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10 EYE DEFECTS

1.)Myopia Also konwn as 'nearsightedness', a person suffering from this disease is only able to see objects near the eye clearly. Most of the prople who wear spectalcles are patients of myopia. The disease can be caused due to two reasons. First, the lens might be too thick and fails to focus light rays coming from distant objects onto the retina. Second reason could be a smaller eye ball. Since image is formed behind the retina in the eye of a myopic person, a divergent lens is required to enable him to see distant objects clearly. The power of lens required for a myopic person who can see an object at a maximum distance of x, is given by P = -(1 / x)

2.)Hypermetropia Also konwn as 'hyperopia' or 'farsightedness', a person suffering from this disease is only able to see objects far from the eye clearly. This disease manily affects old people. It can be due to two reasons. First, the lens is too thin and fails to focus light rays coming from close objects onto the retina. Second reason could be a larger eye ball. Since image is formed in front of the retina in the eye of a hypermetropic person, a convergent lens is required to enable him to see close objects clearly. The power of lens required for a hypermetropic person who can see an object at a minimum distance of y, is given by P = -(1 / y)

3.)Glaucoma It is a symptomatic condition, and can lead to raised intra-ocular pressure, visual field loss, enlargement of the blind spot and changes in the appearance of the optic nerve head. a lot of damage is done by the time these symptoms are actually noticed by the patient.

4.)Chorioditis Choroiditis is an inflammation of the choroid, which is a vascular rich layer located between the sclera and the retina.

5.)Astigmatism This defect arises due to the develoment of different curvatures along different planes in the eye lens. A person suffering from astigmatism cannot see all the directions equally well, but a particular direction in the plane perpendicular to the lign of sight is most visible. There are many ways with which a person can detect this disease, many of which are 'do-it-yourself' technices. A person suffering from this disease wears glasses with different curvatures in different planes, which are known as cylindrical glasses.

6.)Presbyopia It is a reduction in the focusing power of the eye with age, and results in a decrease in clarity of vision at near distances (but does not affect distance vision). When a person can no longer read a newspaper at arm's length, and buys reading spectacles, he can be considered to be presbyopic.

7.) Blindness This refers to the loss of the power of sight. Depending on his reduced power, a person can be calassified as 'stone-blind' or 'gravel-blind' (Shakespearen terms referring to the dergree of blindness). Some of the factors that might lead to blindness are: Physical damage: This includes a direct damage to the retina or the lens, in cases that include accidents involving sharp things, metal instruments etc. that might cause a major rupture. Retinal detachment: This might happen due to the separation of the neural retina from the pigment epithelium, which provides nutrients to the photoreceptors. Due to this loss of nutrients, there is a loss of function in the photoreceptors. Blindness however, is caused in extreme cases only. Minor detachments only cause a blurred vision.

8.)Keratoconus It is usually a recessive inherited condition apparent between 10-25yrs. It leads to a thinning of the corneal apex, and a bulging of the tissue which incereases myopia of the afected eye.

9.)Herpes Zoster This disease affects the eye by encroaching from a skin lesion. It might even start on the eye. Leads to white pustules, similar to cold sores in the mouth. It can be treated by early antiviral treatment.

10.)Retinitis Pigmentosa It is a degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium, which leads ro the loss of granules from the epithelium layer and their deposition in clumps in the retina.

WHAT ARE TELESCOPE

1.) A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light). The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s (the 17th century), using glass lenses. They found use in terrestrial applications and astronomy.

a.) A refracting or refractor telescope is a type of optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image (also referred to a dioptric telescope). The refracting telescope design was originally used in spy glasses and astronomical telescopes but is also used for long focus camera lenses. Although large refracting telescopes were very popular in the second half of the 19th century, for most research purposes the refracting telescope has been superseded by the reflecting telescope.

b.) A reflecting telescope (also called a reflector) is an optical telescope which uses a single or combination of curved mirrors that reflect light and form an image. The reflecting telescope was invented in the 17th century as an alternative to the refracting telescope which, at that time, was a design that suffered from severe chromatic aberration. Although reflecting telescopes produce other types of optical aberrations, it is a design that allows for very large diameter objectives. Almost all of the major telescopes used in astronomy research are reflectors. Reflecting telescopes come in many design variations and may employ extra optical elements to improve image quality or place the image in a mechanically advantageous position. Since reflecting telescopes use mirrors, the design is sometimes referred to as a "catoptric" telescope.

2.)Binoculars, field glasses or binocular telescopes are a pair of identical or mirrorsymmetrical telescopes mounted side-by-side and

aligned to point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes (binocular vision) when viewing distant objects. Most are sized to be held using both hands, although sizes vary widely from opera glasses to large pedestal mounted military models. Many different abbreviations are used for binoculars, including glasses, nocs, noculars, binos and bins.

3.) A microscope (from the Greek: , mikrs, "small" and , skopen, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

4.)A magnifying glass (called a hand lens in laboratory contexts) is a convex lens that is used to produce a magnified image of an object. The lens is usually mounted in a frame with a handle (see image).

Refraction of Light Refraction is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium where it's speed is different. The refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium bends the light ray toward the normal to the boundary between the two media. The amount of bending depends on the indices of refraction of the two media and is described quantitatively by Snell's Law. 5 application of refraction of light 1. lens (in anatomy) the transparent crystalline structure situated behind the pupil of the eye. It helps to refract incoming light and focus it onto the retina. See also accommodation.

2. image in optics, likeness or counterpart of an object produced when rays of light coming from that object are reflected from a mirror or are refracted by a lens . An image of an object is also formed when this light passes through a very small opening like that of a pinhole camera (which has no lens). Images are classed as real or virtual. A real image occurs when the rays of light from the object actually converge to form an image and can be seen on a screen placed at the point of convergence. For example, the image produced by the refraction of light rays by a convex lens (when the distance between the object and the lens is greater than the focal length of the lens) is real, and it appears on the side of the lens opposite the one on which the object is present. On the other hand, a virtual image occurs when the prolongations of the light rays converge to form an image, but the light rays themselves do not reach the point of convergence. Thus a virtual image cannot be seen on a screen. 3. Prism in optics, a piece of translucent glass or crystal used to form a spectrum of light separated according to colors. Its cross section is usually triangular. The light becomes separated because different wavelengths or frequencies are refracted (bent) by different amounts as they enter the prism obliquely and again as they leave it (see refraction ). The shorter wavelengths, toward the blue or violet end of the spectrum, are refracted by the greatest amount; the longer wavelengths, toward the red end, are refracted the least. 4. A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums[1]) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary infinitely within a continuum. The word saw its first scientific use within the field of optics to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism; it has since been applied by analogy to many fields other than optics. Thus, one might talk about the spectrum of political opinion, or the spectrum of activity of a drug, or the autism spectrum. In these uses, values within a spectrum may not be associated with precisely quantifiable numbers or definitions. Such uses imply a broad range of conditions or behaviors grouped together and studied under a single title for ease of discussion. 5. mirage (mirzh') [key], atmospheric optical illusion in which an observer sees in the distance a nonexistent body of water or an image, sometimes distorted, of some object or of a complete scene. Examples of mirages are pools of water seen over hot desert sand or over hot pavement; at sea, an inverted image of a ship seen in the heavens or, also at sea, some object that is actually over the horizon but seems to loom up a relatively short distance away. These phenomena can be explained by the facts (1) that light rays undergo refraction, i.e., are bent, in passing from a medium of one density into another of different density and (2) that the boundary between two such media acts as a mirror for rays of light coming in at certain angles (see reflection).

POLARIZATION
A light wave (or, any other electromagnetic wave) consists of two components, the electric and the magnetic, which are mutually perpendicular. One of these, the electric component, is known as the plane of oscillation for that wave. Light emitted by an atom in a single event has a fixed plane of oscillation. However, light waves emitted by other such atoms micht not have the same plane. Hence. light emitted by the substance as a whole, consists of different light waves, each with its different plane of oscillation,

i.e. a random change in the direction of the light keeps occuring. Such light is known as unpolarized, and is emitted by sources like the Sun, bulbs, candles etc. Let us consider light travelling in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the screen. Two axes, Y and Z are selected on the screen, and all the electric fields are resolved on these two. Let us consider one light wave whose components are Ey and Ez. The fact that the resultant electric field changes its direction randomly with time, can be mathematically phrased by saying that Ey and Ez have a phase difference of , which changes randomly. Hence, Ey = E1 sin(t - kx + ) Ez = E2 sin(t - kx) The angle which this resultant electric field makes with the Y axis can be expressed as, tan = Ez / Ey = (E1 sin(t - kx + )) / (E2 sin(t - kx)) Since there is a random chage in with respect to time, so is there a random change in . Hence, the light is unpolarized.

HALF LIFE
Half-life is the period of time it takes for a substance undergoing decay to decrease by half. The name was originally used to describe a characteristic of unstable atoms (radioactive decay), but it may apply to any quantity which follows set-rate decay. The original term, dating to 1907, was "half-life period", which was later shortened to "half-life" in the early 1950s.[1] Half-lives are very often used to describe quantities undergoing exponential decayfor example, radioactive decaywhere the half-life is constant over the whole life of the decay, and is a characteristic unit (a natural unit of scale) for the exponential decay equation. However, a halflife can also be defined for non-exponential decay processes, although in these cases the half-life varies throughout the decay process. For a general introduction and description of exponential decay, see the article exponential decay. For a general introduction and description of nonexponential decay, see the article rate law. Corresponding to sediments in environmental processes, if the half-life is greater than the residence time, then the radioactive nuclide will have enough time to significantly alter the concentration. The converse of half-life is doubling time.

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