Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence

Eva Papazova Institute for Population and Human Studies - BAS

Summary: The aim of this article is to trace out and analyze the influence of personal determinants such as gender, age and socio-economic status on gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance during adolescence. The studied subjects are 257 adolescents, aged between 13 and 20 years. The applied questionnaires are as follows - Personal Attribute Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1974, 1975), Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967), Affect Scales: Positive Affect, Negative Affect, Affect Balance (Bradburn, 1969). The results of the investigation show that the adolescent girls are more masculine, more feminine and more androgynous, with higher self-esteem concerning peers and significantly higher affective balance and lower negative affect than the adolescent boys. Masculinity and androgyny has significantly increased with the increase of age. Those in late adolescence possess the highest selfesteem; negative affect decreases significantly and affective balance also significantly increased with age. Adolescents from the Roma ethnic group are the most androgynous and with the highest self-esteem in the aspect of "school".

Researchers in the field of psychology have devoted significant attention to the interrelation between gender-role attitudes, subjective well-being and self-esteem during adolescence. Of particular interest for us is the relationship between the individual and social norms and these three personal constructs. There are different assumptions and different approaches among researchers. One of these approaches is connected with individual determinants and their influence on adolescent self-esteem, gender-role attitudes and affective balance, contributing to better social and personal adaptation. Influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on adolescent gender-role attitudes 1. Gender and gender-role attitudes In the psychological literature it is accepted that males and females differ regarding social norms and customs in different societies. No society ascribes identical behavior to both genders (Daly & Wilson, 1978, cited by Lueptow, 1984). It is expected that they should 1

adhere to different positions and demonstrate different behaviors, manifesting different personality traits. There are social norms and conventions, governing the ascribed characteristics and positions. Gender is an important aspect of adolescent identity formation (Brown, 1990; Simmons & Blyth, 1987). Adolescent girls are less likely to perceive male dominance than adolescent boys, because it harms their self-concept. Identification with ones gender presupposes growth of gender-related stereotypes. Psychological investigations consistently show that girls usually adhere to less traditional gender-role attitudes than boys (Katz & Ksansnak, 1994; McHale et al., 1999). This model implies an intensification of the social category gender during early adolescence for boys but not for girls (Hill & Lynch, 1983). In Bulgaria, the traditional social behavior model corresponds with a moderate feminine gender-role orientation and a masculine and/or androgynous gender-role orientation, accordingly regarded as a more liberal behavioral model (Silgidzhiyan et al., 2007; Papazova, in press). In this Bulgarian investigation with a sample of adolescents, the model for adolescent boys is characterized by equality of liberal and traditional gender-role attitudes (masculinity, femininity, and androgyny) in early and middle adolescence and a decline of liberal attitudes (masculinity) during late adolescence. The adolescent girls in the study show significant tendencies in their age trajectory in relation to their gender-role development (Papazova, in press). 2. Age and gender-role attitudes The formation of attitudes towards gender roles and family plays a major role, serving as an agent of socialization, passing on the values, ideologies and norms to the younger generation from the older generation. From an individual perspective, the family cycle is the most significant social context, providing the necessary social framework for the small child in which they acquire attitudes, values and knowledge important to their lives. The socialization process that forms children's attitudes, values and ideologies is mostly influenced by the parents: their religion, education and ethnic origins. The younger generation is also exposed to a more egalitarian ideology than the older generation. On the other hand, childs perception is considered less liberal than that of their mothers. The older the child, the more liberal (or masculine) are its attitudes toward gender roles. It is 2

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

assumed that, as the child grows, the more they are exposed to debates and discussions on gender equality, as well as technological changes that have facilitated female entry into what previously had been considered male-dominated job positions (Corder & Stephan, 1984). So, the more educated the parents, and the more the mother works, the more liberal are the attitudes of both parents and their children regarding gender roles. This study found that age and religiosity have no significant influence on children's gender-role attitudes (Thornton, 1989). In a study with Bulgarian adolescents it was found that there is an increase of liberal gender-role attitudes (masculinity and androgyny) during early adolescence, but not in middle or late adolescence (Papazova, in press).

3. Socio-economic status and gender-role attitudes Individual and family factors have contributed to different gender-role attitudes in society. The national culture (including historical experience), social and political ideology, and institutional policy mediates the interrelation between social structures and attitudes towards gender roles (Treas and Widmer, 2000). Some studies have also found a low to moderate correlations between gender-role attitudes of the parents and their children in relation to different life aspects, with ratio coefficient ranges from .20 to .30 (Mannheim, 1988; Thomas & Stankiewicz, 1973). Gender, age and socio-economic status affects individual attitudes towards gender roles (Lackey, 1989). In particular, older men and members of groups with a lower socioeconomic status tend to be more traditional (i.e. more feminine) in their gender-role perceptions than women, young people and those from the middle-class(Kulik, 2002). Moreover, there is a strong interrelation between the level of mothers education and the gender-role attitudes of their children (Corder & Stephan, 1984). Thus, it can be assumed that if the parents are more educated, their own gender-role ideology and that of their children is again more liberal. Influence gender, age and socio-economic status on adolescent self- esteem 1. Gender and Self-esteem Gender influences adolescent self-esteem. Compared to boys, girls seem particularly vulnerable regarding the level of their general self-esteem. They tend to have a significantly more negative attitude towards themselves than boys (Quatman & Watson, 3

2001; Papazova & Pencheva, 2008). The girls tend to describe themselves as more sorrowful, lonelier and more fragile. Also, they are more sensitive to their inner world than the boys (Lynch-Polce at el., 2001). As an explanation for girls lower self-esteem during adolescence, the researchers agreed that the boys tend to be more independent from the opinions of significant others, while girls are more prone to conformism (Gordon, 1962). Adolescents spend an increasing amount of time alone or with their friends at the expense of time spent with their parents (Larson & Richards 1991). They are highly influenced by their peers in middle adolescence, but not during earlier or later adolescence (Brown & Lohr, 1987). According to researchers, the personal experience, gathered in the process of communication and interaction with peers in those years provides the context for personal identity formation (Yoniss & Smollar, 1985). Peer relationships contribute to personal perceptions of self-worth and sense of independence (Harter, 1990). However, the quality of these relationships is of particular importance, as strained relationships, quarrels and conflict negatively affect adolescent self-esteem (Fenzel, 1989). For adolescents, popularity among their peers is an important predictor of their selfesteem. Popular adolescents have close friendships. They are friendly, with a good sense of humor and intelligent. In contrast, rejected adolescents are often aggressive, irritable, closed, anxious and socially immature (Pope & Bierman, 1999). They are prone to loneliness, have low self-esteem, and usually suffer from depression (Rubin et al., 1995). 2. Age and Self-esteem Adolescence did not contribute much for the clarification of the dilemma between sustainable/vulnerable self-esteem. Data from different studies do not give a definite answer. Based on a literature review, Wylie argues that most studies do not find a significant age effect on measured average values of self-concept between the ages of 8 and 23 years old (Wylei, 1974). Data from the standardized Piers and Harris Self-esteem questionnaire, based on a sample of 1183 students from 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 grades, do not show significant differences in levels of self-esteem, determined by age. These conclusions are supported by other researchers who note that general self-esteem is stable during adolescence and increases slowly after this life-span period (Harter, 1998). However, for other authors, adolescent self-esteem passes through a

metamorphosis. A longitudinal study of adolescent self-esteem indicates a decrease of 4

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

self-esteem at 11, relatively low self-esteem between 12 and 13 years (due to transfer to secondary school and the onset of puberty) and then systematic increase and improvement of self-esteem till the end of high school ( McCarthy, Hoge, 1982). In another study with a relatively larger sample of 1380 adolescents, self-esteem increased between 11 and 13 years, decreased significantly at 14, then decreased sharply again between 16 and 17 years, after those years rising again (Jegede, 1982). As a whole, based on the cited investigations, we cannot strictly speak of a tendency for decreasing or increasing adolescent self-esteem with respect to their age. However, it is noted that in the longitudinal study cited above that younger adolescents who, along with the traditional approach for that age period of independence and autonomy from adults are still dipping into the present;. They are still fixed on their bodily self-esteem, presence or absence of friends, and relationships with those friends. The external appearance of their personal qualities is commonly characterized by a relatively low self-esteem. With increasing age, more existential, subjective and abstract categories appeared, driven by the awareness of the value of personality and the activity of the self-image (Byrne, 1996). This seems to systematically reflect the increase and improvement of adolescent self-esteem. In other words, the shift of the focus of awareness from the adolescents external, physical possessions and attributes to their inner, psychological qualities, strengths and weaknesses and their awakening of being an individual person, determines the improvement of their self-esteem.

3. Socio-economic status and Self-esteem In Bulgaria, there are many ethnic groups that can be identified by certain cultural and socio-economic characteristics. For example, the clearly negative image of Roma, as well as highly expressed prejudices against this minority group has created a markedly negative stereotype of Bulgarians towards the Roma population. The sociological surveys from 1992 till today show, that they are the ethnic group with the highest negativism in the minds of the Bulgarians (Tomova, 1991). That fact indeed is interesting and attracts the attention of some Bulgarian researchers. Intrigued by the ethno-cultural belongingness and identity that are a painful dominant in the relationship between adolescents in Bulgarian schools. Ivan Dimitrov examined 1016 high school students, aged between 14 and 18 years, of which there were 5

648 Bulgarians, 263 Turks and 71 Roma. Contrary to popular attitudes and prejudices, this study found that students from the Turkish and Roma minorities not only have a less favorable position in Bulgarian schools, but are more emotionally engaged and satisfied with their Bulgarian counterparts in terms of the learning process in school (Dimitrov, 1996). During adolescence, in terms of levels of general self-esteem, the negative attitude towards ethnic groups of lower socio-economic status is confirmed. In a study with adolescents from five different ethnic groups in our country it was found that Roma and Turks are characterized with lower self-esteem than Armenians, Jews and Bulgarians (Papazova, 2003). Influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on adolescent affective balance 1. Gender and affective balance Girls are guided by different processes of socialization from a very young age. By the early years of adolescence, they are already faced with the societal value conflicts that value independence, typically among men. Female role models are considered as either contrary to the traditional male orientation or an attempt to find yourself, playing by mens rules. In a study, concerning the self-concept of 613 adolescents in Libya (Ayyash-Abdo, 2003, cited by Ayyash-Abdo & Alamuddin, 2007) it was found that more boys than girls reported a positive sense of subjective well-being. Girls also reported more negative emotions such as feelings of tension, resentment and anxiety than boys. These findings have reflected on the affective aspects of subjective well-being. A study of 689 adolescents from Libya (Ayyash-Abdo & Alamuddin, 2007) showed a significant gender difference in affective balance. The average affective balance among the boys was higher than that of girls. It was also found that boys experienced a more positive affects than girls. The hypothesis that girls should demonstrate a higher level of negative affect than boys was not confirmed. Results also showed that self-esteem is a significant predictor of subjective well-being. The researchers also reported inconsistent results in terms of gender and positive affect, especially among men (Diener & Suh, 2000). This influence appears to vary in different studies, except in a relatively consistent finding that women have higher negative affect than men. This result was not confirmed in a study of a sample of Bulgarian adolescents (Baychinska et al., 2009). 6

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

2. Age and affective balance Subjective well-being (SWB) is a basic personality characteristic that applies to all age stages. Investigations on its affective component have revealed that intensity of emotions decreases over time. This applies to both pleasant and unpleasant affects (Diener et al., 1985). According to another investigation, intensity of positive emotions declines by age, but not negative affects. This can be explained by adaptation to certain situations and objectives in personal dynamics and goals (Diener et al., 1999).

In an educational context, emotional vulnerability of adolescents has increased to twelfth grade, and internal courage and self-confidence has decreased. A study of 323 subjects shows that there is a greater decrease in negative affect than the positive. Some researchers even argue that quarrels and the best life events are even more important determinants of emotions and symptoms than major life crises (Coyne, Kanner, Hulley, 1979). A survey of 60,000 subjects from 40 countries revealed that the intensity of positive affect decreased with age, whereas there was a slight increase in life satisfaction for the 20 to 80 year olds, or satisfaction with life increased and decreased in level of intensity of pleasant emotional experiences (Diener et al., 1999).

3. Socio-economic status and affective balance There is a substantial discussion on subjective well-being (SWB) and the level of interconnectedness between income and subjective well- being (SWB) in the psychological literature (Diener et al., 2003). Some researchers have found a moderate correlation between SWB and socio-economic status (Diener, Suh, et al., 1995); however, others reported that the correlation is weak (Inglehart, 1990). Others do not find any dependencies (Myers, 2000). High income, individualism, human rights and equality in society strongly correlate with SWB (Diener, Diener, et al., 1995). Individualist cultures generally possess a higher level of SWB than collectivist cultures. In individualist cultures, personality is a stronger predictor of life satisfaction than in collectivist ones (Suh et al., 1998). Behavior in individualist cultures is a function of personality dispositions and emotions. In these countries the emphasis is on hedonism, while in the collectivist countries it is expected that

the individual subordinates their individual feelings and wishes to those of the group. Autonomy is the core value in individualist cultures, in collectivist, cooperation. In research involving 65 countries, Bulgaria occupied 59th position in happiness. More than half of the studied subjects in Bulgaria (57%) defined themselves as happy (Inglehart & Klingemann, 2000). The national characteristics income, social equality, political freedom, free access to educational system - cover 77% of the variation of happiness (Veenhoven, 1992). The individualistic, rich and democratic countries are characterized by a higher subjective well-being of their citizens (Diener & Suh, 2000). In Bulgaria, subjective well-being and its cognitive and affective components are very low. An explanation can be found in low income. However, this explanation is not entirely satisfactory because there are countries with lower income, but their people are more happy and satisfied with their lives. There are 16 countries with lower income than in Bulgaria where subjective well-being is higher. For example, in Nigeria (the lowest income in the 65 countries studied), subjective well-being is significantly higher than in Bulgaria (76% against 45% respectively). In the context of contemporary Bulgarian culture, and contrary to the popular belief that simplicity does not provide happiness, it just masks the misery and misfortune, and the painful lack of meaning in life. Clinging to the chalga culture is the last and dying attempt of the patriarchal environment to escape and hide in history and deny its presupposed end. The psychological function of the chalga culture is to change reality into illusion, to cancel the perspective of time and its imperatives. It is eternal for the here and now, a present without a future. Sedated and agitated by the chalga adolescents know this and tries to forget it through new and larger doses of chalga. Thats why they are so unhappy. The above theoretical and empirical analysis has brought into the word the idea to trace out and analyze the influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on genderrole attitudes, Self-esteem and affective balance in adolescence. Objective: To trace out and analyze the influence of gender, age and socioeconomic status on gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance during adolescence. Aims: 8

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

- To specify gender, age and socio-economic differences in gender-role attitudes of the studied adolescents - To determine gender, age and socio-economic differences in adolescent selfesteem - To analyze gender, age and socio-economic differences in adolescent affective balance Hypothesis: 1. The independent factors gender, age and socio-economic status will affect gender-role attitudes of adolescents, such as: 1.1 Girls will stick to more liberal masculine androgynous gender-role attitudes than boys (Katz & Ksansnak, 1994; McHale et al., 1999; Papazova, in press). 1.2 Liberal masculine and androgynous gender-role attitudes are expected to increase during earlyadolescence, but not in middle and late adolescence (Corder & Stephan, 1984; Papazova, in press). 1.3 Adolescents from the Roma ethnic group will be distinguished by more traditional feminine gender-role attitudes than adolescents from Belovo and Sofia. 2. Gender, age and socio-economic status will affect the adolescents' Self-esteem, such as: 2.1 Girls will be characterized by lower aelf-esteem than boys (Quatman & Watson, 2001; Papazova, 2003). 2.2 Adolescent self-esteem will be lower in early adolescence, but in middle and late adolescence, there will be an increase (McCarthy, Hoge, 1982). 2.3 As a whole, adolescents from the Roma ethnic group will have lower selfesteem than adolescents from Belovo and Sofia, but in terms of the learning environment their Self-esteem will be higher than that of their peers (Dimitrov, 1996; Papazova , 2003). 3. The gender, age and socio-economic status of adolescents will influence their affective balance, such as: 3.1 Boys will differ by higher affective balance and higher positive affect than girls (Ayyash-Abdo & Alamuddin, 2007). 3.2 With increasing age, adolescents positive affects will be reduced in intensity, but not negative affects (Diener et al., 1999). 3.3 Adolescents from Belovo and Sofia will be difentiated by a higher affective 9

balance from their peers from the Roma ethnic group (Diener, Diener, et al., 1995).

Method: The questionnaires used are as follows: The Personal Attitudes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1974, 1975); the Coopersmith Self- esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967), the Affect Scales: Positive Affect, Negative Affect, Affect Balance (Bradburn, 1969). All three questionnaires have been adapted for Bulgarian conditions by E. Papazova. Sample: The sample consists of 257 adolescent subjects. They were 117 students from "Ivan Vazov" 31st High School, based in Sofia; 108 students from Al. Chapay" High School , based in Belovo; 32 adolescents from the Roma ethnic group from the Day Centre 16 +, based in Sofia. 94 (36.6%) are boys and 163 (63.4%) are girls. The age of the studied adolescents ranged from 13 to 20 years and their average age is 16.49 years. Results: The statistical analysis of the data has shown a satisfactory to very good internal consistency of the three scales. Table 1 presents the Cronbach alpha coefficients of the three scales and their subscales, respectively for the measurement of affects (ABS), measurement of self-esteem (SEI), and measurement of the gender-role attitudes (PAQ). Table 1. Reliability of the scales
Scales BS Whole scale Subscale Positive affect Subscale Negative affect SEI Scale Positive Self-esteem Scale Negative Self-esteem PAQ Whole scale Subscale Masculinity Subscale Femininity Subscale Androgynity Reliability Alpha Cronbach .60 .51 .51 Alpha Cronbach .86 .85 AlphaCronbach .73 .54 .68 .53

As shown on Table 1, subscale reliability is satisfactory for positive and negative affect and for masculinity and femininity. Observed results can be explained by the fact that the adolescents in the sample defined and expressed with difficulty their attitudes and

10

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

affective states in the subscales of masculinity and androgyny and positive and negative affect. Table 2 presents the results of the ANOVA analysis of variance, reflecting the influence of the independent factors gender, age and socio-economic status on the gender-role attitudes of adolescents. In bold are the significant Fischer coefficients.

Table 2. Influence of the independent factors gender, age and socio-economic status on gender-role attitudes (ANOVA)
Boys Mean 19,05 19,58 15,06 13-14 y.o. Mean 17,35 19,21 14,64 Sofia Mean 20,14 22,35 17,64 Girls Mean 19,99 22,56 18,69 15-16 y.o. Mean 19,68 21,08 17,2 Belovo Mean 19,3 20,55 16,65

Gender Masculinity Femininity ndroginy Age asculinity Femininity ndroginy Socio-economic status asculinity Femininity Androginy

F 2,679 27,081 44,225 F 3,188 4,206 4,636 F 1,392 4,368 3,044

p 0,103 0 0 p 0,024 0,006 0,004 p 0,25 0,014 0,049

17-18 y.o. Mean 20,22 22,42 17,98 Center 16+ Mean 19 21,34 18,75

19-20 y.o. Mean 19,47 21,14 18,42

Table 2 shows that the girls are significantly more masculine, more feminine and thus more androgynous than the boys. With this our first sub-hypothesis of the 1st hypothesis is partly confirmed. The girls are characterized by more liberal (masculine and androgynous) gender-role attitudes than the boys, but at the same time they stick to more traditional (feminine) gender-role attitudes. In other words, it can be assumed that liberal and traditional gender-role attitudes are equally significant for the girls during the investigated age period. The second sub-hypothesis is completely rejected. Table 2 shows that masculine and androgynous (or liberal) gender-role orientation has significantly increased during the whole age period, and not during the early adolescence. The observed tendency is analogous for the traditional (feminine) gender-role orientation, as in the late adolescence there is a decline in its significance for the adolescents. This result corresponds with the results from the other studies (Corder & Stephan, 1984). The third sub-hypothesis is also rejected completely. The Roma adolescents from the Day Centre 16 +, characterized with the lowest socio-economic status in the sample 11

did not differ from the highest traditional (feminine) gender-role orientation (see Table 2). However, they are the most androgynous (or liberal) gender-role oriented. The most feminine (traditional) gender-role attitudes appear to be the adolescents from Sofia, followed by the adolescents from Belovo. With regard to masculine gender-role orientation, significant differences between the adolescent groups are not observed. Table 3 represents the results of ANOVA analysis of variance, that reflect the influence of the independent factors gender, age and socio-economic status on adolescents Self-esteem in the studied sample. As shown on Table 3, the girls in the studied sample are not characterized by a lower self-esteem than the boys, and so our first sub-hypothesis of hypothesis 2 is rejected completely. Surprisingly, they are characterized with higher self-esteem regarding peers than the boys. It can be assumed that, in contrast to the boys, popularity of the girls among their peers is an important predictor of their self-esteem (Wentzel & Erdley, 1993). The second sub-hypothesis of Hypothesis 2 is also rejected entirely. The adolescents in the sample are characterized by the highest self-esteem in late adolescence, not in early adolescence. They are identified with lower self-esteem in middle adolescence (15-16 years old), rather than in early adolescence. Regarding age, similar trends in adolescent self-esteem are found in other studies of adolescents (Jegede, 1982).

However, adolescents during early adolescence differ with the highest self-esteem in the context of school, in contrast to adolescents during middle and late adolescence. It seems that school success for younger adolescents is essential for their self-confidence, unlike their older peers.

Table 3. Influence of the independent factors gender, age and socio-economic status on self-esteem (ANOVA)

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Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.
Gender High Self-esteem Low Self-esteem Self-esteem - individual interests Self-esteem - parents Self-esteem - peers Self-esteem - school Age High Self-esteem Low Self-esteem Self-esteem - individual interests Self-esteem - parents Self-esteem - peers Self-esteem - school Socio-economic status High Self-esteem Low Self-esteem Self-esteem - individual interests Self-esteem - parents Self-esteem - peers Self-esteem - school F 0,067 0,065 1,359 0,47 27,236 0,076 F 3,956 3,947 0,865 2,422 2,228 6,911 F 0,343 0,372 3,996 0,149 0,153 9,091 p 0,796 0,799 0,245 0,494 0 0,783 p 0,009 0,009 0,46 0,066 0,085 0 p 0,71 0,69 0,02 0,861 0,858 0 Boys Girls Mean Mean 35,06 34,77 22,94 23,23 13,06 13,61 7,37 7,65 5,27 3,73 4,35 4,41 13-14 y.o. 15-16 y.o. 17-18 y.o. 19-20 y.o. Mean Mean Mean Mean 35,92 33,49 34,75 40,42 22,1 24,48 23,27 17,57 13,5 13,28 13,27 14,61 8,32 7,09 7,5 8,8 4,1 4,25 4,15 5,57 4,64 3,85 4,54 3,33 Sofia Belovo Center 16+ Mean Mean Mean 35,26 34,35 35,25 22,72 23,67 22,75 14,03 13,1 12,18 7,52 7,64 7,31 4,38 4,25 4,15 4,06 4,38 5,59

The third sub-hypothesis of hypothesis 2 is partially confirmed. Adolescents from the Roma ethnic group are distinguished by the highest self-esteem regarding school, but in terms of general self-esteem do not differ significantly from the other adolescents in the sample with lower self-esteem. In other words, belongingness and academic success in a particular school environment are essential factors for Roma adolescents self-esteem. By contrast, the adolescents from Sofia are characterized with the highest self-esteem regarding individual interests. Putting the focus on internal qualities and attributes

possesses on behalf of external possessions and attributes is more essential for selfesteem of adolescents from Sofia, than for their peers from Belovo and the Day Centre 16 +.

Table 4 presents the results of the ANOVA analysis of variance that reflect the influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on the affective balance of adolescents in the sample.

Table 4. Influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on affective balance (ANOVA)

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Gender Positive affect Negative ffect Affective balance Age Positive affect Negative ffect Affective balance Socio-economic status Positive affect Negative ffect Affective balance

F 0,264 6,46 6,678 F 2,83 4,259 6,123 F 1,964 5,424 0,814

p 0,608 0,012 0,01 p 0,039 0,006 0 p 0,142 0,005 0,444

Boys Mean 3,28 3,53 4,75 13-14 y.o. Mean 3,46 4,03 4,42 Sofia Mean 3,31 3,12 5,18

Girls Mean 3,37 3,08 5,28 15-16 y.o. Mean 3,23 3,16 5,06 Belovo Mean 3,48 3,53 4,94

17-18 y.o. Mean 3,26 3,21 5,05 Center 16+ Mean 2,96 2,71 5,25

19-20 y.o. Mean 4,09 2,76 6,33

As shown on Table 4, our first sub-hypothesis of hypothesis 3 is completely rejected. The boys are not characterized by a higher affective balance and positive affect than the girls. Contrary to expectations, the girls are distinguished by a significantly higher affective balance and a lower negative affect than the boys. The second sub-hypothesis of hypothesis 3 is also entirely rejected. With increasing age, the negative affects of adolescents have significantly decreased and do not increase, while significant age differences are not observed regarding positive affect. In regard to affective balance (or the dominance of negative over positive affects) a significant trend in age is observed. Affective balance increases significantly as adolescents get older. In turn, the third sub-hypothesis of hypothesis 3 is also entirely rejected. There are no statistically significant differences the adolescents affective balance and socioeconomic status. Surprisingly, the adolescents from Belovo are characterized by a higher negative affect than their peers from Sofia and Day Center 16 +. They are characterized by the lowest levels of experienced pleasant emotions compared with the other adolescents in the sample.

Discussion and conclusion: This investigation has traced out and analyzed the impact of the factors of gender, age and socio-economic status on gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance in adolescence. The obtained results gave reason to argue that: 14

Papazova, E. (2010). Determinants of gender-role attitudes, self-esteem and affective balance at adolescence. Psychological Investigations, 2, 101-106.

The girls are significantly more masculine, more feminine and more androgynous than the boys in the sample. This result leads to the conclusion that liberal and traditional gender-role attitudes are equally important for girls during the surveyed age period. Masculine and androgynous gender-role attitudes have significantly increased during the whole studied age period. The feminine gender-role orientation has also increased during early and middle adolescence, but in late adolescence there is a decrease in its importance. Adolescents from the Roma ethnic group are the most androgynous (or liberal) gender-role oriented, combining the advantages of both sexes by a balance between positive male and female traits. The most feminine (or traditional) gender-role oriented adolescents are from Sofia, thus they most strongly adhere to the existing social norms in our country. The girls are characterized by a higher self-esteem regarding peers than the boys. It can be assumed that popularity of the girls among their peers is an essential factor for their self-esteem during this age period, as opposed to the boys (Wentzel & Erdley, 1993). Adolescents in the studied sample are characterized by highest self-esteem in late adolescence and with lowest self-esteem in middle adolescence (15-16 on) (Jegede,1982). Boys in late adolescence are more likely to be characterized by subjective and abstract categories in the core of their evaluations than with higher levels of selfesteem. Adolescents from the Roma ethnic group are distinguished by the highest selfesteem regarding school. Academic success and belonging to the school environment are essential factors for their self-esteem. The adolescents from Sofia are characterized by the highest self-esteem regarding individual interests. They focus on their internal individual qualities on behalf of external and attributive possessions that are probably more essential for their self-esteem. The girls are characterized with a significantly higher affective balance and lower negative affect than the boys. It can be assumed that the girls in the sample are happier than the boys, because their happiness concerns the presence of positive affective balance in terms of the dominance of negative affects. Adolescent negative affects significantly decrease with increasing age, and affective balance also significantly increases. Therefore, the older the adolescents, the 15

more positive emotions prevail over the negative emotions . Thats why they like their way of life. The adolescents from Belovo are characterized by the highest negative affect from their peers or they have the lowest levels of positive emotions than the other adolescents in the sample. It seems that from the subjective perspective they are not very satisfied with their current way of life.

Individual and normative differences in adolescents self-esteem, gender-role attitudes and affective balance are the result of different determinants specific to this age period. This research has traced out the influence of the factors of gender, age and socioeconomic status on personal adjustment during this developmental period of the life cycle. Against inconsistent results from other studies (Jegede, 1982; Wentzel & Erdley, 1993; Myers, 2000; Diener & Suh, 2000), this study could be considered as a attempt for establish a more consistent understanding of individual differences during adolescence.

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