A 20-SUN HYBRID PV-THERMAL LINEAR MICRO-CONCENTRATOR SYSTEM FOR URBAN ROOFTOP APPLICATIONS

D Walter1, V Everett1, A Blakers1, M. Vivar1, J. Harvey1, J. Muric-Nesic1, T. Ratcliff1, R. Van Scheppingen1, S. Surve1 1 Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
2

P. Le Livre2, M. Greaves2, A. Tanner2 Chromasun Inc, San Jose, CA, United States of America

ABSTRACT A unique, linear, low-concentration, hybrid microconcentrator (MCT) system concept has been developed specifically for urban rooftop environments. The lightweight, low-profile form factor satisfies aesthetic demands for general rooftop solar technologies, and is a marked departure from conventional linear concentrator systems. Valuable thermal energy, normally of nuisance value only, and usually wasted by conventional CPV, is extracted via a heat transfer fluid. The recovered thermal energy can be used for applications ranging from domestic hot water through to space heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), and process heat. The system can be modularly configured for hybrid concentrating PV-Thermal (CPV-T) or thermal-only operation to meet specific customer demands. At a 20x concentration ratio, system output of 500 Wpe and 2 kWpt is expected, for a combined system efficiency of up to 75%. The MCT is constructed from mature, proven technologies and industry-standard processes. An installed system cost of less than US$2/Wpe is targeted, and commercial availability is expected to commence in 2011. High-concentration photovoltaic technology is already demonstrating its capability for utility-scale power generation, where very expensive, specialist solar cells are placed under concentration ratios of up to 650X [1]. By comparison, only limited research and development has been focused on CPV-T systems that are technologically and commercially feasible for small-scale urban rooftop environments. Such an urban market would be well served by systems operating under low (15X 35X) concentration. In this concentration range, solar cell area requirements are reduced by at least 95%, while the demands on optics, tracking, and thermal management are significantly relaxed in comparison to highconcentration systems. However, low concentration systems suffer from a lack of specialised components available at industrial volumes, most notably solar cells capable of high efficiency operation at low concentration. At these concentration levels, however, high quality monocrystalline silicon solar cells are suitable candidates, with their marginally higher cost being offset by greatly reduced material consumption. A key metric for assessing commercial performance is the levelised cost of energy (LCOE), a measurement that captures the cost throughout the lifecycle of a PV system; and a measure that is growing in acceptance throughout the industry. The ultimate success of any PV technology, at least in the near term, will be its ability to compete with fossil fuels. By reducing the area of expensive solar cells, the performance and reliability pressure mounts on the economy and durability of the non-cell system components. The tracking and optic systems need to be sufficiently precise and reliable to ensure acceptable performance during 25 or more years of operation, along with associated material costs also being kept to a minimum. It is clear from observing the record of previous implementations of linear CPV-T systems, such as the ANU CHAPS system, the full extent of the challenges that exist in meeting the above goals. Mirrors at up to 2m wide require significant structural support, are subject to large wind loading, and are difficult and expensive to manufacture to the tolerances necessary for excellent flux uniformity in the presence of gravitational and windloading distortions. Composite mirror constructions are more sensitive to thermal cycling events, and are

INTRODUCTION The driving principle for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) technology is the potential for cost reduction in solar power generation via the substitution of expensive solar cells with comparatively inexpensive concentrating optics. A hybrid concentrating photovoltaic-thermal (CPV-T) system increases total energy output by extracting waste heat that is not converted to electricity via a heat transfer fluid. A rooftop-mounted system couples the benefits of distributed PV electricity generation with the on-site generation of thermal energy in a temperature range of 60 to 220 C. This is ideal for applications ranging from domestic hot water, space heating, commercial process heat in the food and hospitality industries, through to solar cooling. Under concentration, electrical and thermal energy can be produced more efficiently and economically than independent flat-plate PV and solar hot water systems. In markets where subsidies exist for both technologies, such as Australia, net costs to the consumer are greatly reduced.

generally exposed to rain, hail, snow, dust, and other soiling sources. Manufacturing costs for these types of systems are likely to remain high in comparison to flatplate PV systems as long as there is only limited industry experience in high-throughput production of proven, reliable system components [2]. Economies of scale have yet to be fully realised, and indeed may never be, and any CPV or CPV-T technology that can tap into existing industrial production processes and technologies will have a significant cost and long-term performance advantage. In order to address these challenges, Chromasun, a Silicon Valley based industry, and the Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems at the Australian National University are developing a novel hybrid microconcentrator (MCT) CPV-T system. This paper presents an overview of the development of the MCT system, some key design decisions, and preliminary real-world electrical performance data. Preliminary estimates indicate that the MCT will deliver an LCOE (based on electrical output alone, but including the costs of the thermal components) of close to US 6 per kWh. Under this costing scenario, the thermal energy is essentially a free bonus.

been possible to employ ultra light-weight 97% efficient Fresnel reflectors. The tracking system is free to concentrate on optical considerations alone; with the minimal mirror weight, which is always perfectly balanced and free from wind loading or differential thermal stress, further reducing the parasitic power consumption of the tracking motors. Consequently, the complete system 2 weighs less than 100 kg, with an area loading of 25 kg/m , which facilitates rooftop installation. Isolating the system components from the surrounding environment increases the mean time between failure, improving lifetime yield, and reducing or eliminating maintenance costs. Construction of the system can occur entirely off-site, with the installation carried out in a manner similar to flat-plate PV systems. In operation, PV electrical performance considerations place an upper limit on the useful hybrid operating temperature. However, the MCT is highly adaptable and can be configured for either CPV-T or thermal-only operation, allowing for a modular approach to system installations. Multiple MCTs, independently configured, can provide combined-system electrical energy, low temperature (50-70 C) hot water, process heat up to 220 C, and high thermal output suitable for high COP double-effect absorption coolers or ejector air-conditioning systems. The MCT has set aggressive performance targets, and will deliver electrical and thermal energy at a cost not currently available to customers deploying independent systems. In order to achieve this goal, design decisions have been influenced by a desire to incorporate mature materials, components, and manufacturing processes into the system design. This has allowed the MCT to tap into existing economies of scale, reducing final system cost and development time to market, and improving confidence in the reliability and durability of the product.

THE MICRO-CONCENTRATOR SYSTEM The MCT system is a unique implementation of CPV-T technology, enclosed in a small-footprint, low-profile housing (see Fig. 1). The enclosure, measuring 3.2 m long, by 1.2 m wide, by 0.3 m deep, isolates the internal components from the surrounding environment. This allows the MCT to match the aesthetic standards set by flat-plate PV systems, which dominate the urban rooftop market.

HIGH PERFORMANCE PV RECEIVER Point-contact, monocrystalline silicon solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies of over 26% at 20x concentration [3]. However, performance at this level has yet to be found in cells available at industrial production volumes. Instead, the MCT incorporates high efficiency, non-concentrator, rear-contact, mono-crystalline silicon solar cells that are modified for operation at concentration ratios of up to 30x. Narrow electrode pitch and low bulk resistivity allows these cells to maintain an electrical efficiency of around 20% while operating at 20X concentration ratio. The cells are commercially manufactured at a scale of tens of millions of wafers annually, and are then modified in-house for concentrator applications using industry-standard semiconductor processing techniques. Figure 2 shows a plot of prepared concentrator cell efficiency as a function of concentration ratio for four sample cell widths. We can observe from this

FIGURE 1 The micro-concentrator (MCT) enclosure. While this approach was desirable from an aesthetic perspective, it also delivers important operational advantages. Material costs are significantly reduced by almost entirely eliminating internal support structures. Instead, the enclosure itself both protects and supports the mirrors, tracking system, and the hybrid receiver. By protecting the optics from wind loading and soiling, it has

data that remarkable efficiencies, in excess of 19.0% at 30 suns are achievable using one-sun silicon solar cells available at a fraction of the cost of specialist cells.
21.00 20.00

term system stability by minimising the operating current level and accumulated differential thermal expansion. The materials that constitute the mounting substrate have been selected to match the heat sink, further minimising thermal expansion mismatch. A metal base-layer also provides a rigid support for each sub-module and eases constraints on module handling during receiver assembly. A great deal of design flexibility is provided for by the selection of the interconnecting circuit. This flexibility has been exploited to allow the integration of bypass diodes in structurally convenient and functionally effective locations. Surface mount diode packages are used; they can be connected to the substrate during the same electrical connection process used for the solar cells. Independent sub-modules are interconnected via reflective metal tabs, which also shelter the diodes from the concentrated sunlight. All of the aforementioned design details are eminently suitable for high-throughput industrial manufacturing processes. Figure 3 illustrates an un-encapsulated PV module, with encapsulation to be provided by a PMDS silicone compound.

Efficiency (%)

19.00 18.00 17.00 16.00 15.00 0.00 5.00

1381 1382 1383 1384

10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

Concentration (Suns)

FIGURE 2 Efficiency as a function of illumination intensity. It is the widest cell (1384), which demonstrates the highest efficiency. Backside contact cells have facilitated a simplified, integrated solution for electrical interconnection, heat sinking, mounting, and structural support. A substrate technology common to the power electronics industry eliminates all internal wiring by surface mounting the cells to a custom-designed circuit using a flip-chip ball grid array assembly method. The substrate has decades of proven reliability in demanding automotive and other harsh high-temperature applications, which establishes a high level of confidence for reliable performance in the MCT. The ball grid array consists of a precise arrangement of solder balls that relaxes placement accuracy by utilising the remarkable self-alignment feature of the flip-chip structure, which is commonly exploited in the electronics industry [4]. This phenomenon is a result of the surface tension of the molten solder bumps, which seeks to minimise the surface area-to-volume ratio of individual solder balls. Any perturbation from a spherical shape while the solder is in a liquid state produces an opposing force, which can be harnessed by design to pull the soldered components into the required position. In conjunction with a non-contact vapour-phase solder reflow process, this process is used to align and electrically interconnect fragile solar cells in densely packed arrays, with a cell separation of less than 100 m. By closely spacing the cells, and with the complete absence of sunfacing bus-bars or electrodes, the active area of the receiver can significantly exceed 95%. The design of the mounting substrate allows the cells to be heat sunk via the electrical circuit. A uniformlydistributed array of contact points across the rear surface of the cell limits the localised temperature rise and reduces series resistance; both critical considerations for maximising cell performance. The size and aspect ratio of the cells have been carefully optimised to improve long-

FIGURE 3 The MCT PV sub-module. SILICONE ENCAPSULANT MATERIAL Under prolonged exposure to concentrated sunlight, silicone encapsulant materials have demonstrated superior optical and mechanical stability compared with EVA [5]. A pourable, room temperature vulcanising (RTV) silicone is used in the MCT receiver, with a refractive index matched to the front surface glass and optimised to minimise reflection at the cell surface. The silicone is applied in a liquid state, which is ideally suited to encapsulating the geometric channel that houses the receiver components. The increased material costs of the silicone, compared with other low-performance options, are offset by the relatively small encapsulated volume. International safety standards require that the creepage distance between components never falls below the margin necessary to prevent tracking, or unwanted electrical shorts at test potential. The silicone encapsulation benefits standards qualification by increasing the dielectric strength between the components to a value many times that of air. This is a valuable feature due to the small scale on which the PV receiver is constructed, the non-planar cross section, and the close proximity of the solar cell electrodes to electrically-neutral conductive surfaces. Extensive standards testing, conducted at ANU, and modified to match the expected operating conditions of the MCT system, indicate that

50 m of the silicone dielectric is sufficient to reliably stand-off voltages exceeding 2500 VDC [6]. OPTICAL SYSTEM A major challenge in CPV and CPV-T linear concentrator systems is meeting and maintaining an acceptable level of flux uniformity at the receiver. The higher operating currents of CPV systems make prolonged mismatch particularly undesirable if potentially disastrous hot spots are to be avoided [7]. Larger scale linear CPV systems, such as the ANU CHAPS system and the EUCLIDES array in Tenerife, have demonstrated the significant challenge involved in maintaining uniform flux distribution at the receiver [8]. Optical misalignments, caused by mirror deformities, the presence of shadows cast by supporting structures, soiling, wind loading, gravitational loading, and thermal distortions all impact long term yield and system reliability. In the case of the ANU CHAPS system, flux variations have been observed to be as high as 40% [9].

Secondary optics in the CPV receiver, consisting of highly reflective winglet sidewalls, further enhances lateral flux uniformity across the solar cells. The focal target of the Fresnel array is shifted in a dispersed arrangement across the receiver to include the optical aperture of the winglets. Instead of the typical Gaussian distribution resulting from the focus of an array of Fresnel reflectors onto a flat target, this innovation significantly flattens the distribution. As a result, cell efficiency is increased by around 0.5 percent absolute by reducing localised series resistance resulting from peaky, localised illumination.

FIGURE 4 An early prototype single-receiver, lowprofile, high-reflectivity MCT Fresnel mirror array. The MCT incorporates a low-profile, planar array of linear Fresnel reflectors, which achieve an optical concentration of 20X at the receiver (see Fig 4). The reflector array improves flux uniformity, optical performance, and manufacturability by using differential width mirrors, each varying in inverse proportion to the distance from the receiver. Further, the focal characteristic of each reflector is varied in order to limit flux peaks, and reflector astigmatism is actively harnessed to improve lateral flux uniformity. The reflectors are tensioned in order to provide a consistent and uniform image profile along the length of the reflector. This design has the unique capability to provide torsional force from one end of the reflector to the other, allowing for the correction of any twisting induced during installation. The new reflector design eliminates image instability which arises from the differential expansion of composite mirror structures, as commonly used in conventional linear concentrators.

FIGURE 5 Smoothed light flux distribution (bottom) eliminates the high peak intensity (top) at the centre of the receiver, whilst simultaneously minimising light spillage. Achieving a highly-uniform optical flux distribution has freed the electrical design to maximise the number of series-connected cells. This has increased the maximum power voltage and hence the efficiency of integration with low-cost, high-voltage, switch-mode inverters. One arrangement of the MCT design can build voltage at up to 70 Vp/m, for a system total output of over 400 Vp.

TRACKING SYSTEM Operating at a 20X concentration ratio increases the acceptance angle compared with higher concentration ratio systems. The geometric layout of the single-axis tracking mechanism is optimised to ensure that the maximum available fraction of direct incident radiation reaches the receiver. Each Fresnel array is 560 mm wide and consists of 10 mirrors, with each focused on a receiver that is 34 mm wide. The tracker is able to maintain 100% of the reflected image on the receiver for around 10 hours of a summer day. ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE MCT PHOTOVOLTAIC RECEIVER Characterisation of the electrical performance of the PV modules was carried out under both laboratory and realworld conditions. In the laboratory, testing was performed using a constant voltage I-V flash tester. Flash testing allows for simultaneous I-V measurements at a range of illumination intensities, and eliminates the complication of providing a stable, high-intensity light source. Due to the voltage limitations of the device, and the area of uniform light intensity distribution provided by the flash source, only shorter series strings (sub-modules) could be tested. Nonetheless, this test procedure still provided a good indication of full module performance by incorporating the same fabrication and interconnection processes in test sub-module preparation as used in the full module construction. By stabilising cell temperature at 25 C, the flash tester provides an accurate reference for the correlation of light-induced current to open-circuit voltage for use in standardising real-world performance to STC conditions. Figure 6 illustrates a typical I-V curve at a range of illumination intensities for a four-cell, siliconeencapsulated, MCT receiver sub-module. At the expected system optical concentration ratio of 20x, a sub-module efficiency of 19.6% has been achieved for these four cell prototype sub-modules.

10x 20x 30x ISC, (A) 0.82 1.67 2.56 VOC, (V) 2.88 2.96 3.00 FF, (%) 76 71 67 Efficiency, (%) 20.1 19.6 19.2 Table 1 Sub-module performance characteristics Field testing of the receiver sub-modules using a MCT test rig was undertaken in Canberra, Australia. The test rig was designed specifically to test prototype receiver sections and comprises a short segment of the complete MCT with production-standard implementation of the tracking and optical systems. The geometric concentration factor of the MCT test-rig is 14.2, which is below the target production factor of 20, but nonetheless suitable for preliminary characterisation of on-sun electrical performance and further development and optimisation of MCT receivers. The MCT electrical efficiency was determined by calculating the aperture efficiency; that is, the output power relative to the total direct irradiation incident on the concentrating optics. This is defined as,

Pmp Pout = Pin DNI X C AM

(1)

where DNI is the direct normal irradiance, XC the concentration factor defined as the ratio of the receiver area to the area of the concentrating optics and AM is the concentrator receiver module area, including the roughly 5% non-active area. Normalisation to standard testing conditions was performed using the temperature coefficients of performance, open-circuit voltage, and short-circuit current provided by the solar cell manufacturer. The I-V curve was measured using a capacitive curve tracer, and the total power output was measured at maximum power point. A pyrheliometer was used to measure DNI, which was found to be 876 W/m2 2%. Operating cell temperature was inferred by referencing a known value of open-circuit voltage at 25 C against the measured value, and extrapolating based on the VOC temperature coefficient. The MCT was inclined to beyond the latitude angle in order to minimise the DNI incident angle, as is consistent with a winters day. Figure 7 plots the I-V characteristics for a PV module at a cell temperature of 55 C, and the same module corrected to STC. Table 2 illustrates the key performance characteristics under both conditions.

Figure 6 I-V test curves for four-cell sub-module at a range of concentration intensities. The key performance characteristics are summarised in Table 1. Note that all measurements were at STC, with an accuracy of 5% relative.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, and support from The Australian National University. This work is also supported by a linkage grant from the Australian Research Council.

REFERENCES [1] S. Kurtz, Opportunities and Challenges for Development of a Mature Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Industry, NREL Technical Report, Nov. 2009 FIGURE 7 I-V curve for PV module at 55 C, and normalised to STC. Incident direct radiation: 876 2 W/m . [2] Science, Technology & Applications Working Group, A Strategic Research Agenda for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technology, EU PV Technology Platform, Jun. 2007 [3] R. Sinton et al, 27.5-percent Silicon Concentrator Solar Cells, IEEE Electron Device Letters, 7(10), 1986, pp. 567-569 [4] G. Humpston and D. Jacobson, Principles of Soldering, ASM International, 2004 [5] K.R. McIntosh, J.N. Cotsell, J.S. Cumpston, A.W. Norris, N.E. Powell and B.M. Ketola, The effect of accelerated aging tests on the optical properties of silicone and EVA, Proc. 24th EU PVSEC, Hamburg, pp. 34753482, 2009 [6] M. Vivar, et al., Integrating the design and reliability assessment of a hybrid PV/Thermal Micro-concentrator system, Submitted for publication, Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC, Honolulu, 2010 [7] F. J. Vorster, E. E. Van Dyk, Current-voltage characteristics of high-concentration, photovoltaic arrays, Progress in Photovoltaics, 13(1), 2004, pp. 55-66 [8] Optimizacin de la Tecnologia Fotovoltaica de Concentracin Euclides (Optimisation of the Euclides Photovoltaic Concentrator), Universidad Politcnica de Madrid. Escuela Tcnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicacin, PhD Thesis, Marta Vivar Garca, 2009. [9] J. Coventry, Performance of a concentrating photovoltaic/thermal solar collector, Solar Energy 78, 2005, pp. 211-222

At 55 C At STC ISC, (A) 1.31 1.31 VOC, (V) 20.1 21.8 FF, (%) 65 72 Efficiency, (%) 16.6 18.4 Table 2 MCT PV Module on-sun performance characteristics at 55 C and at STC. An on-sun PV efficiency of 18.4%, corrected for STC, has been demonstrated at this concentration. However, further work will aim to optimise the photovoltaic module and configure it for the MCT receiver. Future characterisation will demonstrate the electrical performance of the MCT over a prolonged period of operation at a fixed inclination angle that is typical for a rooftop installation. CONCLUSION The jointly-developed Chromasun-ANU MCT system is a unique implementation of CPV-T technology, with a high NDI conversion efficiency, and a rooftop friendly formfactor. LCOE is minimised by significantly reducing material requirements, and simplifying assembly procedures by using existing industrial processes. Where possible, components have been adapted from other industries to capture existing economies of scale, including modified non-concentrator silicon solar cells. Non-cell system components are well-developed, and work is presently ongoing to characterise and optimise module electrical performance. To date, laboratory-based testing has demonstrated module efficiencies of up to 19.6% under the target 20X concentration ratio, and onsun efficiency of 18.4% under a 14.2X concentration ratio.