3 Phase Distribution

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3 Phase Power Distribution and Transmission

3 phase electricity distribution is the process in the delivery of 3 phase power from the generation equipment to the business or location for use. This include the transmission over power lines, possibly through electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers, and the appropriate distribution 3 phase wiring and sometimes electricity meters.

3 Phase Power Distribution Transformer

After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network the 3 phase power is finally transformed to the standard mains voltage (the voltage of "house" or "household" current in American English). The power may already have been split into single phase at this point or it may still be 3 phase. Where the step-down is 3 phase, the output of this power transformer is usually star connected with the standard mains voltage (120V in North America and 230V in Europe) being the phase-neutral voltage. Another system commonly seen in the USA is to have a delta connected secondary on the step down transformer with a center tap on one of the windings supplying the ground and neutral. This allows for 240V 3 phase as well as three different single phase voltages (120V between two of the phases and the neutral, 208V between the third phase (sometimes known as a wild leg) and neutral and 240V between any two phases) to be made available from the same supply.

Generating 3 Phase Power From Single Phase

When single phase power is readily available but 3-phase power is not already allocated, there is an easy way to generate 3 phase power with a 3 phase power generating Rotary Phase Converter or with a modern Motor Generator Set. Today these are a super efficient method to get 3 phase power anywhere single phase is already available. Read more about super efficient 3 phase generating Rotary Phase Converters here.

Electric Power Distribution History

In the early days of electricity generation, direct current (DC) generators would be connected to loads at the same voltage. The generation, transmission and loads all needed to be of the same voltage because, at the time, there was not a common way of doing DC voltage conversion (other than motor-generator sets which today have became super efficient). The voltages usually had to be fairly low with old generation systems due to the difficulty and danger of distributing high voltages to small loads. The losses in a line transmission cable are proportional to the square of the current, the length of the cable, and the resistive nature of the conductor line wire material, and are inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. Early power transmission networks were already using copper, which is one of the best conductors that is also very economically feasible for this application. To reduce the current while keeping power transmission constant requires increasing the

voltage which, as previously mentioned, was, at that time, problematic. This meant in order to keep losses to a reasonable level the (DC) Edison power transmission system needed thick cables and local power generators.

Alternating Current (AC) Becomes Most Common Standard

Soon, the adoption of alternating current (AC) for electricity generation dramatically changed the situation. Power transformers, installed at power substations, could be used to raise the voltage from the generators and reduce it to supply loads. Increasing the voltage reduced the current in the power transmission and distribution lines. Thus the size of conductors required and distribution losses incurred were also reduced. This made it more economic to distribute power over long distances. The ability to transform to extra-high voltages enabled power generators to be located far from loads with transmission systems to interconnect generating stations and distribution networks. Though due to power line losses, it is still often valuable to locate the power generators nearby the actual power load. In North America, the early power distribution systems used a voltage of 2200 volts cornergrounded delta. Over time, this was gradually increased to 2400 volts. As cities grew, most 2400 volt systems were upgraded to 2400/4160 Y three-phase systems, which also benefited from better surge suppression due to the grounded neutral. Some city and suburban power distribution systems continue to use this range of voltages, but most have been converted to 7200/12470Y. European systems used higher voltages, generally 3300 volts to ground, in support of the 220/380Y volt power systems used in those countries. In the UK, urban power generation and transmission systems progressed to 6.6 kV and then upgraded to 11 kV (phase to phase), the most common power distribution voltage. North American and European power distribution systems also differ in that North American power distribution systems tend to have a greater number of low-voltage step-down transformers located closer to customers' premises. For example, in the US a pole-mounted transformer in a suburban area may supply only one or a very few houses or small businesses, whereas in the UK a typical urban or suburban low-voltage substation might be rated at 2MW of power and supply a whole neighborhood. This is because the higher voltage used in Europe (230V vs 120V) may be carried over a greater distance without an unacceptable power loss. An advantage of the North American setup is that failure or maintenance on a single power transformer will only affect a few customers. Advantages of the UK setup are that fewer transformers are required; larger and more efficient transformers are used, and due to diversity there need be less spare capacity in the transformers, reducing power wastage. Rural power electrification systems, in contrast to urban power systems, tend to use higher voltages because of the longer distances covered by those power distribution lines. 7200 volts is commonly used in the United States; 11kV and 33kV are common in the UK, New Zealand and Australia; 11kV and 22kV are common in South Africa. Other voltages are occasionally used in unusual situations or where a local utility simply has engineering practices that differ from the normal practices

Power Distribution Network Layout

Power distribution networks are typically arranged out in one of two types, radial or

interconnected. A radial network leaves the station and passes through the network area with no connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with isolated load areas. An interconnected network is generally found in more urban areas and will have multiple connections to other points of supply. These points of connection are normally open but allow various configurations by closing and opening switches. The benefit of the interconnected model is that in the event of a fault or required maintenance a small area of network can be isolated and the remainder kept on supply. The only downside to this design occurs when there is a major power outage that causes a domino effect damaging the power supply systems from the whole network leaving more customers without power. There are protections in place to keep this from happening though it still occurs every few years in places where this method of power distribution and transmission is used. Characteristics of the supply given to customers are generally mandated by law and by contract between the electric power supplier and customer. Variables include: AC or DC Virtually all public electricity supplies are AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power such as some electric railways, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such as aluminum smelting either operate their own generating equipment or have equipment to derive DC from the public AC supply).

Phase and Frequency Converters

There are several instances where the equipment may need not only the phase changed from 1-phase, or the rare 2-phase (in the US this is mostly used in Chicago) to 3 phase power, but also the frequency converted from 50Hz to 60Hz or 400Hz (400Hz is mostly used in ships and aircraft). Click here to read more about 3 phase frequency converters.

Volume 2 No.2 AUTOMATION IN POWER DISTRIBUTION

March 1999

The demand for electrical energy is ever increasing. Today over 21% (theft apart!!) of the total electrical energy generated in India is lost in transmission (4-6%) and distribution (15-18%). The electrical power deficit in the country is currently about 18%. Clearly, reduction in distribution losses can reduce this deficit significantly. It is possible to bring down the distribution losses to a 6-8 % level in India with the help of newer technological options (including information technology) in the electrical power distribution sector which will enable better monitoring and control. How does Power reach us? Electric power is normally generated at 11-25kV in a power station. To transmit over long distances, it is then stepped-up to 400kV, 220kV or 132kV as necessary. Power is carried through a transmission network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run into hundreds of kilometres and deliver the power into a common power pool called the grid. The grid is

connected to load centres (cities) through a sub-transmission network of normally 33kV (or sometimes 66kV) lines. These lines terminate into a 33kV (or 66kV) substation, where the voltage is stepped-down to 11kV for power distribution to load points through a distribution network of lines at 11kV and lower. The power network, which generally concerns the common man, is the distribution network of 11kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33kV substation. Each 11kV feeder which emanates from the 33kV substation branches further into several subsidiary 11kV feeders to carry power close to the load points (localities, industrial areas, villages, etc.,). At these load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage from 11kV to 415V to provide the last-mile connection through 415V feeders (also called as Low Tension (LT) feeders) to individual customers, either at 240V (as single-phase supply) or at 415V (as three-phase supply). A feeder could be either an overhead line or an underground cable. In urban areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of an 11kV feeder is generally up to 3 km. On the other hand, in rural areas, the feeder length is much larger (up to 20 km). A 415V feeder should normally be restricted to about 0.51.0 km. Unduly long feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer end. Bottlenecks in Ensuring Reliable Power Lack of information at the base station (33kV sub-station) on the loading and health status of the 11kV/415V transformer and associated feeders is one primary cause of inefficient power distribution. Due to absence of monitoring, overloading occurs, which results in low voltage at the customer end and increases the risk of frequent breakdowns of transformers and feeders. In fact, the transformer breakdown rate in India is as high as around 20%, in contrast to less than 2% in some advanced countries. In the absence of switches at different points in the distribution network, it is not possible to isolate certain loads for load shedding as and when required. The only option available in the present distribution network is the circuit breaker (one each for every main 11kV feeder) at the 33kV substation. However, these circuit breakers are actually provided as a means of protection to completely isolate the downstream network in the event of a fault. Using this as a tool for load management is not desirable, as it disconnects the power supply to a very large segment of consumers. Clearly, there is a need to put in place a system that can achieve a finer resolution in load management. In the event of a fault on any feeder section downstream, the circuit breaker at the 33kV substation trips (opens). As a result, there is a blackout over a large section of the distribution network. If the faulty feeder segment could be precisely identified, it would be possible to substantially reduce the blackout area, by re-routing the power to the healthy feeder segments through the operation of switches (of the same type as those for load management) placed at strategic locations in various feeder segments.

Typical Power Transmission and Distribution Scenario with DA components The Technology Development Mission A Technology Development Mission on Communication, Networking and Intelligent Automation, was jointly taken up by IIT Kharagpur and IIT Kanpur. While the mission focus at IIT Kharagpur is to develop technology for industrial automation, IIT Kanpur embarked upon the development of an integrated technology for power distribution automation system. In a distribution automation (DA) system, the various quantities (e.g., voltage, current, switch status, temperature, and oil level) are recorded in the field at the distribution transformers and feeders, using a data acquisition device called Remote Terminal Units (RTU). These system quantities are transmitted on-line to the base station (33kV substation) through a variety of communication media. The media could be either wireless (e.g., radio, and pager) or wired (e.g.,

Dial-up telephone, RS-485 multi-drop, and Ethernet). The measured field data are processed at the base station for display of any operator selected system quantity through Graphic User Interface (GUI). In the event of a system quantity crossing a pre-defined threshold, an alarm is automatically generated for operator intervention. Any control action (for opening or closing of the switch or circuit breaker) is initiated by the operator and transmitted from the 33kV base station through the communication channel to the remote terminal unit associated with the corresponding switch or circuit breaker. The desired switching action then takes place and the action is acknowledged back to operator for information. DA systems are being adopted by utilities in some developed countries in a phased manner, primarily for reliability evaluation in a field environment. In India too, a small beginning has been made by a few state utilities (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala and Rajasthan), which are confining themselves initially to the automation of 33kV substations. Electronics Research and Development Centre, Trivandrum, and Computer Maintenance Corporation, Hyderabad, are involved in these early experiments, the main objective being the development of know-how and a better understanding of the issues involved in implementing DA systems indigenously. The utility environment in India is far different from that in most of the developed countries, because of the existing social scenario. Hence, technological solutions available for DA in developed countries cannot be directly implanted in India. Also, the cost of importing a DA system technology is prohibitive. The Mission Activities at IIT Kanpur IIT Kanpur has embarked on an effort to develop indigenous technology for an integrated power distribution automation system in collaboration with four industry partners (Secure Meters Limited, Udaipur; Indian Telephone Industries, Raebareli; DataPro Electronics Private Limited, Pune; and Danke Switchgears, Vadodara). This effort includes development of (a) communication and networking technology using wired and wireless media, (b) micro-controller based remote terminal unit (RTU), (c) remotely operable switch for 11kV and 415V feeders, (d) application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) for electrical instrumentation, (e) DA software to enable remote monitoring, alarm generation and remote control, and (f) distribution network simulator (a scaled down model of a real-life distribution network) to provide a test bed for a comprehensive testing of the developed technology, components and software. Some of the developments noted above are being implemented in the IIT Kanpur distribution network as a pilot level installation for field reliability evaluation. Salient Contributions

The technology development mission at the Institute has made the following contributions: Communication and Networking Technology This enables distributed data acquisition, monitoring and control system functions. Unlike traditional communication solutions, the approach here is to have a core communication controller in the base station that can support diverse choices of communication media (dial-up, RS485, Ethernet, and radio). This open approach facilitates cost effective implementation. The base station communication controller has cross-platform portability, supports functions for communications network management, and permits LAN, Internet, and Intranet connectivity through Ethernet. All command communication functions are invoked through GUI of automation software. Data transfer from/to RTUs supports industry standard data links. Remote Terminal Unit The micro-controller based pole-top RTU has 32 analog and 16 digital channels, and affords RS232 full duplex asynchronous communication. The acquired data (voltage and current) is processed for rms and power factor calculations. Some design goals focus at low cost, flexibility and expandability, modularity at signal conditioning level, and communication interface. Remotely Operable Switch A load break switch (LBS) for 11kV operation and a moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) unit for 415V operation have been developed and tested as per available specifications. The threepole 11kV LBS opens in 80 milliseconds at the rated current of 80 A. While this switch is primarily meant for breaking load current, it can sustain 16 kA of fault current for one second and can also close on fault. The remote operation is through a three-phase induction motor coupled with gear mechanism. The 415V MCCB unit, on the other hand, has an isolator on the incoming circuit and two MCCBs for two outgoing feeders. Flexibility exists to choose the MCCB of appropriate rating corresponding to the rated feeder current. The remote operation is through solenoid-plunger arrangement. Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) ASIC supports up to four-phase analog inputs (four voltage and four current) for applications such as tri-vectormetre, RTU, and single-phase meter. It has an option for frequency selection (50/60 Hz) and is of 0.2 class accuracy with 16 bit A/D converter. Sampling rate is 5000 samples per second per channel. It calculates quantities like rms values of voltage and current (both actual and fundamental), power, power factor, total harmonic distortion, frequency, and energy. The ASIC design is verified using Verilog HDL simulation. While the ASIC fabrication is being finalised, the ASIC-based metering applications have been validated using the hardware behavioural simulation of ASIC. DA software

The DA software has the following components: (i) Distribution network software with attributes like graphical representation of network, cross-platform portability (Windows NT, Linux, Solaris), editing features, customizing, network validation, system topological information, component specification, and billboard printing; (ii) Set-up utilities for installation on different platforms; (iii) Automation software having real-time features, cross-platform portability, alarm generation (audio/video), system monitoring (of system quantities, equipment health and switch status), switch control commands, control interlocks and event log report; (iv) Database with real-time attributes that conforms to DNP3.0 library format, uses shared memory approach, provides SQL interface for backup in standard databases for all off-line applications, permits sharing of data in multiple processes, and has registry access for security and RTU identification; and (v) Application software which includes packages for network re-configuration, load shedding, volt-var control through capacitor switching, and fault detection and isolation. Distribution Network Simulator It is a scaled-down model of the actual IIT Kanpur distribution network, having suitably scaleddown versions of fourteen transformers, thirty 11 kV feeders, forty one circuit breakers represented by four-pole controllable relays (with selection for remote/local operation), LT loads which can be varied from 0-150% in steps of 25%, communication linkage (for Ethernet, dial-up, RS485 and radio), single generic RTU (96 digital and 128 analog channels) covering all transformers. The simulator applications include testing of various communication systems and protocols, testing of DA software, fine tuning of RTU and LBS control prior to field installation, and integration and testing of application software. As the simulator provides a feel of actual physical system, it can serve as a training tool for operators of DA system. Closure Most of the developments undertaken as part of the mission have been completed over the last three years. Some of these developments have already been implemented in the 33kV substation of IIT Kanpur. Implementation at five 11kV substations in IIT Kanpur is currently in progress, and is expected to be completed by the end of 1999. Based on this field experience, the necessary fine tuning of the technology will be done for increased reliability. It is expected that the technology for DA system developed through this mission, will be marketed by the four industry partners, not just within India, but also in the other developing countries

Electrical Distribution System Overview

Modern power grids are extremely complex and widespread. Surges in power lines can cause massive network failures and permanent damage to multimillion-dollar equipment in power generation plants. After electricity is produced at power plants it has to get to the customers that use the electricity. As generators spin, they produce electricity with a voltage of about 25,000 volts [a volt is a measurement of electromotive force in electricity, the electric force that pushes electrons

around a circuit]. The transmission and distribution system delivers electricity from the generating site (electric power plant) to residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. The electricity first goes to a transformer at the power plant that boosts the voltage up to 400,000 volts for distribution through extra-high voltage (EHV) transmission lines. When electricity travels long distances it is better to have it at higher voltages since the electricity can be transferred more efficiently at high voltages. High voltage transmission lines carry electricity long distances to a substation. At transmission substations a reduction in voltage occurs for distribution to other points in the system through high voltage (HV) transmission lines. Further voltage reductions for commercial and residential customers take place at distribution substations, which connect to the primary distribution network. Utility transmission and distribution systems [T&D] systems link electric generators with end users through a network of power lines and associated components. In the United States typically the transmission portion of the system is designated as operating at 69 kilovolts (kV) and above, while the distribution portion operates between 110 volts and 35 kV. A further distinction is often made between primary distribution (voltages between 2.4 and 35 kV) and secondary distribution (110 to 600 volt) systems. Industrial and commercial customers with large power demands often receive service directly from the primary distribution system. Transformers are a crucial link in the electric power distribution system. Utility transformers are high-voltage distribution transformers typically used by utilities to step down the voltage of electricity going into their customers' buildings. Distribution transformers are one of the most widely used elements in the electric distribution system. They convert electricity from the high voltage levels in utility transmission systems to voltages that can safely be used in businesses and homes. Distribution transformers are either mounted on an overhead pole or on a concrete pad. Most commercial and industrial buildings require several low-voltage transformers to decrease the voltage of electricity received from the utility to the levels used to power lights, computers, and other electric-operated equipment. Transformers consist of two primary components: a core made of magnetically permeable material; and a conductor, or winding, typically made of a low resistance material such as copper or aluminum. The conductors are wound around a magnetic core to transform current from one voltage to another. Liquid insulation material or air surrounds the transformer core and conductors to cool and electrically insulate the transformer. Many different distribution transformer designs are available to utilities, depending on the loading patterns and needs of the end-user. Transformer engineers modify transformer design and vary material depending upon the needs of a particular utility (cost of energy, capacity, etc.). A blackout is a condition where a major portion or all of an electrical network is de-energized with much of the system tied together through closed breakers. Any area whose tie-lines to the

high voltage grid cannot support reasonable contingencies is a candidate for a blackout. System separations are possible at all loading levels and all times in the year. Changing generation patterns, scheduled transmission outages, and rapid weather changes among other reasons can all lead to blackouts. Separations due to dynamic instability are typically initiated by multiple contingencies such as loss of corridors, several transmission circuits, several generating units, or delayed fault clearing. The system just prior to a blackout may not be dynamically unstable but in an overloaded condition. At such loadings, the collapse may come about due to damage to thermally overloaded facilities, or circuits contacting underlying facilities or vegetation. When an overloaded facility trips, other facilities will increase their loadings and may approach their thermal capabilities or relay trip settings. Voltage collapse is the process by which voltage instability leads to the loss of voltage in a significant part of the system. This condition results from reactive losses significantly exceeding the reactive resources available to supply them. Circuits loaded above surge impedance loadings and reduced output of shunt capacitors as voltages decline can lead to accelerating voltage drops. Voltage collapse can look like both a steady-state problem with time to react and a problem where no effective operator intervention is possible. It is very hard to predict the area that will be affected or electrically isolated from the grid. Voltage collapse is an event that occurs when an electric system does not have adequate reactive support to maintain voltage stability in which the sustained voltage level is controllable and within predetermined limits. Voltage Collapse may result in outage of system elements and may include interruption in service to customers. Apparent Power, the product of the volts and amperes, comprises both real and reactive power, usually expressed in kilovoltamperes (kVA) or megavoltamperes (MVA). Real Power is the rate of producing, transferring, or using electrical energy, usually expressed in kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW). Reactive power is the portion of electricity that establishes and sustains the electric and magnetic fields of alternating-current equipment. Reactive power must be supplied to most types of magnetic equipment, such as motors and transformers. It also must supply the reactive losses on transmission facilities. Reactive power is provided by generators, synchronous condensers, or electrostatic equipment such as capacitors and directly influences electric system voltage. It is usually expressed in kilovars (kvar) or megavars (Mvar). The system restoration sequence and timing will be directly impacted by the various sizes, types, and state of operation of the system generating units prior to the blackout. After a system has blacked out, the system operators perform a survey of the system status. Circuit breaker positions will not provide a reliable indication of faulted versus non-faulted equipment. Breakers can be found in the closed position, but the associated transmission facility is faulted. If the system blackout is storm-initiated, this condition is quite possible. The storm can continue to damage equipment after the system is de-energized. Also, equipment with neutral connections, such as reactors, transformers, and capacitors, may be locked out from the neutral overcurrent conditions during system shutdown. These facilities may be in perfectly serviceable condition. Most relay systems will remain reliable and secure during restoration, provided there is adequate fault

current available to activate the relaying. The most questionable relay reliability issues come from reclosing relays. A power generating unit separated from the may have islanded and continue to generate power for its station auxiliary load. With no system load on the generators, the station auxiliary demand will be quite small, and the steam generators output may be difficult to control. Immediate load addition may be required to keep the steam generator from tripping or having the steam turbine trip out on overspeed. Other units may be able to operate indefinitely on their auxiliary load. An electrical utility which experiences an operating capacity emergency seeks to balance its generation to its load to avoid prolonged outages of service. The emergency reserve inherent in frequency deviation may be used as a temporary source of emergency energy. A utility unable to balance its generation to its load removes sufficient load to permit correction of the outage. In the event of a capacity deficiency, generation and transmission facilities are used to the fullest extent practicable to promptly restore normal system frequency and voltage. If all other steps prove inadequate to relieve the capacity emergency, the system may take immediate action which includes but is not limited to manual load shedding. Unilateral adjustment of generation to return frequency to normal may jeopardize overloaded transmission facilities. Voltage reduction for load relief is made on the distribution system. Voltage reduction on the subtransmission or transmission system may effective in reducing load; however, voltage reduction would not be made on the transmission system unless the system has been isolated from other interconnected systems. If the overload on a transmission facility or abnormal voltage/reactive condition persists and equipment is endangered, the affected system or pool may disconnect the affected facility. shutdown. If abnormal levels of frequency or voltage resulting from an area disturbance make it unsafe to operate the generators or their support equipment in parallel with the system, their separation or shutdown would be accomplished in a manner to minimize the time required to reparallel and restore the system to normal. After a system collapse restoration begins when it can proceed in an orderly and secure manner. Restoration priority is normally given to the station supply of power plants and the transmission system. Even though restoration is intended to be expeditious, system operators seek to avoid premature action to prevent a re-collapse of the system. Customer load is normally restored as generation and transmission equipment becomes available, since load and generation must remain in balance at normal frequency as the system is restored. When voltage, frequency and phase angle permit, the system operator may resynchronize the isolated area with the surrounding area. In order to systematically restore loads without overloading the remaining system, opening circuit breakers may isolate loads in blacked-out areas. Reenergizing oil-filled pipe-type cables must be given special consideration, especially if loss of oil pumps could cause gas pockets to form in pipes or potheads. After determining the extent of the blackout and assessing the status of system equipment, the switching operations necessary for system reintegration represent a significant portion of the restoration process. Depending on the specific utility's requirements, there are two general switching strategies which may be used to sectionalize the transmission system for restoration. The first is the "all open" approach where all circuit breakers at affected (blacked out)

substations are opened. The second strategy is the "controlled operation" where only those breakers necessary to allow system restoration to proceed are opened.