimes in giving the summary of a story, dramatic narrative. This is particularly useful when describing the action of a play, opera, in radio comments, sport events etc. When the curtain rises, Juliet is writing a letter. Suddenly the window opens and a masked man enters. this could, of course, be told in the Simple Past Tense, but the Simple Present Tense is felt to be rather more dramatic. Sometimes to express a planned future action or a series of actions (about which a decision has already been taken). This is used particularly when these actions refer to a journey. Travel agents use it a lot, or in timetables etc. e.g. We leave London at 10 and arrive in Paris at 13:00. We spend two hours there He sets off for New York tomorrow morning, and comes back next month. My train leaves at 6.30. In exclamatory sentences: Here comes the bride! Here they are! Here are the children! In newspaper headlines: Mass murderer escapes, Peace talks fail;

PAST SIMPLE TENSE is formed: The Simple Past is formed by adding ED to the infinitive worked; In questions and negatives did (past of the auxiliaries do) is used. Irregular verbs vary considerably in form in the Simple Past. - Spelling: - 1. C+Y Y- I +ED; tried, cried; - 2. doubling of the final consonant: monosyllabic verbs - fit-fitted, disyllabic verbs with accent on the second syllable - controlled, admitted, preferred (compare to: entered, budgeted); but the final consonant doubles even when the accent is not on the second syllable travelled, marvelled (US traveled, marveled), kidnapped, worshipped; USE: a. to express an action wholly completed at some point, or during some period in the past. 1. AT A DEFINITE TIME e.g. We lived in Mostar for five years. The Past Simple is usual with words or phrases that are time indicators, e.g. yesterday, last week, in 1997, or 2. when the sentence is a question about time, i.e. when the time is asked about. e.g. When did you go there? 3. when the action took place at a definite time, though time is not mentioned. 4. The time becomes definite as a result of a question and answer in the Present Perfect Tense: Where have you been? Ive been to the opera. Did you like/enjoy it? b. period of time or point in time in the past: We lived there for 5 years. My grandmother once saw Queen Victoria. c. For past habits: He always carried an umbrella. d. In some conditional sentences and sentences expressing a supposition e.g. If Henry worked hard, he would pass the examination. I wish I had a car. Its high time I went.

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Note that in all these sentences Past Tense form indicates frequently both present time and future time and implies suppositions and non-fulfillment or desirability, and would be more correctly described as the Past Subjunctive. It indicates that a subordinate clause does not express a fact. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE - the Present simple of the verb to be and a present participle AM/IS/ARE + V-ing I am working, you/they/we are working, he/she/it is sleeping. Am I working? Are you working? Am I not working? Are you not working? / Arent you working? It can be made shorter with interrogatives as well. Whys she working? Wherere they working? It is used: a. For an action happening now, at the moment of speaking: Im not wearing coat as it is not cold. b. For an action which began in the past and will terminate in the future, but which at the moment of speaking is still incomplete and is still continuing: e.g. The sun is shining. I am resting in a deckchair. The feeling of immediate present is often emphasized by using just: The children are just having breakfast. The action may not necessarily be literally continuous at the time of speaking, but around now. We are eating in the kitchen during this cold weather. He is working hard this term. When two actions having the same subject are joined by and the second auxiliary may be omitted: She is knitting and listening to the radio. (ellipsis) c. To express futurity, for definite future arrangements in the near future, especially with the verbs of movement like go, come, leave, etc. We are going to Paris on Friday. John is coming tonight. --- PRE-ARRANGED d. May be used with always, constantly etc. when repeated action, esp. action that is causing annoyance and irritation, is indicated. He is continually finding faults with me. You are always grumbling. e. VERBS NOT USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES 1. verbs of senses (involuntary action): hear, feel, smell, see, notice etc. Verbs like listen, gaze, look at, observe (=watch) imply deliberate use of the senses and can be used in continuous tenses. a) feel, smell, taste, look when used as linking verbs, they are not used in continuous tenses: The coffee tastes bitter. BUT Im tasting the coffee to see if it is bitter. b) some of these verbs can be used in continuous tenses but they change meaning: see meet by appointment, interview Im seeing Bill tonight. The court is hearing evidence against him. 2. verbs of feelings, EMOTIONS, love, like, want, hate, wish, want, etc. Do you like this soup? Like, love, hate can be used in continuous tenses sometimes, but it is better to use simple tense: How are you liking your new job? = How do you like your new job? Im hating it. / I hate it. 3. verbs of mental activities: think, agree, believe, expect etc.

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Think misliti cant be used in the continuous tenses; razmiljati can be used in the continuous tenses: What are you thinking about? Im thinking about the play we saw last night. What do you think of it? 4. verbs of possession: belong, possess, owe, This pen belongs to me. I have a house. 5. verbs: appear, contain, concern, keep (=continue) PRESENT SIMPLE vs. PRESENT CONTINUOUS * The Present Continuous is used for action that is in progress, but is expected to end sooner or later. It is TEMPORARY. * The Simple Present is used for PERMANENT action lasting for a very long time. Where does Henry work? (his permanent job) Where is he working at present? (his temporary job, or he tends to change jobs, thats why we ask); We start work at 9, but for this week only we are starting at 8.30. Im living with my friends until I find a place of my own. My parents live in London. Theyve lived there their whole life. Kate wants to work in Italy, so she is learning Italian. Most people learn to swim when they are children. Lets go out. It isnt raining. It doesnt rain very much in summer. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE The past of the verb TO BE (was, were) + the present participle of the main verb V-ing WAS/WERE + THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE It is used: a. The past continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued for some time but whose exact limits are not known and are not important. It might be expressed diagrammatically ..______________............... . indicates uncertainty about times of starting and finishing. I was reading a book yesterday morning. b. Used with a point in time, it expresses an action that began before that time and probably continued after. At eight he was having breakfast. Implies that he was in the middle of having breakfast. He had started before eight. Saying At eight oclock he had breakfast would imply that he started at eight. At 10.30 they were playing tennis. (Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 oclock and finished at 11.30 SO At 10.30 they were playing tennis.) c. it indicates that an action was going on (like a background) at a time when something else more important and more dramatic (foreground action) happened, i.e. the point in time we were talking about might be expressed by another past action.
_________________________I was walking home, when I met Dave.

While the man was looking at the picture, the thief stole his watch. When I arrived, Tom was talking on the phone. When he saw me, he put the receiver down.

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d. Two actions were going on at the same time The thieves took precautions against surprise; while one was working on the safe, the other was keeping watch for policemen. _______________________ past continuous _______________________ past continuous e. With some conditional sentences and suppositions: If they were staying longer they would perfect their English. They wish they were coming to England again this year. f. The Past Simple is used in certain descriptions, and in this use we combine past simple (narrative) and continuous (description): A wood fire was burning on the hearth, and a cat was sleeping in front of it. A girl was playing the piano and singing softly to herself. Suddenly there was a knock on the door. The girl stopped playing. The cat woke up. g. Compare: Did you hear about Henrys new job? --- Yes, my wife was telling OR told me about it this morning. was telling --- I have heard about it but I would like to hear more told ---- I know more or less about it. I dont need any further information. PAST SIMPLE vs. PAST CONTINUOUS Compare these sentences: - When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (Karen arrived and then we had dinner) _________________ _____________________ - When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. (we had already started before she arrived ) ___________________________ FUTURE The Simple Present used for future: This tense can be used with a time expression for a definite future arrangement: The boy starts school on Monday. I leave tonight. Instead of a more normal present continuous tense. The boys are starting school on Monday. I am leaving tonight. The simple present tense is or can sound: 1. more impersonal than the present continuous. I leave tonight. Can imply that this is a part of a plan not necessarily made by me, I'm leaving tonight would imply that I have decided to leave. 2. more formal than present continuous: A big store planning to open a new branch is more likely to say Our new branch opens next month. Than Our new branch is opening. 3. when present continuous would be a little bit 'clumsy', e.g. when speaking about series of future actions, like plans for journey (esp. Travel agents). WILL + INFINITIVE TO EXPRESS INTENTION: To express intention made at the moment of speaking. it expresses that a future action will be undertaken by the speaker in accordance with his wishes. 1. The phone is ringing. ---- I'll answer it. 2. Bill to waiter: I'll have a steak please. 41

3. Ann: I'd better order a taxi for tonight. ----- Tom: Don't bother. I'll drive you. 4. Alan (on receiving a telegram saying his father is ill) --- I'll go home tonight. I'll leave tonight. For unpremeditated actions we must use will. But note that if after his decision the speaker mentions the action again, he will not use will, but present continuous or be going to. For example: Imagine that in 2 above a friend Tom joins Bill before his food has arrived. Tom: What are you having/are you going to have? Bill: I'm going to have/I'm having a steak. Similarly, at a later time: 3. Ann might say: Tom is driving me/ going to drive me to the airport. 4. Alan could say: I'm going home tonight. ---this is still a decision, but it's premeditated. It's not made at the moment of speaking. E.g. 1. Travel agent: How do you want to go to Rome. By air or by train? Traveler: The trains are too slow. I'll fly. (unpremeditated action, decision made at the moment of speaking). But, afterwards talking about his plans Tom would say: I'm going to fly / I am flying to Rome next week. 2. ANN: I'll have to pay 150 KM rent at the end of the month and I don't know where to find the money. TOM: I'll lend you some. (unpremeditated action) Later that day Ann says (before Tom has actually lent the money): --- Tom is lending/is going to lend me 150 KM. Present continuous used for future: 1. can express definite arrangements in the near future, but time of the action has to be mentioned. I'm taking an exam in October otherwise it might be confused with present action. 2. However, with some verbs arrive, go, come, leave, drive, fly, start, stay, remain, do, have it might be used without definite time expression. What are you doing next Saturday? (a usual way to ask people about their plans ) ---- I'm going to the seaside. The neighbours are coming to dinner. I'm not doing anything. I'm staying at home. 3. This method of expressing future can not be used with verbs that are normally not used in the continuous tense. With these verbs you have to use will/shall. I'm meeting him tonight - -I shall/will know later. BE GOING TO THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS OF THE VERB TO GO + FULL INFINITIVE I'm going to buy a dress. Is he going to lecture in English? It is used: 1. for intention : this intention is always premeditated, and there is the idea that some preparations for the action have been made. For near future: I'm meeting Tom. --- implies arrangement I'm going to meet Tom. Does not imply a definite arrangement. Tom may be surprised.

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Be going to can be used the verb to be and other verbs that are not normally used in continuous tenses. I'm going to think about it. It is not very usual to put the verbs go and come into the be going to form. Be going to = premeditated action will = unpremeditated action. E.g. What are you doing with that spade? I'm going to plant some apple trees. She has bought some wool. She's going to knit a jumper. BUT This is a terribly heavy box. I'll help you carry it. I've left my watch upstairs. --- I'll go and get it for you. 2. for prediction : be going to can express speaker's feeling of certainty. The time is usually not mentioned, but the action is expected to happen in the near or immediate future. Look at those clouds! It's going to rain. How pale that girl is! I'm afraid / I think she is going to faint. Look! He is going to fall! 3. For future predictions, but for probable future will + infinitive may be used as well. SO be going to implies that there are signs that something will happen, while will implies that the speaker thinks / believes that something will happen. An example illustrates this best: a. The lift is going to break down. --- it is making strange noise or behaving in a strange way. b. The lift will break down. --- implies that this will happen at some time in future (perhaps we always overload it, because these types of lifts don't last very long.) FUTURE SIMPLE I SHALL WORK, I WILL WORK (I'LL WORK) I SHALL NOT = SHAN'T WORK I WILL NOT = WON'T WORK. Shall is still found in formal English where the subject's wishes are not involved. 1. Shall is used in suggestions or requests or orders for instructions: Shall we take a taxi? What shall I do with your mail? 2. Future Simple is used: a. for habitual future actions which we assume will take place: Spring will come again. Birds will build nests. People will make plans. b. in sentences containing clauses of condition / time: If I drop this glass it will break. When it gets warmer the snow will start to melt. c. with verbs not normally used in continuous tense. We mentioned that be going to can also be used with these verbs, but present continuous can't: They'll know tonight. Some other uses of shall and will. SHALL 1. Shall with the first person may express determination and resolution, e.g. I shall go there if I want to. I shall do what I like. 2. Shall with the second and the third person of singular and plural denotes determination or promise or threat on the part of the speaker, e.g. If you work hard you shall have a holiday on Saturday. He shall suffer for this. He shall pay for this. WILL 2. Will is used to express willingness, promise or determination, and it is with this meaning that will with the first person is most commonly used. I wont forget her present. 43

Ill send her a present. (Promise) I will make this radio work even if I have to stay up all night. (Determination). 3. Will with the second and the third person of singular and plural denotes determination or promise or threat on the part of the subject of the sentence. George will go out without his overcoat although it is a bitterly cold day. (the sentence George shall go out without his overcoat means I, the speaker, am determined to make George go out without his overcoat.) Oh Richard, why will you always do the opposite of what I tell you? 4. Will is also used to express possibility or assumption. That man with the umbrella will be the Prime Minister. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE FUTURE SIMPLE OF THE VERB TO BE + THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE OF THE MAIN VERB WILL/SHALL BE + Ving I will be working. Shall I / we be working? Will they be working? I won't/shan't be working. Won't he be working? It can be used: - as an ordinary continuous tense: like all other continuous tenses it is used with a point in time to express an action which starts before that time and probably continues after it. Imagine a class of students at this moment 9.30 a.m. We might say: Now they are sitting in the classroom. They are listening to a tape. This time tomorrow they will be sitting in the cinema. They will be watching a film. This time tomorrow I shall be flying to Rome. - it can express future without intention: I will be helping Mary tomorrow. This does not imply that the speaker has arranged to help Mary. It merely states that this action will happen. The future continuous tense used in this way is somewhat similar to the present continuous but there are some slight differences. This tense (i.e. FCT) does not imply that the speaker has arranged to help Mary. It merely states that this action will occur in the normal course of events. It is less definite and more casual than the present continuous. Present continuous implies a deliberate future action. Ill be seeing him tomorrow. = seeing him will occur as normal pattern of events. Compare: Ill see him about it tomorrow. (promise, decision) Ill be seeing him about it tomorrow. (seeing him will occur as normal pattern of events) Im seeing him about it tomorrow. (pre-arranged plan) Examples of various future forms: Imagine that you ask 5 people about their plans for the following Saturday: What are you doing / going to do on Saturday? Peter has arranged to play golf: Im playing / I am going to play golf with George. Mary has decided to stay at home and make jam, so she will say: Im staying/going to stay at home. Im going to make jam. Andrews plans depend on the weather, so he may say: If its fine, Ill work in the garden. Ann hasnt made any plans, but she may say: Perhaps Ill take my children for a walk. 44

Bill always has to work on Saturdays, so he will say. Oh, Ill be working as usual. (no other form would give this exact meaning). THE PERFECT TENSES HAVE + THE PAST PARTICIPLE HAVE + Ved

The three tenses, Present Simple, Past Simple and Future, are mainly concerned with the aspect of time of an action. But in the Perfect Tenses our interest is primarily not in the time of the action but in the fact of its occurrence and in its result. She's been to Spain twice. He has bought a new car. In these examples attention is directed not on the time in the past when these actions were done but simply on the fact that her visits took place, that he now has a new car. If we wanted to direct the attention to the time of these actions we should use the Past Tense and generally an adverbial that indicates the past time: She went to Spain in 1999. He bought a new car last week. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE past participle: The present of the verb HAVE (have / has) + the

I have worked hard. / I have done my homework. She has worked hard. / She has done her homework. I have not (haven't) worked hard. She has not (hasn't) done her homework yet. Have you been to Paris? Has she done her homework? Hasn't he worked hard? Have/has may be contracted3: I've worked hard. They've done their homework. He's worked hard. Where've you been? What's happened? What's he done? USE: This tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past. It always implies a strong connection with the present. Though it indicates an action that took place in the past, it is associated with present NOW: I have never met your sister. (up to now) I have studied all the documents in this case. (I am now fully informed on the matter).
PRESENT PERFECT I have seen

PAST

NOW

It is used: - for the past actions whose time is not definite, i.e. when the time is not mentioned. Ive read the instructions, but I dont understand them.
3

The contractions of all auxiliaries are used after pronouns, here, there, some question words (who, what, how, why, where) and short nouns. How'll he get there? What's happened? The twins've arrived. Here's your pen. The car'd broken down.

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Have you had breakfast? No, I havent had it yet. Note the possible answers to questions in the present perfect tense: Have you seen my stamps? Yes, I have/No, I havent. Yes, I saw them on your desk a few minutes ago. Have you had breakfast? Yes, I have. No, I havent. Yes, I had it at seven oclock. Yes, I had it with Mary. (time implied) Ive seen this film before. (some time in the past, but time is not mentioned and it is not important. The result is important I dont want to see it again). Have you seen Madagascar? (Its still running) Did you see Madagascar? (Its no longer running) It can also be used for actions which occur further in the past (it doesnt have to be a recent past action), provided the connection with the present is still maintained, that is that the action could be repeated in the present as well. John Smith has written a number of short stories. it implies that John is alive and he can write more. If, however, John were dead, we would say: John Smith wrote a number of short stories. Jane has travelled a lot. Shes visited some very interesting places. (She is still young and wealthy and she will probably visit some other countries in the future.) Jane travelled a lot. She visited some very interesting places. (She cant possibly travel any more. She is either dead or unable to travel she is too old to be able to travel). Note that when we use the present perfect in this way we are not necessarily thinking of any one particular action or the exact time the action was performed. If we are thinking of one particular action performed at a particular time, we are more likely to use past simple, e.g. He wrote his first story in 1999. Jane went to Paris in 2006. - for recent past actions (that have just been completed) with results in present: Tom has had a bad car crash. He is probably still in hospital. The lift has broken down. We have to use the stairs. Ive washed the car. It looks lovely. Ive lost my keys. I cant enter the flat/I cant unlock the door. * But actions expressed by the past simple without time expressions do not normally have results in present. We have already mentioned that any sentence in the past simple tense expresses a closed circle that does not have any connection with present time. Tom had a bad car crash. He is probably out of hospital by now. The lift broke down. But its probably working again now. I washed the car. But it may be dirty by now. I lost my keys. There are no results in present, either I found the key or I went somewhere else to sleep. The loss of the key is not connected to present. - it is used with just for a recently completed action: Hes just gone out. = He went out a few minutes ago. This combination is used chiefly in affirmative, though the interrogative form is possible. Has he just gone out? It is not normally used in negative. In negative sentences you would normally use yet He hasnt come yet. ( so, we are still waiting for him). - for actions occurring in an incomplete period (we are somewhere inside that period). The present perfect used with an incomplete period of time implies that an action happened or didnt happen at some undefined time during this period. Have you seen him today? Yes, I have. Yes, I have seen him today. (at some time during 46

the day An incomplete action may be indicated by today, this morning, this afternoon, this morning, this evening, this year, this month, this century etc. - Note that present perfect can be used with this morning only up to about one oclock, because after that this morning becomes a completed action and actions occurring in it must be put in the past simple: (at 11 a.m.) Tom has rung up three times this morning already. (at 2 p.m.) Tom rang up three times this morning. - Similarly this afternoon will end at about five oclock: (at 4 p.m.) I havent seen Tom this afternoon. (at 6 p.m.) I didnt see Tom this afternoon. - The present perfect is used for an action that lasts throughout an incomplete period, i.e. for duration of an action or of absence of an action begun in the past and continuing to the present (and possibly to the future). The action usually begins in the past and continues past the time of speaking in the present.
I have lived

PAST

NOW

Time expressions include for, since, all day/night/week, all my life, all the time, lately, recently, never. He has been in the army for two years. (He is still in the army) I have smoked since I left school. (I still smoke.) He has lived there for five years/all his life. (He still lives there.) He has always worked for us. (He still works for us.) Compare with: |_____PAST SIMPLE___________|...................................TS He was in the army for two years. (He is not in the army now ) I smoked for six months. (and then stopped smoking) He lived there for five years/all his life. (presumably he is dead or he moved.) He worked for us. (He doesn't work for us any more) Sometimes, however the action finishes at the time of speaking: I haven't seen you for ages? (but I see you now); This room hasn't been cleaned for months. (but we are cleaning it now). - Verbs of knowing, believing and understanding cannot be used in the present perfect except in these examples: I have known him for 10 years. I have never believed his theories. BUT Did you know that he was going to get married? Hello! I didnt know you were in London. - FOR / SINCE FOR + PERIOD OF TIME For used with the present perfect denotes a period of time extending into the present: Shes lived in London for five years. (she still lives there).

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Note that for used with the past simple denotes a terminated period of time. We lived in London for 5 years. (We dont live there any more.) For can sometimes be omitted, especially after be, live, wait and before expressions beginning with all. Weve been here an hour/two days. Theyve worked all night. SINCE + POINT IN TIME Since is used with a point in time and means from that point to the time of speaking: Shes been here since six oclock / since last week. Weve been friends since our schooldays / since we left school. THE PAST PERFECT TENSE PAST OF THE VERB HAVE + THE PAST PARTICIPLE HAD + Ved
PAST PERFECT had seen

PAST

NOW

I had worked there / She had worked there. / Id worked / Shed worked. I had not/hadnt worked there. She hadnt worked there. Had you worked? Had you not worked / Hadnt I worked? It is used: 1. The Past Perfect is the past equivalent of the Present Perfect. PRESENT: Ann has just left. If you hurry youll catch her. Ive lost my case. (I dont have pyjamas to wear) Ive lost my pen. Im unable to do the exercise (now). PAST: When I arrived Ann had just left. I had lost my case, so I had to borrow Toms pyjamas. Id lost my pen and I was unable to do the exercise. It is past before past. The action was concluded before a certain time in the past or before the time of the occurrence of another action (denoted by past simple) and yet continuing into it. To explain more clearly, we have to compare these two tenses and discuss their similarities. The Present Perfect can be used with since, for, always for an action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished e.g. I have lived in Zenica for 5 years. She has taught that class for five years. - The Past Perfect can be used similarly for an action which began before the time of speaking in the past, and

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a. was still continuing at that time in the past

had seen

PAST

NOW

b. stopped at that time or just before it i.e. duration up to a certain time in the past; (the previous diagram) a. Bill was in uniform, when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten years / since he was seventeen and planned to stay in the army till he was 30. b. The old oak tree, which had stood in the yard for 300 years, suddenly crashed to the ground. 2. The Present Perfect and Past Simple verb forms in direct speech change into the Past Perfect in indirect speech. He said: Ive been in England for five years. He said that he had been in England for five years. He said: I knew her well. He said he had known her well. 3. To express a past condition and supposition with an implied negative: If I had seen him, I would have told him. but I didnt see him. If only I had known that you wanted to meet him! but I didnt know. He described the scene as vividly as if he had been there. 4. Some of the conjunctions with which this tense is associated are: when, until/till, as soon as, after, before. a. when one past action follows another He opened the window. The bird flew out, we can combine them by using when and two simple past tenses provided that it is clear from the sense that the second action follows the first, i.e. that they didnt happen simultaneously, they happened successively. When two simple past tenses are used this way, there is usually the idea that the first action led to the second and that the second followed the first very closely. When the play ended, the audience went home. When he died he was given a state funeral. However, if we wish to emphasize that the first action was completed before the second one started we use the past perfect after when. When he had shut the window we opened the door of the cage. (we waited the window to be quite shut before opening the cage.) When he had seen all the pictures he said that he was ready to leave. (when he had finished looking at them) When he saw all the pictures he expressed amazement that one man should have painted so many. (Immediately he saw them, he said this) * After is normally followed by the past perfect and before by past simple: After the will had been read, there were angry exclamations. She had lived in England for 7 years before she came back in 1970. / After she had lived in England for 7 years, she came back to live in Bosnia. BUT:

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In before + past perfect + past simple combinations the simple past action will always precede the past perfect action: Before we had walked ten miles he complained of sore feet. Before we had finished our meal he ordered us back to work. He came round to my house before I had finished my breakfast. ** Analyse the order of the following actions: I met Peter and Lucy yesterday as I was walking through the park. They had been to the Sports Centre where they had been playing tennis. They were going to a caf and they invited me to join them, but I had arranged to meet another friend and didnt have time. THE FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE OF THE AUXILIARY VERB HAVE + THE PAST PARTICIPLE WILL/SHALL HAVE + Ved;
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I will/shall have finished

PRESENT

FUTURE (TIME OF SPEAKING IN THE FUTURE)

It is used: - for an action that will be completed before a certain time or another action in the future and for duration up to a time in future. That action will be in the past at a given future time or will just have finished. So the Future Perfect bears the same relation to a future moment as the present perfect bears to a present moment and past perfect to a past moment. It is normally used with time expressions beginning with by: by then, by that time, by the 24th etc. Imagine that it is 3 December and David is very worried about the exam he is taking on 13 December. Someone planning a party may say Wed better wait till 14 December. David will have had his exam by then, so hell be able to enjoy himself. Its now 6.30 p.m.; I shall have finished my work by 8 oclock. She saves 50 KM a month and she started in January. So by the end of the year she will have saved 600 KM. The taxi will have arrived by the time you finish dressing. When I leave school next week, I shall have taught this class for ten years. - possibility or assumption: You will have heard, I expect, that Elizabeth is going to get married.

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THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT OF THE VERB TO BE (have/has been) + THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE HAVE/HAS BEEN + Ving
I have been waiting

PAST

NOW

OR

I have been waiting

PAST

NOW

I have been working. She has been reading. I have not been working. She has not been reading. Ive been working. Shes been reading. I havent been working. She hasnt been working. Have you been working? Has she been reading? Havent you been sleeping? Hasnt she been reading? 1. This tense is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished (see the diagrams): Ive been waiting for hours and he still hasnt turned up. Im sorry Im late. Have you been waiting long? This action (which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished) can, with certain verbs, be expressed by either present perfect simple or continuous. Verbs that can be used this way are expect, teach, learn, lie, live, work, look, rain, sleep, sit, snow, study, teach, wait, work. How long have you learnt English / How long have you been learning English? He has slept for 10 hours. / He has been sleeping for ten hours. This is of course not possible with verbs that cant be used in the continuous tenses. Theyve always had a big garden. Hes been in hospital since accident. 2. A repeated action in the present perfect may be expressed as a continuous action by the present perfect continuous. BUT *** We do not use the present perfect continuous ( ! or any other continuous tense) when we mention the number of times a thing has been done or the number of things that have been done. Ive written six letters since breakfast. Ive been writing letters since breakfast. Ive knocked five times. I dont think anybodys in. Ive been knocking. I dont think anybodys in. 3. Compare:

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1.a. Kates clothes are covered in paint. ---- She has been painting the ceiling. We are interested in the activity. It does not matter whether something has been finished or not. 1.b. The ceiling was white. Now its red. ---- She has painted the ceiling. Here, the important thing is that something has been finished. Has painted is a completed action. We are interested in the result of the activity (the painted ceiling), not the activity itself. 2. a. My eyes are red Ive been cutting the onions. 2.b. Oh! Ive cut my finger. 3.a. She has been eating too much recently. He should eat less. 3.b. Somebody has eaten all my chocolates. The box is empty. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT OF THE VERB TO BE (had been) + THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE HAD BEEN + Ving

I had been waiting

PAST

NOW

OR

I had been waiting

PAST

NOW

I had been working. She had been reading. I had not been working. Id been working. Shed been reading. She hadnt been working. Had you been working? Had she been reading? Hadnt you been sleeping? Hadnt she been reading? It is used: 1. To express the duration of an action up to a certain time in the past. Past before past one action was in progress before another happened (compare this to the past continuous one action was in progress when another happened, not before) When I got to the meeting the lecturer had already been speaking for half an hour. 2. to express the past continuous in the reported speech. 3. Compare: I had been reading a book before my friend came. --- there was a short pause between my reading of the book and my friends arrival. I was reading a book when my friend came. --- I was in the middle of the reading process when he arrived.

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THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS THE FUTURE PERFECT OF THE VERB BE (WILL HAVE BEEN) + THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE WILL/SHALL HAVE BEEN + Ving

I shall have been living

NOW

FUTURE (TS in the future)

It is used to express the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future. Examples: On April 22nd, we shall have been living in this house for 25 years. By the end of this term I shall have been teaching for 40 years.

VERBS (MOOD)
Mood is a grammatical term used to denote the forms that a verb takes to show what work it is doing (e.g. expressing a statement, a command, a wish, etc.), and the manner in which the action or state is thought of by the speaker. - There are three moods: INDICATIVE, IMPERATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The one that is by far the most commonly used is the INDICATIVE. This is the mood used to make statements and ask questions. All the tenses are in the Indicative Mood. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD - The Imperative mood has the same form, in the second person singular and plural, as the infinitive without to. In the first and third persons it is preceded by let and an accusative, SO 1. 1st person imperative: - let us (let's) / Let me+ bare infinitive: Let us stand together in this emergency. - For the negative we normally put not before the infinitive: Let us not be alarmed by rumours. But it is possible in colloquial English to put don't before let's: Don't let's be alarmed by rumours. By let us (let's) the speaker can urge his hearers to act in a certain way, or express a decision which they are expected to accept, or express a suggestion. 2. 2nd person imperative: Bare infinitive in affirmative imperative and don't + bare infinitive in negative imperative: Be quiet! Try this one. Don't do that. Don't go, please.

53

3. 3rd person imperative form - let him / her / it / them + bare infinitive: Let them go by train. * This is not a very common construction in modern English. It would be more usual to say: They are to go / must go by train. The negative imperative, let him/her/them + negative infinitive, is not used in modern English. Instead, we would use must not or is/are not to: They must not / are not to go by air. Some remarks: 1. IMPERATIVE is used to give orders or commands or to make requests, e.g. 'Open your books.' 'Don't make so much noise.' 'Pass the salt, please.' 2. The person addressed is very often not mentioned, but can be expressed by a noun placed at the end of the phrase: Eat your dinner, boys. Be quiet, Tom. 2.a. These nouns can be placed before the verb, but this is much less usual. The pronoun you is rarely used unless the speaker wishes to be rude, wishes to make a distinction or to express contrast, as in: You go on; I'll wait. OR ---- You take that piece and I'll take this. You ask the first question and I'll ask the next one. 3. If the subject is expressed in negative sentences, it may be in order to add emphasis. Don't you dare to say I am not telling the truth. I've been answering questions all day. Dont you start now. 4. Do can be placed before the affirmative imperative: --- This do could be persuasive, but could also express irritation Do hurry. Do be quiet. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (konjuktiv) - a verb form or a set of verb forms in grammar, used in some languages to express doubt, wishes - There are three Subjunctive forms of the verb: 1. the Present Subjunctive 2. the Past Subjunctive 3. the Past Perfect Subjunctive. THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE The present subjunctive of all verbs other than the verb to be is identical with the Simple Present Tense Indicative, except that the third person singular form is the same as in all the other persons (i.e. without the -s ending). The Present Subjunctive form of to be is be for all persons. OR The present subjunctive has exactly the same form as the infinitive; therefore the present subjunctive of

54

to be is be for all persons, and the present subjunctive of all other verbs is the same as their present tense except that s is not added for the third person singular: The queen lives here. (The Simple Present Tense) Long live the queen! (The present subjunctive)

THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE The past subjunctive is identical with the Simple Past Tense Indicative, except that with the verb to be the past subjunctive form is were for all persons of singular and plural. However, I/he/she/it was (and not I/he/she/it were) is used in informal English. ! In expressions of doubt or unreality were is more usual than was: He behaves as though he were the owner. (But he is not the owner.) In conversation, however, was is often used instead of were. Compare: He was here. (The Past Simple Tense) I wish he were here. (The past subjunctive) THE PAST PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE The past perfect subjunctive is identical in form with the Past Perfect Indicative. He had been there before. (The Past Perfect Tense) I wish he had been there. (The past perfect subjunctive) The subjunctive forms are used in a small number of constructions; the constructions with the Present Subjunctive tend to be rather literary. USES OF THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE 1. The present subjunctive is used in certain exclamations to express a wish or hope, very often involving supernatural powers: (God) bless you! God save the queen! 2. It is sometimes used in poetry, either to express a wish or in clauses of condition or concession: SHAKESPEARE: If this be error, and upon me proved ...(= if this is error) 3. after verbs expressing a will or wish for the future, and after verbs like propose, suggest, etc. This is chiefly used in very formal English and especially in legal English. * U zavisnim reenicama sa that ija radnja jo nije ostvarena, ve se tretira kao preporuka, pretpostavka i sl. upotrebljava se glagolski nain konjuktiv. Konjuktiv se moe izraziti i sa should + bare infinitive, i to se obicno radi u Britaniii, ali Amerikanci zadravaju pravi koniuktiv. Bitno ie da se should kada ie tu ne prevodi. E.g. It is our wish that he do what he pleases. = It is our wish that he should do what he pleases. She urged that he write and accept the post. I propose that his resignation be accepted . The King ordered that the man be released. The doctor recommended that she (should) stop smoking. Doktor ioj je predloio da prestane puiti. He suggested that we (should) go there together. / He suggested that she (should) go there on her own. Predloio je da idemo tamo zajedno / Predloio je ona ide tamo sama. 55

USES OF THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE ! The past subjunctive is usually concerned with PRESENT time, e.g. It's a lovely day; I wish I were at the seaside (NOW). The Past Subjunctive is used: 1. 2. In conditional clauses implying a negative, or in clauses in which the condition is combined with improbability or unreality, e.g. If I were you, I should accept the offer. What would you say if I asked you to join us for a holiday? After some expressions as: I wish (that), Suppose (that), I had rather (that), as if / as though, Its (high) time. E.g. I wish I were as handsome as he is. I wish he visited us more often. = Volio bih da nas ee posjeuje. Shall I give you a cheque? - I'd rather you paid in cash (now). Ann wants to tell Tom, but I'd rather she didn't. I wish I knew his address. = I'm sorry I don't know his address = Volio bih da znam njegovu adresu. The past subjunctive can be used after as if / as though to indicate unreality or improbability or doubt in the present (there is no difference between as if and as though) E.g. He behaves as if he owned the place. (But he doesn't own it or probably doesn't own it or we don't know whether he owns it or not.) She talks as though he knew where she was. (But he doesn't know or he probably doesn't know or we don't know whether he knows or not.) He orders me about as if I were his wife. (but I am not) *** The verb preceding as if/though can be put into a past tense without changing the tense of the subjunctive: E.g. He talks/talked as though he knew where she was. it is time + past subjunctive (unreal past): E.g. Its (high) time we left / we were leaving. It is time can also be followed by the infinitive: It's time to start. or by for + object + infinitive: It's time for us to go *** There is a slight difference in meaning between these two forms. It is time + infinitive merely states that the correct time has arrived; it is time + subject + past subjunctive implies that it is a little late. High can be added to emphasize this idea: It's high time we left. *** It is time + I/he/she/it cannot be followed by were: It's time I was going.

3.

4.

USES OF THE PAST PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ! The past perfect subjunctive is used to express an unrealized past. I wish I hadnt spent so much money on clothes. (- but I did). It was a lovely day yesterday; I wish I had been at the seaside then. 1. After as if/as though we use the past perfect when referring to a real or imaginary action in the past: E.g. He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself. (But he hasn't or probably hasn't or we don't know whether he has or not.) Again, the verb preceding as if/though can be put into a past tense without changing the tense of the subjunctive: E.g. He looks/looked as though he hadn't had a decent meal for a month.

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THE PASSIVE VOICE

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

TO BE

V-ed

= PASSIVE VOICE

ACTIVE SUBJECT An electric motor

ACTIVE VERB drives

OBJECT a pump

ADDITIONS in this system.

A pump PASSIVE SUBJECT

is driven PASSIVE VERB

by an electric motor DOER OF THE ACTION IN BY PHRASE

in this system. ADDITIONS

OBJECT OF THE ACTIVE SENTENCE SUBJECT OF THE ACTIVE SENTENCE

SUBJECT OF THE PASSIVE SENTENCE BY + AGENT PHRASE

57

Present tenses: 1. Present simple: X writes a book. A book is 2. Present continuous: X is writing a book. A book is being 3. Present perfect: X has written a book. A book has been 4. Present perfect continuous: X has been writing a book . ---------

written/offered

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Past tenses: 1. Past simple: 2. Past continuous: 3. Past perfect: 4. Past perfect continuous: Future tenses: 1. Future tense: X will write a book. A book will be 2. Future continuous: X will be writing a book. -------3. Future perfect: X will have written a book. A book will have been 4. Future perfect continuous: X will have been writing a book. --------X wrote a book. A book was X was writing a book. A book was being X had written a book. A book had been X had been writing a book. ---------

written/offered

written/offered

MODAL SIMPLE OF THE VERB TO BE must be/can be/might be/would be + written/offered PERFECT MODALS OF THE VERB TO BE must have been/should have been + written/offered

TENSE Present Simple Present Continuous

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE This company employs two hundred people. Two hundred people are employed by the How do they make glass? company. How is glass made? Somebody is cleaning the room at the The room is being cleaned at the moment. moment.
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Present Perfect

They have built a new hospital near the airport. Past Simple John burnt the dinner last night. Where did you take these photographs? Past Continuous I didnt realise that somebody was recording our conversation. Past Perfect I saw at once how they had done it. Future I will now discuss each item in turn. (will/shall) BE GOING TO They are going to build a new supermarket. Future Mr. Brown will be teaching this class next Continuous year. Future Perfect By then, the sound engineers will have completely remixed the soundtrack. Modal Simple The situation is very serious. We must do (present or something before its too late. past) The music was very loud and we could hear it from a long distance.

A new hospital has been built near the airport. The dinner was burnt last night. Where were these photographs taken? I didnt realize that our conversation was being recorded. I saw at once how it had been done. Each item will now be discussed in turn. A new supermarket is going to be built next year. This class will be being taught by Mr. Brown next year. By then, the soundtrack will have been completely remixed by the sound engineers. The situation is very serious. Something must be done before its too late. The music was very loud and it could be heard from a long distance.

Only transitive clauses and certain clauses where the verb has a prepositional phrase complement may be made passive. Other active-voice clauses may not be made passive: DO*
*

DO DIRECT OBJECT IO INDIRECT OBJECT

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Active: Someone stole the car. Passive: The car was stolen. (monotransitive: direct object) IO* DO Active: Someone gave him a warning. (ditransitive: direct and indirect object) Passive 1: He was given a warning. IO SUBJECT OF THE PASSIVE SENTENCE Passive 2: A warning was given to him. DO SUBJECT OF THE PASSIVE SENTENCE

Some verbs, such as, give, tell, show, lend, get, write, pay, sell, buy, make, fetch, promise, teach, take, take two objects, one ususally standing for a person, the other for a thing. The word for the person is INDIRECT OBJECT and is the first of the two objects; the word for the thing is the DIRECT OBJECT. The verb give may have an indirect object standing for a thing. E.g. Give this matter your full attention. PP Active: Everyone laughed at her plan. (verb + prepositional phrase complement) Passive: Her plan was laughed at by everyone who heard it. Active: They pulled down the house. / They pulled the house down. Passive: The house was pulled down. Passives are not formed from copular verbs: e.g. Shes a teacher. (NOT A teacher is been by her.); Carol seems right for the job. (NOT The job is seemed right by Carol.); Paula became a nurse. (NOT A nurse was become by Paula.) USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE: the receiver of the action is more important than the performer of the action
*

61

the performer is not someone specific the performer of the action is unknown the focus is on the process/action The use of the passive voice avoids a vague subject like someone or some people. In such sentences passives often occur without the agent phrase. e.g. Very few typewriters are being sold these days. Children should be warned not to speak to strangers. The 10.30 flight to Greece has been delayed. The bank was robbed. The house had been sold. The use of the passive is a way of avoiding placing responsibility for a particular action on any specific person or organization. e.g. Due to the companys need to increase production, the lunch break will be reduced from one hour to fortyfive minutes. (The managers will prefer to say this than to say I/We/The company etc.) is. We can use by + agent phrase after a verb in passive if we want to say who the performer of the action

62

e.g. We were stopped by the police on our way home. The book tells how he was often beaten by his cruel father. - The use of active or passive often depends on what a speaker/writer considers as being important for the context. PASSIVE: Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday. or ACTIVE: Dr. Susan Jones delivered baby Sophia at 3:30 a.m. yesterday. The first sentence might be more appropriate in a birth announcement sent to family and friends they are not likely to know Dr. Jones and are much more interested in the object (the baby) than in the doer of the action (the doctor). A hospital report of yesterday's events might be more likely to focus on Dr. Jones' role.

Reenice sa predikatima acknowledge, assume, agree, believe, consider, claim, expect, know, report, say, think, understand mogu se pojaviti u dvije pasivne forme. People say that he is 108 years old. Prvi nain glagol u pasivu dopunjuje se that reenicom, a subjekat je it. It is said that he is 108 years old. He is said to be 108 years old.

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Drugi nain glagol u pasivu se dopunjuje infinitivnom frazom, a subjekat je 'bivi' subjekat that reenice. Examples: It is said that Cathy works hard. Cathy is said to work hard. 1. It is expected that the strike will end soon. 2. The strike is expected to end soon. It is reported that many people are homeless after the floods. Many people are reported to be homeless after the floods.

works hard. They expect that the strike will end soon. People report that many people are homeless after the floods.

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65

THE SPECIAL FINITES There are certain verbs that demand special attention. These are sometimes called the `auxiliary' verbs because they `help' other verbs to form interrogative, negative and emphatic forms of speech and to form tenses, mood and voice. There are twelve of them in all, be, have, can, do, shall, will, may, must, need, ought, dare, used (to). (and the other forms of the special finites am, is, are, was, were; has, had; does, did; should; would; could; might). The term `auxiliaries' for all these verbs is not quite correct as some of them, e.g. be, have, do, are sometimes the only verb in the sentence, e.g. 'Keats was a poet'. 'They have a large house.' `He did the work well.' A better term is Special Finites or Anomalous Finites. They have certain characteristics which they, and they only, possess and which distinguish them from all other verbs. The following are their special features:

1. FORMATION OF THE NEGATIVE - The negative of these verbs is formed by placing not immediately after them, e.g. Affirmative He is here. They can speak English. They would help us. Negative He is not here. They cannot speak English. They would not help us.

- The word not is generally, in conversation, contracted and fused with the verb, e.g. He isn't here. They can't speak English. They wouldn't help us. They didn't answer. The special finites are the only verbs that take the contracted form of not. 2. FORMATION OF THE INTERROGATIVE - The interrogative of special finites is made by inversion, i.e. by putting the verb before its subject: Affirmative Interrogative He can speak English. Can he speak English? She will come to the party. Will she come to the party? I ought to answer the letter. Ought I to answer the letter? - All other verbs use do (does, did) and the infinitive, e.g. He speaks English. She came to the party. He answered the letter. Does he speak English? Did she come to the party? Did he answer the letter?

66

3. QUESTION PHRASES / QUESTION TAGS - The special finites alone have the ability to form Question Phrases'. We frequently, especially in conversation, add one of these phrases to a statement, thereby turning it 'into a question, e.g. It's a fine day, isn't it? You knew him quite well, didn't you? You didnt see him, did you? a. If the verb in the statement is a special finite, a form of that verb is used in the Question Phrase, e.g. They were there, weren't they? He ought to know the answer, oughtn't he? You haven't answered the letter, have you? The work has been done, hasn't it? (Note that if there are two auxiliaries in the verb, only the first one is used in the question phrase.) b. If the verb in the statement is not a special finite, do (does, did, don't, doesn't) is used in the Question Phrase, e.g. He speaks Spanish, doesn't he? They came to the party, didn't they? He didn't help them, did he? c. To an affirmative statement a negative Question Phrase is added: = ZAR NE? Mr. Brown is a doctor, isn't he? You can speak Spanish, can't you? Your friends will come, won't they? d. To a negative statement an affirmative Question Phrase is added, e.g. = ZAR NE / JEL TAKO? Our neighbour shouldnt do that, should he? You can't speak Spanish, can you? You won't go to England this summer, will you? 4. SHORT ANSWERS The special finites are used for `Short Answers' to avoid repetition of the verb, e.g. Question: `Can you speak Russian?' Full Answer: `Yes, I can speak Russian.' `No, I can't speak Russian.' Short Answer: `Yes, I can.' No, I can't.' 5. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

- This construction avoids repetition of the verb, etc., in such sentences as: He doesn't often come to the class, and when he does (= does come) he is generally late. I go for a swim every day. Do you? (= go for a swim every day) ! The only verbs that can be used for these elliptical sentences are the special finites.

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6.

THE EMPHATIC FORM

The Emphatic form of the verb is expressed by using one of the special finites. There is a strong stress on the special finite for affirmative emphasis, a strong stress on the not (never) immediately following the special finite for negative emphasis, e.g. a. Affirmative Emphasis My mother will be pleased to see you. We have enjoyed our visit. I do like her. b. Negative Emphasis I did not take your book. You ought not to do that. Sometimes we want to be emphatic to assert an affirmative when the listener seems to assume a negative, e.g. `Why don't you work hard?' `But I do work hard.' 'Why didn't she give him the book?' `But she did give him the book.' * * * The only verbs that can take this stress for affirmative emphasis are the special finites. If an ordinary verb is emphasized it is the meaning of the verb that is being stressed, not its affirmative nature. If, for example, instead of saying: `But she did give him the book', you said: 'But she gave him the book, your sentence would now suggest: She didn't lend him the book, or sell him the book, she gave it to him. A detailed description of each special finite is found in Eckersley and will not be given here. However, a short overview of the meaning and uses of each special finite is given in the following table. CAN ABILITY She can swim. She cant swim. PERMISSION You can go out. You cant go out. REQUEST FOR PERMISSION Can I go out? POSSIBILITY You can ski on the hills.(general p.) Measles can be quite dangerous. COULD 1. ABILITY (in the past) He could swim when he was a child. 2. POSSIBILITY IN THE PAST He could be quite unreasonable. Sometimes he was unreasonable. 3. PERMISSION a. past of can Father said that we could go out. b. request for permission (informal) Could you help me? 4. CONDITION Could you run the business by yourself? (if necessary) 5. GENTLE DOUBT Yes, his story could be true, but I hardly think it is. CANT / COULDNT 1. VIRTUAL IMPOSSIBILITY / NEGATIVE DEDUCTION a. CANT/COULDNT + PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT You cant/couldnt be hungry. b. CANT/COULDNT + PERFECT INFINITIVE PAST It cant/couldnt have been her husband. Hes been dead for ages.

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MAY

MIGHT

PERMISSION (asked, given, refused) May I speak to you for a few moments? PROHIBITION MAY NOT: in official notices: Dogs may not be taken into these carriages. POSSIBILITY: NEGATIVE CANT The news may be true. 1. PERMISSION a. past of may in indirect speech b. a more courteous and deferential way of addressing someone. Might I see you for a few minutes, please? 2. POSSIBILITY: a. past of may b. present or future possibility --- there is more reserve and doubt on the part of speaker. `Joe might pass his examination.' - Im not very sure about it. + PERFECT INFINITIVE = speculations about past actions or doubt at present about a possibility in the past : He may / might have left. = Its possible that he has left. + PERFECT INFINITIVE = 1. UNUSED ABILITY / PAST POSSIBILITY I could have earned a lot of money. (but I didnt) He might/could have phoned her. (perhaps he phoned) 2. the speakers upset or indignant at the non-performance of the action: He might /could have phoned! OBLIGATION, COMMAND --- negative: neednt (theres no obligation, its not necessary) You must work hard. LOGICAL CONCLUSION --- negative cant That must be John. PROHIBITION mustnt MUST + PERFECT INFINITIVE: affirmative deduction He must have come this way. There are footprints all over. MUST = the feeling of compulsion comes from the speaker HAVE TO = the feeling of compulsion comes from external circumstances 1. NEED 1 REGULAR VERB; NEED + TO INFINITIVE 2. NEED 2 SPECIAL FIN.; NEED + BARE INFINITIVE NEED 1 --- We didnt need to buy it. NEED 2 --- IN INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES Need he work so hard? He needn't work so hard. We had plenty of bread, so I didn't need to buy a loaf (= I didn't buy one). We had plenty of bread, so I needn't have bought a loaf (= I did buy one). 1. 1st PERSON + SHALL: DETERMINATION: 2. 2nd OR 3rd PERSON + SHALL: DETERMINATION, THREAT ON THE PART OF SPEAKER: 1. 1st PERSON + WILL: PROMISE, WILLINGNESS, DETERMINATION;

MAY/MIGHT COULD/MIGHT

MUST

MUST / HAVE TO NEED

SHALL WILL

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SHOULD

WOULD

OUGHT TO SHOULD/OUGHT TO DARE USED TO

2. 2nd OR 3rd PERSON + WILL: DETERMINATION, THREAT ON THE PART OF SUBJECT; 1. PAST OF SHALL IN INDIRECT SPEECH 2. CODITIONAL: SHOULD + INFINITIVE 3. = MUST: MUST is felt to be too peremptory 4. = OUGHT TO (the subjects obligation or a correct or sensible action) You should send in accurate income tax returns. This word is spelt wrongly. There should be another s 1. PAST OF WILL IN INDIRECT SPEECH 2. CONDITIONAL: WOULD + BARE INFINITIVE 3. PAST HABITS: Every day he would get up at six o'clock and light the fire. 1. = SHOULD --- OUGHT TO is more emphatic. 2. LIKELIHOOD, STRONG PROBABILITY: If she left home at 9, she ought to (should) be here any minute. + PERFECT INFINITIVE : UNFULFILLED OBLIGATION, or in the negative A WRONG OR FOOLISH ACTION: He should have helped her. (but he didnt) I shouldnt (oughtnt to) have lied to him. (but I did) 1. DARE 1: DARE + TO INFINITIVE She didn't dare to say a word, did she? 2. DARE 2: DARE + BARE INF Dare he go and speak to her? 1. to contrast past and present, to express something that existed or was done in the past (generally a repeated action), but no longer exists or is done now, e.g. He didn't use to smoke as much as he does now. VERBS: THE NON-FINITES

The non-finites are the Infinitive, the Participles and the Gerund. THE INFINITIVE - This is the dictionary form of the verb, i.e. the form under which a verb appears in the dictionary. It expresses the notion of the verb in its general sense, not as it applies to any particular subject. It is called `infinitive' because its form is not limited, as a finite verb is, by the number and person of its subject. There are four forms of the Infinitive:

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Simple Active Passive (to) write (to) be written

Perfect (to) have written (to) have been written

- The infinitive is usually, but not always, preceded by to. The infinitive without to is sometimes called the `plain' or `bare' infinitive. E.g. He wants to learn English. Let me tell you a story. I saw him take the money. THE PARTICIPLES There are two participles: the Present Participle and the Past Participle. The present participle ends in -ing, the past participle in -ed in the case of regular verbs. The terms `present' and `past' here may be misleading. The `past' participles in such phrases as `a distinguished scientist', `a crowded train', `spoken English' do not refer necessarily to an action or state in the past; nor does the present participle in 'a charming woman', `an interesting book' signify any time at all. The verbs may, shall, can, will, must, ought, used (to) have no participles. The difference between the present participle construction and the past participle one is that the present participle construction generally has an active meaning, the past participle a passive one. Compare: He found the fire burning brightly. (= the fire was burning active) He found the house burned down. (= the house was burned passive)

But this is not invariably the case. The past participle is active in such examples as: a

retired teacher (= a teacher who has retired); an escaped prisoner (= a prisoner who has escaped). COMPOUND PARTICIPLES In addition to the simple participles already noted, there are three compound ones. They are: 1. The Present Passive Participle (formed by being + a past participle) e.g. The essays being written will be sent to the Headmaster.

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2. The Perfect Participle Active (formed by having + a past participle) e.g. Having written the essay, the boy was allowed to go home. 3. The Perfect Participle Passive (formed by having been + a past participle) e.g. All the essays having been written and collected, the teacher sent the class home. **** Note that the perfect participle refers to an action that took place before the time expressed by the main verb.

THE GERUND ! The gerund is indistinguishable in form from the present participle, but whereas the participle is a verbal adjective, the gerund is a verbal noun. Note the difference in meaning between the participle as a modifier and the gerund as a modifier. The participle, which is partly an adjective, can be expanded into an adjective clause. Both the present participle and the noun it qualifies take a strong stress in the construction present participle + noun. In the gerund construction (gerund + noun) only the gerund takes stress. PARTICIPLE - a dancing bear (= a bear which dances), a travelling circus, a sleeping child, running water GERUND - a dancing-teacher (= a teacher of dancing NOT a teacher who dances), a sleeping-carriage; The gerund is modified by a possessive adjective or by the possessive form of nouns that can take this form. It's no use (good) your telling me not to worry. She was annoyed at your saying that. Please excuse my interrupting you. They are looking forward to Mary's coming. **** This construction, however, is a literary one rather than a conversational one. In colloquial speech it is fairly common to hear a personal pronoun instead of the possessive adjective, e.g. `. .. because of him being' instead of because of his being; `. .. excuse me interrupting you'; - instead of excuse my interrupting you I am used to William grumbling. Instead of I am used to Williams grumbling. VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND 72

It is not always easy to decide when the gerund should be used after a verb and when the infinitive, but this is the general usage: 1. The following verbs take a gerund after them: advise, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish, imagine, mind, miss, postpone, practice, risk, stop, suggest, understand. For example: I couldn't avoid meeting him. He enjoys listening to music. I couldn't risk missing that train. Do you mind passing the salt? 2. The gerund is also used after nearly all `phrasal verbs', e.g. You must go on working. He wants to give up smoking. She burst out crying. 3. It is used after the phrases: it's no good, it's no use, is worth, to be fond of, capable of, sick of, look forward to, e.g. It's no use crying over spilt milk. I'm tired of meeting the same people day after day. I am looking forward to meeting you. VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE - The following verbs take the infinitive after them: (a) all the special finites, I can speak English. You ought to go there. (b) the following verbs: dare, decide, desire, expect, guarantee, hope, mean (= intend), offer, pretend, promise, refuse, swear, undertake, want, wish, e.g. I hope you mean to do better. He wants to pay a visit to England. VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND OR THE INFINITIVE The following verbs may take the gerund or the infinitive, sometimes depending on the meaning to be expressed: begin, can't bear, cease, continue, dread, forget, hate, intend, learn, like, love, omit, prefer, regret, remember, need, neglect, start, try, e.g. The teacher said, `You can begin writing now', and the children began to write. I hate lying and cheating. I hate to see cruelty and injustice. For example: - With remember, the infinitive is used for a future action, and means: `not forget', the gerund is used for a past event and means: `call to mind', e.g.

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Please remember to bring your book tomorrow. I remember hearing him sing that song. - With forget, the infinitive is used with the meaning `fail to remember'. With the gerund it means `lose the memory of', e.g. I'm afraid he will forget to write to me. I shall never forget seeing the Swiss Alps for the first time. - With stop and try also the meaning varies according to whether the infinitive or the gerund follows: He stopped to eat means that he ceased doing something else in order to eat. He stopped eating means that he discontinued eating.. The main uses and functions of the infinitive (with to) and bare infinitive, the participles and the gerund are thoroughly explained in Eckersley and will not be dealt with here. ADVERBS - Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifiers; generally they modify or add to the meaning of verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, 1. Modifying a verb e.g. They speak English well. He gave her the money reluctantly. 2. Modifying an adjective e.g. Im almost ready. You are absolutely right. A fairly interesting book, a rather boring film. Modifying an adverb She drives too fast. I thought he was treated very badly. They may, occasionally, modify a noun or noun equivalent, e.g. the above sentences; the very thing etc. but its better to consider above and very in the previous examples as functioning as adjectives. 5. Or a phrase, e.g. they live nearly on the top of the hill; 6. Or a whole sentence, e.g. Unfortunately, I didnt have my credit card with me, so I couldnt buy that dress. Some adverbs are: 1. single words (e.g. yet, down, then, too). Others are obviously 2. formed from adjectives by the addition of a suffix ly (e.g. happily, badly, quickly); 3. others are formed from two words (e.g. anywhere, sometimes, however). In these examples two words are fused one into another, but in some other examples two words, generally containing a preposition and a noun, are written separately and are called adverb phrases, e.g. this month, the day after tomorrow, as a matter of fact. 3. 4.

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THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS ACCORDING TO MEANING - Adverbs can be classified according to their meaning, i.e.. according to the way in which they answer questions asking when, where, how an action was done. - Kinds of adverbs 1. Manner: - adverbs that express HOW an action was done e.g. Well have to walk quickly if we want to get there on time. The documentary presented both sides of the problem very well. 2. Place: - adverbs that express WHERE an action is or was done, the term `adverb of place' covers the wider field of `motion to', `motion from', `separation': Is this elevator going down? The years flew by. Come nearer. 3. Time: - adverbs that express WHEN an action is or was done; She doesnt want to wait until tomorrow, she wants it now. We will shortly be arriving in Kings Cross Station. I havent spoken to her yet. 3.a. Frequency: these adverbs answer the question `how often'. They are often placed in front of principal verb in the sentence. Youre always complaining. He doesnt often go out. Rachel is very involved in her job, so we hardly ever see her these days. (hardly ever gives a negative meaning to a sentence) 4. Sentence: He certainly never expected to become a writer. Surely we can't just stand back and let this happen? 4.a. ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION `Do you speak French?' `Yes.' (= Yes, I do) 4.b.ADVERBS OF PROBABILITY Perhaps it will snow tomorrow. 4.c.ADVERBS OF NEGATION `Will you forgive him? 'Never!' (= I shall never forgive him) 5. Degree: - adverbs that express to what degree or to what extent. Adverbs of degree are not generally used with verbs; they are used with adjectives or other adverbs, e.g.: Im awfully/ terribly / deeply sorry Im late. She answered the telephone rather sleepily. There were far too many people there. Whether you like her or not is utterly irrelevant. Im pretty sure it was her. 6. Interrogative: when? where? why? Where would you like to sit? When will the work be finished? How do you spell your name? 7. Relative: when, where, why: This is the place where (in which) I hid the key. She remembered the day when Paula had first arrived. 8. Adverbs of quantity / amount: The situation has improved very little. Kids dont play outside as much as they used to. THE FORMATION OF 'ADVERBS 1. Many adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree are formed by adding -ly to the corresponding adjectives: final, finally; slow, slowly; quick, quickly; bad, badly; Adjective Adverb She is a slow walker. She walks slowly. He is a careful/bad driver. He drives carefully/badly. The kids have been rather noisy today. They played rather noisily. Some spelling changes: a. final y changes to i + ly: happy - happily; noisy - noisily b. A final e is retained before ly: extreme - extremely. There are some exceptions to this rule: true - truly,. c. Adjectives ending in a consonant + le drop the e and add y: gentle gently; simple - simply; 75

! Some adjectives ending in ly such as daily, weekly, monthly, kindly and sometimes leisurely can be adjectives or adverbs, but most other adjectives ending in ly, e.g. manly, silly, fatherly, lively, brotherly, friendly, likely, lonely cannot be used as adverbs and have no adverb form.. To supply this deficiency we use a similar adverb or adverb phrase: - likely (adjective) probably (adverb) - He gave me fatherly/ friendly advice. He advised me in a friendly/fatherly way. (Advp) - a silly mistake (adjective) to act in a silly way (adverb phrase) 2. But there are other ways of forming the adverb; for example by using the same form as the adjective. ADJECTIVE ADVERB He is one of the fastest runners in the world. He runs really fast. She is a hard worker. She has worked hard all her life. (The adverb hardly, e.g., I can hardly believe it. has different meaning. = almost not) In the early morning We arrived early. - Note that the adverb of the adjective good is well. Note that: with verbs like taste, smell, feel, i.e. linking verbs etc. (in such sentences as: The milk tastes sour. The rose smells sweet. Do you still feel hungry? an adjective (sour, sweet, hungry), not an adverb, is used.

POSITION OF ADVERBS - THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS ACCORDING TO POSITION A. Front-Position, i.e.. as the first word in a sentence. B. Mid-Position, coming before the verb. C. End-Position, i.e., as the last word in a sentence. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS Comparison of adverbs is similar to comparison of adjectives: 1. Adverbs of one syllable form their comparative in -er and their superlative in -est, e.g. near - nearer - nearest; hard - harder - hardest; soon -sooner - soonest. Early also follows this pattern earlier, earliest; BUT more often, most often; 2. adverbs of more than one syllable form their comparative by using more, their superlative by most, e.g. brightly - more brightly - most brightly. 3. A few are irregular, e.g. well - better - best; little - less - least; much - more - most; badly worse - worst. She ate very little at dinner. She ate less than she did yesterday. He did very badly in the history exam, much worse than he did last time. Many adverbs do not have degrees of comparison, e.g. here, there, now, then, once, very, etc..

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PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS are words used with nouns (or noun equivalents: pronouns) to show the relation in which these nouns stand to some other word in the sentence. They may also be followed by verbs, but then the verb must be in gerund form. The children are at school. They succeeded in escaping. He is talking of emigrating. The preposition at in the first sentence expresses the relation between children and school. The preposition and noun together make a `case phrase' - within the rest of the sentence prepositional phrase. If case can be shown (as with some pronouns) the case is always objective, e.g. The police were very helpful when I spoke to them. John wants me to go with him. Prepositions may be single words, e.g.. at, after, down, since, with, etc..., or they may be two or more words ('group prepositions'), e.g. Theres parking space in front of the hotel. She waited for me at the top of the stairs. - One of the chief functions of the preposition is to make, with the noun or pronoun that follows it, a phrase. This phrase may be: 1. an adverb equivalent, i.e. prepositional phrase functions as an adverb; Look at all those books on your table! Professor is out of town this week. (Place) Are you free at lunchtime? Many shops dont open on Saturdays. (Time) Animals communicate in various ways. He took my arm in a fatherly way. (Manner) 2. an adjective equivalent prepositional phrase qualifies the preceding noun; We have a problem with parking in this area. She could hear the sound of voices. Prepositions denote/express: 1. PLACE / DIRECTION: She is at home. We went to the cinema. TIME RELATIONS: Shall we meet at 5 oclock? 2. PURPOSE: to / so as to / in order to + infinitive OR for + gerund E.g. We went along silently on tiptoe so as not to disturb anyone. This is a knife for cutting bread. PREPOSITIONS VS ADVERBS As it has already been emphasized, it would be incorrect to try to determine what part of speech a certain word is in isolation its function in the sentence determines what part of speech the word is. Compare: 1. I got stuck in (preposition) a traffic jam for half an hour. Come in (adverb) and sit down. 2. We walked slowly up (preposition) the hill. Put those books up (adverb) on the top shelf. 3. I go swimming every day after (prep) work. She got here at midday, and her sister arrived soon after (Adv).

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PREPOSITIONS TIME AND DATE: at, on, by, before, in.

midnight

at a time: at dawn at 4.30 at an age: at sixteen

at night

at six

at

at the age of

sixteen on a day/date: on Monday on 4 June on Christmas Day at Christmas, at Easter (the period, not the day only) in the morning/evening/afternoon BUT on the morning/afternoon/evening/night of a certain date: We arrived on the morning of the sixth. by, before: - by a time/date/period = 'before that time/date': The train starts at 6.10, so you had better be at the station by 6.00. by + a time expression is often used with a perfect tense, particularly the future perfect: By the end of July I'll have read all those books. before can be preposition, conjunction or adverb: Before signing this (preposition) Before you sign this . . . (conjunction) I've seen him somewhere before. (adverb) on time, in time, in good time - on time = at the time arranged, not before, not after: The 8.15 train started on time. (It started at 8.15.) in time/in time for + noun = not late; in good time (for) = with a comfortable margin: Passengers should be in time for their train. I arrived at the concert hall in good time (for the concert). (Perhaps the concert began at 7.30 and I arrived at 7.15.) on may be used with nouns and gerunds to denote the completeness of the action expressed by that noun or gerund: On his arrival / on arriving, he when he arrived at the beginning/end, in the beginning/end, at first/at last at the beginning (of) / at the end (of) = literally at the beginning/end: At the beginning of a book there is often a table of contents. At the end there may be an index. in the beginning/at first = in the early stages. It implies that later on there was a change: In the beginning / At first we used hand tools. Later we had machine. in the end/at last = eventually/after some time: At first he opposed the marriage, but in the end he gave his consent.

TIME: from, since, for, during from is normally used with to or till/until: Most people work from nine to five. from can also be used of place: Where do you come from? since is used for time, never for place, and means `from that time to the time referred to'. It is often used with a present perfect or past perfect tense He has been here since Monday. (from Monday till now) He wondered where Ann was. He had 78

not seen her since their quarrel. for is used of a period of time: for six years, for two months, for ever: Bake it for two hours. He travelled in the desert for six months. for + a period of time can be used with a present perfect tense or past perfect tense for an action which extends up to the time of speaking; He has worked here for a year. (He began working here a year ago and still works here.) during and for during is used with known periods of time, i.e. periods known by name, such as Christmas, Easter or periods which have been already defined: during the Middle Ages; during 1941; during the summer (of that year); during his childhood; during my holidays; The action can either last the whole period or occur at some time within the period: It rained all Monday but stopped raining during the night. (at some point of time) for (indicating purpose) may be used before known periods: I went there/I hired a car/I rented a house for my holidays/for the summer. TIME: to, till/until, after, afterwards (adverb) to and till/until: to can be used of time and place; till/until of time only. We can use from . . . to or from . . . till/until: They worked from five to ten / from five till ten. (NOTE: What would at five to ten mean?) But if we have no from we use till/until, not to: Let's start now and work till dark. (to would not be possible here.)

Till/until is often used with a negative verb to emphasize lateness: He didn't get home till 2 a.m. He usually pays me on Friday but last week he didn't pay me till the following Monday. Till / until is very often used as a conjunction of time: We'll stay here till it stops raining. after and afterwards (adverb) Don't bathe immediately after a meal / after eating. Don't have a meal and bathe immediately after it. NOTE: If we do not wish to use a noun/pronoun or gerund, we cannot use after, but must use afterwards (= after that) or then: Don't have a meal and bathe immediately afterwards. after can also be used as a conjunction: After he had tuned the piano it sounded quite different.

TRAVEL: from, to, at, in, by, on, into, onto, off, out, out of We travel from our starting place to our destination: They flew/ drove/ walked from Paris to Rome. When are you coming back to England? arrive at/in, get to, reach (without preposition) We arrive in a town or country, at or in a village, at any other destination: They arrived in Spain / Madrid. I arrived at the hotel/at the airport/at the bridge/at the crossroads.

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get to can be used with any destination, and so can reach: He got to the station just in time for his train. I want to get to Berlin before dark. They reached the top of the mountain before sunrise. get in (in = adverb) can mean `arrive at a destination'. It is chiefly used of trains: What time does the train get in? (reach the terminus/our station) HOME: We can use a verb of motion etc. + home without a preposition: It took us an hour to get home. They went home by bus. - But if home is immediately preceded by a word or phrase a preposition is necessary: She returned to her parents' home. SO We can be/live/stay/work at home, at + ... + home or in + . . . + home. But in cannot be followed directly by home: You can do this sort of work at home or at / in your own home. TRANSPORT: by, on, get in/into/on/onto/off/out of We can travel by car (BUT in the/my/Tom's car), by bus/train/plane/helicopter and by sea/air. We can walk or go on foot. We can cycle or go on a bicycle or by bicycle. We can ride or go on horseback. We get into a public or private vehicle, or get in (adverb). We get on/onto a public vehicle, or get on (adverb). But we go on board a boat (= embark). We get on/onto a horse/camel/bicycle. We get out of a public or private vehicle, or get out (adverb). We get off a public vehicle, a horse, bicycle, etc., or get off (adverb).

get in/into/out/out of can also be used of buildings, institutions and countries instead of go/come/return etc. when there is some difficulty in entering or leaving. In and out here are used as adverbs. I've lost my keys! How are we going to get into the flat/ to get in? (adverb)The house is on fire! We had better get out! (adverb) GIVING DIRECTIONS: at, into, to etc. (prepositions), along, on Go along the Strand till you see the Savoy on your right. Turn right / left at the Post Office / at the second traffic lights. Go on (adverb) past the post office. Turn right/left into Fleet Street. Take the first/second etc. turning on / to the right or on / to your right. When you come out of the station you will find the bank opposite you / in front of you. Get out (of the bus) at the tube station and walk on (adverb) till you come to a pub. Get off (the bus) and walk back (adverb) till you come to some traffic lights. 80

Go on to the end of road. (till couldnt be used here) At, in; in, into; on, onto; At - We can be at home, at work, at the office, at school, at university, at an address, at a certain point e.g. at the bridge, at the crossroads, at the bus-stop. In - We can be in a country, a town, a village, a square, a street, a room, a forest, a wood, a field, a desert or any place which has boundaries or is enclosed. BUT a small area such as a square, a street, a room, a field might be used with at when we mean `at this point' rather than `inside'. We can be in or at a building. In means inside only; at could mean inside or in the grounds or just outside. If someone is `at the station' he could be in the street outside, or in the ticket office/waiting room/ restaurant or on the platform. We can be in or at the sea, a river, lake, swimming pool etc. In here means actually in the water: The children are swimming in the river. at the sea/river/lake etc. means near/beside the sea'. But at sea means `on a ship'. in and into in as shown above normally indicates position. into indicates movement, entrance: They climbed into the lorry. Thieves broke into my house l My house was broken into. With the verb put, however, either in or into can be used: He put his hands in / into his pockets. In can also be an adverb: Come in = Enter. Get in (into the car). on and onto on can be used for both position and movement He was sitting on his case. Snow fell on the hills. His name is on the door. Onto can be used (chiefly of people and animals) when there is movement involving a change of level: People climbed onto their roofs. We lifted him onto the table. Above, over, under, below, beneath etc. above and over - above (preposition and adverb) and over (preposition) can both mean 'higher than' and sometimes either can be used: The helicopter hovered above / over us. Flags waved above / over our heads. - over can also mean `covering', 'on the other side of', `across' and 'from one side to the other': I put a rug over him. He lives over the mountains. There is a bridge over the river. - all over + noun/pronoun can mean `in every part of: He has friends all over the world. over can be used with meals /food/drink: They had a chat over a cup of tea. (while drinking tea) above can also be an adjective or adverb meaning `earlier' (in a book, article etc.): the above address (the previously mentioned address) see B above (the previously mentioned section B)

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below and under below (preposition and adverb) and under (preposition) can both mean `lower than' and sometimes either can be used. But under can indicate contact: She put the letter under her pillow. The ice crackled under his feet. With below there is usually a space between the two surfaces: They live below us. (We live on the fourth floor and they live on the third.) Similarly: We live above them. beneath can sometimes be used instead of under, but it is safer to keep it for abstract meanings: e.g. He would think it beneath him to tell a lie. (unworthy of him) She married beneath her. (into a lower social class) between and among - between normally relates a person / thing to two other people/things, but it can be used of more when we have a definite number in mind: Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and France. among relates a person / thing to more than two others; normally we have no definite number in mind. He was happy to be among friends again. A village among the hills. With: with could be used instead of among in the above sentence: He was happy to be with his friends. Some other uses of with: Cut it with a knife. Don't touch it with bare hands. The mountains were covered with snow. I have no money with me / on me. the girl with red hair, the boy with his hands in his pockets, the man with his back to the camera / with his feet on his desk. but and except (prepositions) - These have the same meaning and are interchangeable. But is more usual when the preposition + object of that preposition is placed immediately after nobody / none / nothing / nowhere etc: Nobody but Tom knew the way. Nothing but the best is sold in our shops. except is more usual when the preposition phrase comes later in the sentence: Nobody knew the way except Tom. And after all / everybody/ everyone / everything / everywhere etc. - But is more emphatic than except after anybody / anything / anywhere etc.: You can park anywhere but / except here. (You can't park here.) Prepositions used with adjectives and participles - Certain adjectives and past participles used as adjectives can be followed by a preposition + noun/gerund. Usually particular adjectives and participles require particular prepositions. Some of these are given below; others can be found by consulting a good dictionary, which after any adjective will give the prepositions that can be used with it. absorbed in according to accustomed to afraid of involved in keen on liable for/to anxious for / about 82

ashamed of aware of proud of capable of responsible for / to scared of exposed to successful in frightened of/ at good at / for interested in

pleased with prepared for ready for sorry for / about terrified of tired of used to

He was absorbed in his book. She is afraid/frightened/scared of the dark. He is bad/good at chess. Running is bad/good for you. They are very keen on golf. Drivers exceeding the speed limit are liable to a fine. I'm sorry for your husband. (I pity him.). I'm sorry for forgetting the tickets. I'm sorry about the tickets. Verbs and prepositions There are a great many verbs which can be followed by prepositions and some of these are listed below. More can be found in any good dictionary. accuse sb of sth apologize (to sb) for sth apply to sb / for sth ask for / about believe in beware of blame sb for sth charge sb with (an offence) conform to consist of depend on insist on live on (food/money) object to persist in prefer sb / sth to sb quarrel with sb about rely on remind sb of sth succeed in suspect sb of sth think of / about wait for warn sb of / about sth Do you believe in ghosts? They were charged with receiving stolen goods. You haven't complied with the regulations. For a week she lived on bananas and milk. -

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PHRASAL VERBS In modern English it is very usual to place prepositions or adverbs after certain verbs so as to obtain a variety of meanings. give away = give to somebody or anyone give up = abandon (a habit or attempt) look after = take care of look for = search for, seek look out = beware 1. The student need not try to decide whether the combination is verb + adverb or verb + prep, but should consider this expression as a whole, because these expressions may usually be replaced by one word: Put out -- extinguish; take up -- occupy; knock over upset, It is also important to learn whether this expression is transitive (requires an object) or intransitive (cannot have an object). For example, look for is transitive Im looking for my glasses. However, look out is intransitive Look out! This ice isnt safe! 3. One combination may have two different meanings: Take off = remove He took off his hat. Take off = rise from the ground The plane took off yesterday. 4. Position of object with transitive expressions: - Noun objects are usually placed at the end of these expressions: Im looking for my glasses. - With some expressions they can be placed either at the end or immediately after the verb. He took off his coat. He took his coat off. - Pronoun objects are sometimes placed at the end of the expression: Im looking for them - But they are more often placed after the verb: He took it off. Especially before these short words: up, down, in, out, away, off, on (except in the phrasal verb call on = visit). Compare: Ill give away this old coat. Ill give this old coat away. BUT Ill give it away. - When phrasal verb is used with verbal expression usually a gerund form is used: I keep on thinking Ive seen her somewhere before. He bought me dinner to make up for being so late the day before. 5. a. Some of the meanings are literal and the meaning of the phrase may be gathered from the individual words that compose it, e.g. Put the book up there. b. But very frequently the meaning is figurative and can only be learned by treating the combination as one unit, e.g.. You dont have to book a room in a hotel, Ill put you up for tonight. (= accommodate) Some examples of phrasal verbs: Give sth away = give it to someone who needs it. Ill give this old coat away. Give smb away = betray him He said that he was not an American, but his accent gave him away. Dont worry, I wont give you away. 2.

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Give in= cease to resist, yield: Youll never guess the answer. Do you give in? Bob's wife went on at him so much that eventually he gave in. Give out= 1. announce verbally They gave out the names of the winners. 2. distribute The teacher gave out the books. Give out (intr) = become exhausted (of supplies) His patience gave out and he slapped the child hard. Give up = abandon or discontinue a habit, sport, study, occupation: He gave up smoking. Give oneself up = surrender HE gave himself up to the police. ! One verb with different prepositions or adverbs can have plenty of variations. CONNECTIVES / CONJUNCTIONS - Conjunctions are used to join words, phrases or sentences together, He plays basketball and rugby. (2 words) I make the payments and keep the accounts. (2 phrases) We came in first but didnt win the race. (2 sentences) - There are some words such as nevertheless, however, besides, so, therefore, still, yet, etc. which join sentences together: It was a terrible accident. Nevertheless, air travel is still the safest form of transport. - A prepositional phrase may be used as a conjunction, e.g. I know the mayor really well. In fact, I had dinner with her last week. ! Conjunctions which join together words, phrases or sentences of similar functional value (as in examples seen so far) are called CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS, while conjunctions used to join together sentences of different functional value are called SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, both and, or, either or, neither ..nor, not only but also; Subordinating conjunctions: if, that, when, unless, though/although etc. He tried hard but he was unsuccessful. Coordinating conjunction He said that he would help us. Ask him when he could come. Subordinating conjunction *** In colloquial speech the conjunction that is often omitted; in fact, the conjunction would be unusual in such sentences as: I wish you had told me.

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