Ijest NG Vol2 No1 Complete Issue

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International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology
Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010
International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST)

Aims and scope
IJEST is an international refereed journal published by MultiCraft. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of engineering, science and technology. Original theoretical work and application-based studies, which contributes to a better understanding of engineering, science and technological challenges, are encouraged.
Journal policy
International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST) publishes articles that emphasize research, development and application within the fields of engineering, science and technology. All manuscripts are pre-reviewed by the editor, and if appropriate, sent for blind peer review. Contributions must be original, not previously or simultaneously published elsewhere, and are critically reviewed before they are published. Papers, which must be written in English, should have sound grammar and proper terminologies.
Call for papers

We invite you to submit high quality papers for review and possible publication in all areas of engineering, science and technology. All authors must agree on the content of the manuscript and its submission for publication in this journal before it is submitted to us. Manuscripts should be submitted by e-mail to the Editor at: sa_oke@yahoo.com
Call for Reviewers

Scholars interested in serving as volunteer reviewers should indicate interest by sending their full curriculum vitae to us. Reviewers determine submissions that are of quality. Since they are expected to be experts in their areas, they should comment on the significance of the reviewed manuscript and whether the research contributes to knowledge and advances both theory and practice in the area.

Editor: S.A. Oke, PhD, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Nigeria E-mail : sa_oke@yahoo.com Associate Editor (Electrical Engineering): S.N. Singh, PhD, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur-208016, India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Kyoji Kamemoto (Japan) M. Abdus Sobhan (Bangladesh) Sri Niwas Singh (India) Shashank Thakre (India) Jun Wu (USA) Jian Lu (USA) Raphael Jingura (Zimbabwe) V. Sivasubramanian (India) Shaw Voon Wong (Malaysia) S. Karthikeyan (Sultanate of Oman) Alistair Thompson McIlhagger (UK) K.I. Ramachandran (India) Jian Ma (USA) P.K. Tripathy (India) Alan Rennie (UK) J. Paulo Davim (Portugal) MKS Sastry (West Indies) Rajneesh Talwar (India) A. Moreno-Muoz (Spain) Prabin K Panigrahi (India) Amir Nassirharand (Malaysia) N. W. Ingole (India) Fatih Camci (Turkey) Milorad Bojic (Serbia) Asim Kumar Pal (India) Prasanta Sahoo (India) Vidosav D. Majstorovich (Serbia) K. Somasundaram (India) Shashi Anand (India) Ian Blenkharn (UK) Vinay Gupta (India) Mohammed Al-Nawafleh (Jordan) Bhu Dev Sharm (India) Tien-Fu Liang (Taiwan) Ranjit Kumar Biswas (Bangladesh) Siba Sankar Mahapatra (India) Sangeeta Sahney (India) Kuang-Yuan Kung (Taiwan) Eleonora Bottani (Italy) Evangelos J. Sapountzakis (Greece) Petr Konas (Czech Republic) Angelo Basile (Italy) Syed Asif Raza (Qatar) Atif Iqbal (India) Kampan Mukherjee (India) P.K. Kapur (India) Haitao Huang (Hong Kong) P. Thangavelu (India) Yechun Wang (USA) Abdul Ravoof Shaik (Australia) A.M. Rawani (India) Saurabh Mukherjee (India) P. Dhavachelvan (India) A. Bandyopadhyay (India) Velusamy. Sivasubramanian (India) S. Vinodh (India) Vctor Hugo Hinojosa Mateus (Chile)

REVIEWERS The following reviewers have greatly helped us in reviewing our manuscripts and have brought such submissions to high quality levels. We are indebted to them. Marcus Bengtsson (Sweden) Kit Fai Pun (West Indies) Peter Koh (Australia) Erhan Kutanoglu (USA) Jayant Kumar Singh (India) Maneesh Singh (Norway) RRK Sharma (India) Jamil Abdo (Oman) Agnes S. Budu (Ghana) Yuan-Ching Lin (Taiwan) Marisa Viera (Argentina) Shiguo Jia (China) S. Devasenapati Babu (India) Rajeeb Dey (India) Subrata Kumar Ghosh (India) Timothy Payne (Australia) Diwakar Tiwari (India) Mustafa Soylak (Turkey) Jerzy Merkisz (Poland) Md Fahim Ansari (India) Andrea Gerson (Australia) Ingrid Bouwer Utne (Norway) Maruf Hossain (Bangladesh) Enso Ikonen (Finland) Kwai-Sang Chin (Hong Kong) Jiunn I Shieh (Taiwan) Hung-Yan Gu (Taiwan) Pengwei (David) Du (US) Min-Shiang Hwang (Taiwan) Ekata Mehul (India) Barbara Bigliardi (Italy) Huiling Wu (China) Ahmet N. Eraslan (Turkey) Francisco Jesus Fernandez Morales (Spain) Withaya Puangsombut (Thailand) Abd Rahim Abu Bakar (Malaysia) Fakher Chaari (Tunisia) Ghosh Surojit (India) Umut Topal (Turkey) Maloy Singha (India) Parviz Malekzadeh (Iran) G. Possart (Germany) Masoud Rashidinejad (India) Vera Meshko (Republic of Macedonia) Jiun-Hung Lin (Taiwan) Tzong-Ru Lee (Taiwan) Subir Kumar Sarkar (India) Kee-hung Lai (Hong Kong) Jochen Smuda (Switzerland) Roland Hischier (China) Ahmed Abu-Siada (Australia) Hamzah Abdul Rahman (Jordan) Chih-Huang Weng (Taiwan) Yenming Chen (Taiwan) Shashidhar Kudari (India) Khim Ling Sim (USA) Rong-Jyue Fang (Taiwan) Chandan Guria (India) Rafael Prikladnicki (Brazil) Juraj Kralik (Slovak) Indika Perera (Sri Lanka) R K Srivastava (India) Ramakrishnan Ramanathan (UK) Suresh Premil Kumar (India) Ryoichi Chiba (Japan) P.K.Dutta (India) Kimon Antonopoulos (Greece) Jun Luo (China) Uday Kumar (Sweden) Tamer Samir Mahmoud (Egypt) Arijit Bhattacharya (Ireland) M.R. Sharma (India) Hyung Hee Cho (Korea) Souwalak Phongpaichit (Thailand) Elsa Rueda (Argentina) Ming-Kuang Wang (Taiwan) Ruey-Shin Juang (Taiwan) Dinesh Verma (USA) Devanandham Henry (USA) M. Habibnejad Korayem (Iran) Radu Radescu (Romania) Hsin-Hung Wu (Taiwan) Amy Trappey (Taiwan) A.B. Stevels (Netherlands) Liang-Hsuan Chen (Taiwan) Richard Hischier (Switzerland) Shyi-Chyi Cheng (Taiwan) Fernando Casanova Garca (Colombia) J. Ashayeri (The Netherlands) Siddhartha Kumar Khaitan (USA) Jim Austin (UK) Rafael Prikladnicki (Brazil) V. Balakrishnan (India) P. Dhasarathan (India) R. Venckatesh (India) Sarmila Sahoo (India) Avi Rasooly (USA) Josefa Mula (Spain) Amiya Ku.Rath (India) Fabio Leao (Brazil)
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International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. i-ii
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY www.ijest-ng.com 2010 MultiCraft Limited. All rights reserved
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Research that fails to demonstrate adherence to these standards will be immediately rejected. Other ethical considerations apply. Researchers must remain aware of the inevitable shortage of research funding and have an obligation to use those funds wisely, considering also those who may invest in future research projects that rely heavily on your results. Unethical research behaviour sufficiently serious to warrant disciplinary action or sanctions from academic institutions and journals regrettably still occurs. Editors and publishers must do everything possible to identify and eradicate this the Committee of Publication Ethics (COPE) states that Editors [together with the editorial panel and referees] have a prime duty to maintain the integrity of the scientific record and do their utmost to identify publication misconduct in submitted and published articles.ii The highest standards of probity are required also of the journal Editor and Referees, and of the Publisher. Though the traditional model of research publication has not involved charges to authors, but has instead relied upon library and personal subscriptions to print journals, the internet has permitted the rapid growth of a newer open publishing model that enables free access for all while charges are borne by the authors. Both publishing models can be successful, though very recently it has become apparent that there may be commercial pressures from open access publishers to accept poor quality submissions in order to secure revenue.iii There is, therefore, a parallel ethical commitment for the Editor and Editorial Board, and the Publisher, to avoid this situation and consider every submission on merit alone. This may create difficulties for Publishers but money must never be placed before quality - a successful journal will flourish because of the quality of its content, which reflects the activities and standards of the Editor and Editorial Board, and of the Referees. When all the results are in, researchers will be keen to prepare a draft manuscript with a view to publication. Without doubt, that draft will be the first of many. Consult with colleagues; perhaps test the presentation and your interpretation of the data at a local meeting, or consider the submission of an abstract to a suitable conference. Check carefully that the manuscript conforms closely to the style requirements of your chosen journal, paying particular attention to the accuracy of all references. The use of units of measurement, abbreviation and the layout and structure of the manuscript must conform precisely to the journal requirements; errors at this stage may result in immediate rejection, no matter how good the research might have been. Assistance may be required in grammar and spelling. Authorship is an often contentious issue. Have all authors made a significant contribution to the work? Overall, about one fifth of authors with their names on top of a published paper have made little or no contribution, which junior researchers who have done much of the work may be excluded from authorship. Once a manuscript is submitted, journal editors face many challenges. Does the subject match the journal? The aim and scope of the International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST) is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of engineering, science and technology. Original theoretical work and application-based studies, which contributes to a better understanding of engineering, science and technological challenges, are encouraged. It is entirely appropriate therefore that the Editor, Editorial Panel, Referees and Publisher measure against this standard. Is this original and high quality research? Does it offer new information, or merely repeats existing observations? More fundamental questions must also be addressed. Does the
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Blenkharn ./ International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. i-ii
work meet all mandatory ethical standards? Is there evidence of plagiarism, or of duplicate publication? If all appears well, Editors will invite two or more independent Referees to examine the manuscript. Referees will be senior scientists with experience in the area of study. They should be detached from the study and host institution, and must declare immediately any conflict of interest. To ensure properly blind peer review, Referees will be unaware of the identity of the author(s) and their host institution as that information will be stripped from the manuscript before distribution. The role of the Referee is to provide specialist advice to the Editor, mainly regarding the quality of the research and standard of presentation of the manuscript. Referees or Peer Reviewers may offer specific advice regarding improvements in style, the use of tables and charts, and can suggest improvements or identify weaknesses that require additional work. 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For other manuscripts, more extensive work may be required and Referees should offer clear guidance and reasoning for their concerns, with an invitation to resubmit the manuscript within a few weeks or months depending on the nature of the revisions required. Be prepared for some difficult questions. Referees will search for incomplete or inconsistent data, may expect greater detail and additional clarification, or a shorter and more succinct presentation. The authors view of clarity will often differ from that of the Referee, who may demand further detail. What does ordinary mean, define regular, how normal is normal, what is usual, or average or typical? Data presented in Tables or Figures should not be repeated in the text. A particularly common error is a failure to address some earlier but highly relevant publications, especially where this is contradictory to the current findings, or to misquote references and take the findings of others out of their intended context. It is perfectly acceptable to express a different opinion or to move away from established theory, but to do so needs the backing of a meticulously presented hypothesis, sound reasoning and almost certainly a substantial body of rigorously conducted experimental evidence to support an alternate hypothesis. Do make certain that all experimental data is properly documented and retained for scrutiny, ever after publication of your manuscript. An important aspect of the publishing process is the essential declaration of conflicts of interest. Think carefully about this. Who funded or supported the work? Was there any input from commercial sponsors, and what links exist between the authors and those with a commercial interest in the study? At every stage, the Editor and Referees will be diligent to the possibility of research fraud. Plagiarism is unacceptable, and though the work of others can and probably will be cited in your own manuscript, this should be properly referenced. Simply copying the work of others is totally unacceptable and will inevitably result in an investigation that may involve the Editorial Board liaising with the senior officers of the authors host institution or professional body. Duplicate publication is similarly unacceptable, though regrettably this still occurs as authors play the numbers game to increase the number of publications and expand their Curriculum vitae. This distorts or skews the literature and misleads fellow researchers. Research fraud is a serious matter, and even if it escapes detection during the rigorous refereeing process wider scrutiny by the Journal readers may identify issues not previously apparent, leading to investigation and a formal retraction even years later. Despite all of these very many hurdles, some proportion of submitted manuscripts will be ready for publication. Take care with the final preparation of typescripts and check proofs with the greatest care. This is the last change to correct any errors or inaccuracies. Only then is it time to sit back with pride at your success in overcoming all of the very many hurdles that must be faced when considering scientific publication. But self-congratulation cannot last for long as the next research project may already be in progress and we at the International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST) will look forward to your next submission. J Ian Blenkharn Consultant Healthcare and Environmental Microbiologist Blenkharn Environmental, London
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World Medical Association. Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. http://www.wma.net/e/policy/b3.htm (accessed 19 July 2009) Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). COPE code of conduct. http://publicationethics.org/code-conduct (accessed 19 July 2009) Grant B. OA publisher accepts fake paper. http://www.the-scientist.com/blog/display/55756/ (accessed 19 July 2009)
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Editorial
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Authors
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J. Ian Blenkharn Generalised simulation and experimental implementation of space vector PWM technique of a three-phase voltage source inverter Atif Iqbal, Sk Moin Ahmed, Mohammad Arif Khan, Haitham Abu-Rub Bioeconomic modelling of a prey predator system using differential algebraic equations T. K. Kar and Kunal Chakraborty Improvement in quality testing of Braille printer output with Euclidean distance measurement using camera calibration Suman Karmakar, Rudra Prasad Chatterjee and Uma Dutta Defining the change of meshing rigidity caused by a crack in the gear tooths foot P. Czech1, P. Folga1, G. Wojnar Integrating genetic algorithms and tabu search for unit commitment problem M. Sudhakaran, P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj The physical meaning of a nonlinear evolution equation of the fourth order A. Huber Flow field development in a direct injection diesel engine with different manifolds Benny Paul, V. Ganesan Optimization of CNC end milling process parameters using PCA-based Taguchi method Sanjit Moshat, Saurav Datta, Asish Bandyopadhyay and Pradip Kumar Pal Comparative evaluation of modified pulse width modulation schemes of Z-source inverter for various applications and demands S. Thangaprakash, A. Krishnan Effects of irregularity and anisotropy on the propagation of shear waves A. Chattopadhyay, S. Gupta, V. K. Sharma and Pato Kumari The inverse strong non-split r-domination number of a graph B.K. Ameenal, R. Selvakumar Application of an organic halophytic manure on yield characteristics of Arachis hypogaea linn. Veluchamy Balakrishnan, Krishnamoorthy Venkatesan, Kolundu Sanjiviraja, Anbazhagan Indrajith and Konganapuram Chellappan Ravindran An enhanced genetic algorithm with simulated annealing for job-shop scheduling A. Tamilarasi and T. Anantha kumar Optimization of machining fixture layout for tolerance requirements under the influence of locating errors S. Vishnupriyan, M. C. Majumder, K. P. Ramachandran Artificial neural networks based predictive model for worker assignment into virtual cells R.V. Murali, A.B. Puri and G. Prabhakaran A numerical model for the design of a mixed flow cryogenic turbine Subrata Kr. Ghosh Extending the technological capability of turning operation Tareq A. Abu Shreehah Use of zinc oxide nano particles for production of antimicrobial textiles R. Rajendran, C. Balakumar, Hasabo A. Mohammed Ahammed, S. Jayakumar, K. Vaideki and E.M. Rajesh
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International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 1-12
Generalised simulation and experimental implementation of space vector PWM technique of a three-phase voltage source inverter
Atif Iqbal1*, Sk Moin Ahmed1, Mohammad Arif Khan2, Haitham Abu-Rub3
2
* Department of Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (UP), India Department of Electrical Engineering,Krishna Institute of Engg. & Tech., Ghaziabad, 201206, India 3 Electrical & Computer Engineering programme, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Doha, Qatar * Corresponding author (e-mail: atif_iqbal1@rediffmail.com)
Abstract Adjustable speed drive system requires variable voltage and frequency supply which is invariably obtained from a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI). A number of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) schemes are used to obtain variable voltage and frequency supply from an inverter. The most widely used PWM schemes for a three-phase VSI are carrier-based sinusoidal PWM and space vector PWM (SVPWM). There is an increasing trend of using space vector PWM (SVPWM) because of their easier digital realisation and better dc bus utilisation. However, a proper simulation model is still not available in the literature. Thus, this paper focuses on step by step development of MATLAB/SIMULINK model of SVPWM followed by their experimental implementation. Firstly model of a three-phase VSI is discussed based on space vector representation. Next a simple and flexible simulation model of SVPWM is developed using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The developed model is general in nature as it can be utilised to implement both continuous and discontinuous SVPWM. The novelty of the paper relies on the proposal of the flexible and general Matlab/Simulink model of SVPWM. Experimental and simulation results are provided to validate the proposed model. Keywords: Space vector, PWM, voltage source inverter, discontinuous PWM 1. Introduction Three-phase voltage source inverters are widely used in variable speed ac motor drives applications since they provide variable voltage and variable frequency output through pulse width modulation control. Continuous improvement in terms of cost and high switching frequency of power semiconductor devices and development of machine control algorithm leads to growing interest in more precise PWM techniques. Volume of work has been carried out in this direction and a review of popular techniques are presented in by Holtz (1992) and Holtz (1994). The most widely used PWM method is the carrier-based sine-triangle PWM method due to simple implementation in both analog and digital realization. However, the dc bus utilization in this method is low (0.5V dc ) . This has led to the investigation into other techniques with an objective of improvement in the dc bus utilization. It is found by Houdsworth and Grant (1984) that injection of zero sequence (third harmonic) extends the range of operation of modulator by 15.5%. The major problem associated with high power drive applications is high switching losses in inverters. To reduce switching losses a PWM technique termed as discontinuous PWM (DPWM) was developed by Depenbrock (1977) and Kolar et al. (1991). The proposed discontinuous PWM techniques were based on triangle-intersection-implementation, in which non sinusoidal modulating signal is compared with triangular carrier wave. A generalized discontinuous PWM algorithm was presented by Hava et al. (1998) which encompasses the techniques presented by Depenbrock (1977) and Kolar et al. (1991). However, the better visualization of the DPWM methods is obtained by using space vector theory. A generalized DPWM based on space vector theory is available in Grahame and Lipo (2000), Kazmierkowski et al. (2002), Dong (2005) and Hava (1998). The discontinuous PWM strategies is based on the principle of eliminating one of the zero voltage vectors, causing the active voltage
Iqbal et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 1-12
space vectors to join together in two successive half switching interval. The discontinuous PWM techniques have the advantage of eliminating one switching transition in each half switching period, consequently reducing the number of switching by one third. Alternatively, the switching frequency can be increased by 3/2 for the same inverter losses. Another PWM technique termed as Space vector PWM based on space vector theory was proposed by de Broeck et al. (1988) and Ogasawara et al. (1989) which offers superior performance compared to the carrier-based sine-triangle PWM technique in terms of higher dc bus utilization and better harmonic performance. Further this technique offers easier digital realisation. A comprehensive relationship between the carrier-based and SVPWM is illustrated by Holmes (1996) and it was realized that the placement of the active and zero space vectors in each half switching period is the only difference between the carrier-based scheme and SVPWM. With the advancement in the power semiconductor devices the switching frequency has increased many folds. For high switching frequency applications, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based space vector PWM technique is developed in Iqbal et al. (2006), Pinto et al. (2000), Kerkman et al. (1991), Haykin (2004), and Muthuramalingam and Himavathi (2007). The implementation of ANN based SVPWM is fast and offers higher bandwidth of control loop and reduced harmonics. The back propagation feed forward network is implemented for gate signal generation required for SVPWM This paper is devoted to the development of generalised simulation and experimental approach to implement space vector PWM strategies in continuous and discontinuous modes for three-phase VSIs. The presented simulation method is simple and flexible to incorporate different variant of SVPWM. A similar simulation model is presented by Iqbal et al. (2006), for realising continuous space vector PWM in linear region. However, no experimental results were presented to validate the simulation approach in contrast to this paper where both continuous and discontinuous SVPWM is presented in addition to their experimental verification. Thus, the major contribution of this paper is to present a generalised simple simulation model of the existing technique of SVPWM. At first space vector PWM in linear region is analyzed and a review of the existing DPWM techniques based on space vector approach is presented. The simulation model is developed using the most commonly used MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The reason for choice of MATLAB/SIMULINK as a development tool is because it is the most important and widely used simulation software and is an integral part of taught programmes in most of the universities in electrical/electronics/computer engineering courses. Codes have been developed but simulation and experimental results are provided for economy of space. The experimental and simulation results match very closely.
2. A review of three-phase VSI modelling The power circuit topology of a three-phase VSI is shown in Figure 1. Each switch (1, 2,3,4,5 & 6) in the inverter branch is composed of semiconductor devices connected with antiparallel diode. The semiconductor device is a controllable device and diode is for protection.
LOAD
T1 T3 T5
V DC A
B C
T2 T4 T6
Neutral (N)
Figure 1. Power circuit of a three-phase VSI Space vector representation of the three-phase inverter output voltages is introduced next. Space vector is defined as:
vs =
*
Where a = exp ( j 2 / 3) and a = exp( j 4 / 3) .

2
2 va + avb + a 2 vc 3
(1)
The space vector is a simultaneous representation of all the three-phase quantities. It is a complex variable and is function of time in contrast to the phasor. Phase-to-neutral voltages of a star-connected load are most easily found by defining a voltage difference between the star point n of the load and the negative rail of the dc bus N. The following correlation then holds true:
v A = va + vnN vB = vb + vnN vC = vc + vnN Indices with capital letters are inverter branch voltages and indices with small letters are phase to neutral voltages. vnN are called common-mode voltage or zero sequence voltages. Since the phase voltages in a star connected load sum to zero, summation of equation yields
vnN = (1/ 3)( v A + vB + vC )

Substitution of vA, vB & vC yields phase-to-neutral voltages of the load in the following form:
va = ( 2 / 3) v A (1/ 3)( vB + vC ) vb = ( 2 / 3) vB (1/ 3)( v A + vC ) vc = ( 2 / 3) vC (1/ 3)( vB + v A )
The discrete phase voltage space vector positions thus obtained are shown in Figure 2.
SECTOR 2 V3 ( 0 1 0 ) V2 ( 1 1 0 )
SECTOR 1 SECTOR 3
V4( 0 1 1 )
V0 ( 0 0 0) V7 ( 1 1 1)
V1 ( 1 0 0 )
SECTOR 6 SECTOR 4
V5 ( 0 0 1) SECTOR 5
V6 ( 1 0 1 )
Figure 2. Phase-to-neutral voltage space vectors The binary numbers on the Figure 2 indicate the switch state of inverter branch. Here, 1 implies upper switch being on and 0 refers to the lower switch of the branch being on. The most significant bit is for branch A, the least significant bit is related to branch C and the middle is for branch B.
3. Continuous space vector PWM

In mid 1980s Space vector pulse width modulation was proposed in Ogasawara et al. (1989) and Holmes (1996), which offer significant advantages over the existing natural and regular sampled sinusoidal PWM. The major advantages include its high performance in terms of better harmonic spectra, ease of implementation and enhanced dc bus utilisation. This section briefly discusses the space vector PWM principle. It is seen in the previous section that a three-phase VSI generates eight switching states which include six active and two zero states. These vectors form a hexagon (Figure 2) which can be seen as consisting of six sectors spanning 60 each. The reference vector which represents three-phase sinusoidal voltage is synthesised using SVPWM by switching between two nearest active vectors and zero vector. The time of application of active space voltage vectors (as in sector 1 of Figure 2) is found as
ta =
* vs sin ( / 3 )
va
* vs
sin ( 2 / 3) sin ( )
(2)
tb =
vb sin ( 2 / 3)
(3)
t0 = t s ta tb
where va = vb = ( 2 / 3)Vdc .vs* is the reference vector magnitude, is the angle or position of reference vector and ta, tb & t0 are time of applications of vector va, vector vb and zero vectors, respectively. In order to obtain fixed switching frequency and optimum harmonic performance from SVPWM, each branch should change its state only once in one switching period. This is achieved by applying zero state vector followed by two adjacent active state vectors in half switching period. The next half of the switching period is the mirror image of the first half. The total switching period is thus divided into 7 parts, the zero vector is applied for 1/4th of the total zero vector time first followed by the application of active vectors for half of their application times and then again zero vector is applied for 1/4th of the zero vector time. This is then repeated in the next half of the switching period. This is how symmetrical SVPWM is obtained. The branch voltages in one switching period are depicted in Figure 3 for sector I.
ts t0 / 4 ta / 2 Vdc 0 0 0 V8 V1 V2 V7 V2 V1 Vdc Vdc 0 0 0 V8 tb / 2 t0 / 2 tb / 2 ta / 2 t0 / 4
Figure 3. Branch voltages and space vector disposition for one switching period in sector I. The sinusoidal reference space vector form a circular trajectory inside the hexagon. The largest output voltage magnitude that can be achieved using SVPWM is the radius of the largest circle that can be inscribed within the hexagon. This circle is tangential to the mid points of the lines joining the ends of the active space vector. Thus the maximum obtainable fundamental output voltage is 2 1 * vs = Vdc cos ( / 6 ) = Vdc (4) 3 3
4. Discontinuous space vector PWM

The distinct feature of space vector PWM is the freedom of explicit pulse placement in half of the carrier cycle. By using this degree of freedom alternative space vector PWM strategy can be formulated in which the active vectors in two successive half switching period are moved to join together, and zero space vector consequently vanishes resulting in Discontinuous Space vector PWM (Houdsworth and Grant, 1984). Due to this manipulation one branch of the inverter remain unmodulated during one switching interval. Switching takes place in two branches and one branch is either tied to the positive dc bus or negative dc bus. The number of switching is thus reduced to 2/3 compared to the continuous SVPWM, hence, the switching losses are reduced significantly. Six different schemes are available depending on the variation in the placement of the zero space vectors. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. T0 = 0 (DPWMMAX) T7 = 0 (DPWMMIN) 00 Discontinuous modulation (DPWM 0) 300 Discontinuous modulation (DPWM 1) 600 Discontinuous modulation (DPWM 2 ) 900 Discontinuous modulation (DPWM 3)
5. Generalised Matlab/Simulink model of SVPWM

This section details the step by step development of a Matlab/Simulink (Pinto et al., 2000) based simulation model for implementing both continuous and discontinuous SVPWM. By slight modification in the Matlab function code different types of SVPWM can be realised. Thus the presented simulation mode is general in nature and can be configured very easily to simulate continuous and discontinuous SVPWM in linear modulation range. The simulation model is shown in Figure 4. Each block is further elaborated in Figure 5. Each sub-blocks of Figure 4 is described in the following sub-section. 5.1 Reference voltage generation block This block is used to simulate balanced three-phase input reference. Three-phase input sinusoidal voltage is generated using function block from Functions & Tables sub-library of Simulink. This is then converted into two-phase equivalent using Clarks transformation equations (Holtz, 1992). This is once again implemented using the function blocks. Further the two-phase equivalent is transformed to polar form using Cartesian to polar block from Simulink extras sub-library. The output of this block is the magnitude of the reference as the first output and the corresponding angle of the reference as the second output. The waveform of magnitude is simply a constant line as its value remains fixed. The waveform of angle is shown in Figure 6. It is a saw tooth signal with peak value of . Sector identification is done using the comparison of the angle waveform with the predefined values as shown in Figure 6. The number inside the waveform represents the sector number. 5.2 Switching time calculation The switching time and corresponding switch state for each power switch is calculated in Matlab function block . The Matlab code requires magnitude of the reference, the angle of the reference and timer signal for comparison. The angle of the reference voltage is kept constant for one sampling period using zero order hold block so that its value does not change during time calculation. Further, a ramp time signal is required to be generated to be used in Matlab code. The height and width of the ramp signal is equal to the switching time of inverter branch. This ramp is generated using repeating sequence from the source sublibrary. The Matlab code should firstly identify the sector of the reference voltage. The time of application of active and zero vectors are then need to be calculated. The times are required to be arranged according to the predefined switching pattern (Figure 3). This time needs to be compared with the ramp timer signal. The height and width of the ramp is equal to the switching period of the inverter branch. Depending upon the location of the time signal within the switching period, the switch state is defined. This switch state is then passed on to the inverter block for further calculation. 5.3 Three-phase inverter block This block is built to simulate a voltage source inverter assuming constant dc link voltage. The inputs to the inverter block are the switching signals and the outputs are the PWM phase-to-neutral voltages. The inverter model is built using function blocks. 5.4 Filter blocks To visualise the actual output of the inverter block, filtering of the PWM ripple is required. The PWM voltage signal is filtered here using first order filter. This is implemented using Transfer function block from Continuous sub-library. The time constant of the first-order filter is chosen as 0.8ms. This value is chosen to ensure the cut-off frequency of the low-pass equal to 1250 Hz. So the designed filter will effectively remove the ripple of higher than 1.25 kHz. The value of the filter time constant can be changed if the desired cut-off frequency is different. 5.5 Voltage acquisition This block stores the output results. The results are stored in workspace taken from the sink library of the simulink. The filtered phase voltages are stored here. Simulation is carried out using the developed model for maximum obtainable reference voltage (0.575Vdc, Peak) for both continuous and discontinuous SVPWM and the resulting filtered branch and phase voltages are shown in Figure 7 for continuous SVPWM. Average branch, phase and common mode voltages are illustrated for different types of discontinuous SVPWM are elaborated in Figure 8. The input reference fundamental frequency is kept at 50 Hz and the switching frequency of the inverter is chosen as 10 kHz. The output is seen to be sinusoidal without any ripple except the switching harmonics. By simply changing the input reference magnitude and frequency the output voltage magnitude and frequency can be varied. It is observed from Figure 8 that the phase voltage remains sinusoidal for all the cases, the branch voltages and the common mode voltages vary in different schemes.
Iqbal et al ./ International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 1-12
Sa mag reference voltage generator angle Zero-Order Hold
Va
MATLAB Function MATLAB Fcn
Sb
3-Ph Vb VSI
Low pass Filter Bank
Voltage Acquisition
Se
Ve
Repeating Sequence
Figure 4. Matlab/Simulink Model of SVPWM.
a.
b.
c.
Figure 5. Sub-blocks of Matlab/Simulink model, a. Reference voltage generation, b. VSI, c. Filters.
III II I 0
2 / 3 /3
2 / 3
IV VI V
/3
Figure 6. Sector Identification logic.
The relationship between input voltage magnitude and output voltage magnitude is obtained using simulation and the result is illustrated in Figure 9. Total harmonic distortion is calculated upto 25th harmonic using the expression of equation (5) and the relationship between the input reference and THD is plotted in Figure 10.
Vn, RMS THD = n = 3,5,7,.... V1, RMS

r
(5)
A linear relationship exists between input reference and actual inverter output upto the maximum achievable output (0.575 Vdc). Saturation is then seen in the output due to pulse droppings. THD is seen to decrease (Figure 10) for increase in the input reference upto maximum achievable and then it increases sharply due to overmodulation.
1 0.9 Va 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.02 Vb Vc
0.6 Va 0.4 Phase voltages, filtered (p.u.) Vb Vc
Leg voltages,filtered (p.u.)
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028
0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 Time (s)
0.04
0.02
0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028
0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 Time (s)
0.04
Figure 7a. Filtered branch voltages for continuous SVPWM

0.6
0.6
Figure 7b. Filtered phase voltages for continuous SV PWM
Vavg
0.4
DPWMMAX
Voltage(p.u.)
va
0.4
DPWMMIN
0.2
VnN
0.2
Voltage(p.u.)
VnN
0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
Vavg
Va
0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
= a. b. Figure 8. Average branch, phase and common mode voltage, discontinuous SVPWM: a. DPWMMAX, b. DPWMMIN
Time(sec)
Time(sec)
0.6
0.6
Vavg
0.4
Va
VnN
DPWM0 DPWMMAX
0.4
Va
DPWM1
0.2
Voltage(p.u.) V oltage(p.u.)
Voltage(p.u.)
VnN
0
0.2
VnN
0
-0.2
-0.2
Vavg
-0.4
Va
0.02 0.022
-0.4
Vavg
0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.03
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.04 0.04
Time(sec) Time(sec)
0.02
Time(sec)
c.
0.6
d.
0.6
0.4
va
DPWM2
Va
0.4
DPWM3
VnN
Voltage(p.u.)
VnN
0
Voltage(p.u.)
0.2
0.2
-0.2
-0.2
VnN
-0.4
Vavg
-0.4
0.02
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.03
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.04
0.02
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.03
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.04
Time(sec)
Time(sec)
e. f. Figure 8 (contd). Average branch, phase and common mode voltage, discontinuous SVPWM: c. DPWM 0, d. DPWM 1 e. DPWM 2, f. DPWM3
Figure 9. Relationship between input reference and output voltage.
Figure 10. Relationship between input reference and THD.
6. Experimental implementation
The developed SVPWM schemes for both continuous and discontinuous modes are implemented in real time using Texas Instrument TMS320F2812 DSP and Vi Microsystem, Chennai, India, intelligent power modules. The DSP board is also supplied by Vi Microsystem with integrated interfacing communication board. The PC is connected to the DSP board through printer parallel port. The DSP board is connected through cable to the Inverter intelligent power modules. Current sensors manufactured from LEM, USA are used for feedback purposes. A generalised C++ code is written in the PC for implementing SVPWM similar to the one used for the simulation purpose. The code is run using Code Composer studio CCS 3.2V, and the .out file thus created is then converted to the ASCII file which is loaded to the DSP for further processing. The complete experimental set up is illustrated in Figure 11.
6.1 SVPWM signal generation using TMS320F2812 It is possible to generate six PWM output signals per Event Manager (EV) with programmable dead-band and output polarity using the PWM circuits associated with the compare unit of TMS320F2812. There are two event managers in the DSP namely EVA and EVB. The event manager module of the DSP has built-in hardware to implement SVPWM with great ease. The functional block diagram for of Event Manager A is shown in Figure 12. The functional block diagram of Event Manager B is identical to EVA except that of the corresponding configuration registers. The complete circuit has symmetric/asymmetric waveform generators similar to the general purpose timer, dead-band control unit and output logic.
(a)
(b)
Figure 11. Experimental set-up: a. TMS320F2812 DSP board, b. Intelligent Power Module
T1CON [12-11]
Compare machines GPT1 flags
Sym/asym waveform generator
COMCONA [9]
MUX
PHx x=1,2,3
Deadband unit
DTPHx
Output Logic
PWM1PWM6
SVPWM state machine COMCONA [12] DBTONA deadband timer control register ACTRA full compare action control register
ACTRA [12-15]
Figure 12. PWM functional block diagram of EVA of TMS320F2812 DSP
10
The following algorithm is used to generate SVPWM outputs (Haykin, 2004). 1. The polarity of the compare output pins are configured by Action Control Register (ACTRx). 2. Compare Command (COMCONx) register is configured to enable compare action and SVPWM operation mode and set the reload condition for Compare register (CMPRx). 3. To start the SVPWM operation, GP timer 1 (or GP timer 3, for EVB) should be put in continuous up/down counting mode. 4. The user software needs to determine the voltage Vref to be generated by the inverter in the two dimensional d-q plane (direct axis and quadrature axis plane). The two adjacent vectors Vx and Vx+60 and the time for which each switch remain on T1,T2 and T0 are determined. 5. The switching pattern corresponding to Vx is loaded in ACTRx (bit 12-14) and 1 in ACTRx (bit 15), or the switching pattern of Vx+60 is loaded in ACTRx (bot 12-14) and 0 in ACTRx (bot 15). 6. Then CMPR1 is loaded with (1/2 T1) and CMPR2 with (1/2 T1+1/2 T2). The space vector PWM hardware in the EV module functions as follows:
1. At the beginning of each period PWM outputs are set to the (new) pattern Vy defined by ACTRx (bit 12-14). 2. The PWM outputs switches to the pattern of Vy+60 if ACTRx (bit 15) is 1 or to the pattern of Vy if ACTRx (bit 15) is 0 (V0-60 = V300,V360+60 = V60) on the first compare match between CMPR1 and GPtimer1 at (1/2 T1) during up counting. 3. On the second compare match during up counting between CMPR2 and GP timer1 at (1/2 T1+1/2 T2),switches the PWM outputs to the pattern (000) or (111) ,which differs from the second pattern by one bit. 4. On the first compare match during down counting between CMPR2 and GP timer1 at (1/2 T1+1/2 T2), switches the PWM outputs back to the second output pattern. 5. On the second compare match during down counting between CMPR1 and GP timer1 at (1/2 T1), switches the PWM outputs back to the first pattern.
6.2 Experimental results The experimental results obtained are shown for continuous and discontinuous SVPWM in Figure 13 and Figure 14, respectively. The switching frequency of the inverter is set to 10 kHz and the fundamental frequency is chosen as 50 Hz and the dc link voltage is set to 100 V. The filtered branch voltages and filtered phase-to-neutral voltages for continuous SVPWM illustrated in Figure 13, matches very closely to that of the simulation results (Figure 7). For discontinuous SVPWM, DPWMMAX and DPWMMIN are realised. The filtered branch voltages for the two cases are illustrated in Figure 14. The simulation and experimental results matches very closely in this case as well. The phase-to-neutral voltages are not shown as they are sinusoidal and are identical to Figure 13b. Filtered branch voltages are Digital to analog converter (DAC) outputs of low signals. Filtered phase voltages are high voltages which will be given to the load.
(a)
(b)
11
Figure 13. Experimental results continuous SVPWM: a. Filtered branch voltages, b. Filtered phase-to-neutral voltages.
(a)
(b)
Figure 14. Filtered branch voltages for discontinuous SVPWM a. DPWMMAX, b. DPWMMIN.
7. Conclusions
A simple generalised Matlab/Simulink model is presented to implement both continuous and discontinuous SVPWM for a threephase VSI. By modifying the switching look-up table in Matlab function code, the two types of SVPWM (continuous and discontinuous) are realised. Variable voltage and variable frequency output is achieved by varying the magnitude and frequency of the input reference values. Experimental set up and configurations of DSP registers are elaborated. The researchers, students and practising engineers can use this concept to verify their model. Both simulation and experimental results are provided. The experimental results match very closely with the simulation results.
Nomenclature
Vdc vA, vB & vC vnN va, vb & vc
DC Link Voltage Branch A, B and C, voltages, respectively Common-mode Voltage Phase-to-neutral voltages of Phase A, B and C, respectively Reference space vector Time of application of active space vectors Time of application of zero space vector Position of reference space vector Discontinuous space vector Pulse width modulation Compare register General purpose Action control register Event Manager register Digital to analogue converter
v* s t a , tb t0
DPWM CMPR GP ACTR EV DAC
References
Application Note from Texas Instrument, SPRU065E Depenbrock M., 1977. Pulse width control of a three-phase inverter with non sinusoidal phase voltage of a three-phase PWM inverter, Proc. IEEE Int. semiconductor Power Conversion Conf., Orlando, Florida, USA, pp. 399-403. Dong G., 2005. Sensorless and efficiency optimized induction motor control with associated converter PWM schemes, PhD Thesis, Faculty of Graduate School, Tennessee Technological University, Dec. Hava A.M., 1998. Carrier based PWM-VSI drives in the overmodulation region, PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Medison. Hava A.M., Kerkman R.J. and Lipo T.A., 1998. A High performance Generalized discontinuous PWM algorithm, IEEE Trans. On Industry Appl., Vol. 34, No. 5, Sept./Oct..
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Haykin S., 2004. Neural Networks, ND Prentice Hall, New York, USA Holmes D.G., 1996. The significance of zero space vector placement for carrier-based PWM schemes, IEEE Trans. Industry Appl., Vol. 32, No. 5, pp. 1122-1129 Sept./Oct. Holmes D. G. and Lipo T. A., 2000. Pulse Width Modulation for Power Converters Principles and Practices, IEE Press, Wiley Publications, New York, USA. Houdsworth J.A. and Grant D.A., 1984. The use of harmonic distortion to increase output voltage of a three-phase PWM inverter, IEEE Trans. Industry Appl., vol. IA-20, pp. 1124-1228, Sept./Oct. Holtz J., 1992. Pulse width modulation- a survey, IEEE Trans. On Industrial Electronics, Vol. 39, No. 5, pp. 410-420, Oct. Holtz J., 1994. Pulse width modulation for electronic power conversion, Proc. IEEE vol. 8., pp. 1194-1214, Aug. Iqbal A., A. Lamine, I. Ashraf and Mohibullah, 2006. Matlab/Simulink model for space vector modulation of three-phase VSI, IEEE UPEC 2006, 6-8 Sept., New Castle, UK, Vol. 3, pp. 1096-1100. Kazmierkowski M.P., Krishnan R. and Blaabjerg F., 2002. Control in power electronics- selected problems, Academic Press, California, USA. Kerkman R. J., Seibel B. J., Brod D. M., Rowan T. M., and Branchgate D., 1991. A simplified inverter model for on-line control and simulation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 567573. Kolar J.W., Ertl H. and Zach F.C., 1991. Influence of the modulation methods on the conduction and switching losses of a PWM converter system, IEEE Trans. Industry Appl. vol. 27, pp. 1063-1975, Nov./Dec. Muthuramalingam and Himavathi S., 2007. Performance evaluation of a neural network based general purpose space vector modulator, International Journal of Electrical, Computer, and Systems Engineering, Vol.1, No.1, pp.19-26. Ogasawara O., Akagi H., and Nabae A. 1989. A novel PWM scheme of voltage source inverters based on space vector theory, Conf. Rec. European Power Electronics Conf. (EPE), Aachen, pp. 1197-1202. Pinto J.O.P., Bose B.K., Borges da Silva L.E. and Kazmierkowski M.P., 2000. A Neural Network based space vector PWM controller for voltage fed inverter induction motor drive, IEEE Trans, Ind. Appl., Vol. 36, No.6, pp.1628-1636 November/December. van de Broeck H.W., Skudelny H.C. and Stanke G.V., 1988. Analysis and realization of a pulsewidth modulator based on space vectors, IEEE Trans. Industry Appl., Vol. 24, pp. 142-150, Feb. www.mathworks.co.uk www.ti.com
Biographical notes Atif Iqbal received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. Engineering (Electrical) degrees in 1991 and 1996, respectively, from the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India and PhD in 2006 from Liverpool John Moores University, UK. He has been employed as Lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh since 1991 and is currently working as Reader in the same university. He is recipient of Maulana Tufail Ahmad Gold Medal for standing first at B.Sc. Engg. Exams in 1991, AMU. His principal research interest is Power Electronics & Drives. Sk Moin Ahmed born in 1983 at Hoogly, West Bengal, India. He received his B.Tech (Electrical) and M.Tech. (Power System & drives) in 2006 & 2008, respectively, from Department of Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He is gold medalist for securing top position in M.Tech. He is a recipient of Torento fellowship funded by AMU. Currently he is pursuing his PhD at AMU and employed as Senior research fellow in a CSIR, New Delhi, funded project. Mohd. Arif Khan received his B.E. (Electrical) and M. Tech. (Power System & Drives) degrees in 2005 and 2007, respectively, from the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India where he is currently pursuing his PhD. He has worked as Senior Research Fellow in a CSIR project, Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation Techniques for Multiphase Voltage Source Inverter. Presently he is working with Krishna Institute of Engg. & Tech., Ghaziabad as Lecturer in EN deptt. His principal research interest is Multi-phase Multi-motor machine drives system. Haitham Abu-Rub has done his PhD from Gdansk University, Poland in 1995 and MSc in Electrical Engg from Gdynia Maritime University. He is presently serving as Visiting Senior Associate Professor in the Deptt. Of Electrical & Computer Engg., Texas A&M University at Qatar. His area of interest are Field oriented control of electrical machines, nonlinear control of electrical drive, sensorless control, parameters estimation, power electronics, and electrical machines. Has earned many international prestigious awards like the American Fulbright Scholarship (Texas A&M University), the German Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship (Wuppertal university), the German DAAD Scholarship (Bochum University), and the British Royal Society Scholarship (Southampton University). Also received the "Best Presentation Award" at the 27th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society in Denver (IECON'01).
Received July 2009 Accepted October 2009 Final acceptance in revised form October 2009
MultiCraft
Bioeconomic modelling of a prey predator system using differential algebraic equations

T. K. Kara* and Kunal Chakrabortyb
a Department of Mathematics, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah-711103 Department of Mathematics, MCKV Institute of Engineering, 243 G.T.Road (N), Liluah, Howrah-711204 E-mails:( tkar1117@gmail.com (T. K. Kar), *Corresponding author); kc_mckv@yahoo.co.in (Kunal Chakraborty) b
Abstract We propose a biological economic model based on prey-predator dynamics where the prey species are continuously harvested and predation is considered with type II functional response. The dynamic behavior of the proposed biological economic preypredator model is discussed. Continuous type gestational delay of predators is incorporated and its effect on the dynamical behavior of the model system is analyzed. Through considering delay as a bifurcation parameter, the occurrence of Hopf bifurcation of the proposed model system with positive economic profit is shown in the neighborhood of the co-existing equilibrium point. Finally, some numerical simulations are given to verify the analytical results and the system is analyzed through graphical illustrations. Keywords: Bioeconomics, differential algebraic system, time delay, Hopf bifurcation 1. Introduction The application of mathematical biology has an immense impact towards the development of commonly used biological resources like fishery, wildlife and forestry. Recently Scientists and researchers give emphasis on the interaction between mathematics and biology which initiate a new research area. Interactions of mathematics and biology can be divided into three categories. The first class involves routine application of existing mathematical techniques to biological problems. Such applications influence mathematics only when the importance to biological applications requires further developments. In other cases, however, existing mathematical methods are insufficient, but it is possible to develop new mathematics within the conventional frameworks. In the final class, some fundamental issues in biology appear to require new thoughts quantitatively or analytically. Most of our biological theories evolve rapidly; therefore it is necessary to develop some useful mathematical models to describe the consequences of these biological systems. It is observed that these newly developed mathematical models are significantly influenced through the biological theories in the past and the consequent expansion of those theories in recent time. For this purpose differential algebraic equations can be considered as an important tool for the analysis of a biological model. A general prey predator model consists of the interactions between species, therefore the model includes competition, evolution and dispersion between the species for the purpose of seeking resources to sustain their struggle for their own existence. Kar and Matsuda (2006) represented the age of maturity through time delay, which leads to systems of retarded functional differential equations. They considered a prey-predator model with Holling type of predation and harvesting of predator species and observed that when the time delay is small both the prey and predator populations reach periodic oscillations around the equilibrium in finite time then converges to their equilibrium values and in non-delay case harvesting effort has an effect of stabilizing the equilibrium. Broer et al. (2005) investigated a two-dimensional predator-prey model with five parameters, adapted from the Volterra-Lotka system by a non monotonic response function. They described various domains of structural stability and their bifurcations. The effect of constant rate harvesting on the dynamics of predator-prey systems has been investigated by Dai and Tang (1998), Myerscough et al. (1992) and Xiao and Ruan (1999), and they obtained very rich and interesting dynamical behaviours. Feng (2007) considered a differential equation system with diffusion and time delays which models the dynamics of predator-prey interactions within three biological species.
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Kar and Chakraborty / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 13-34
Orosz (2004) presented a formal framework for the analysis of Hopf bifurcations in delay differential equations with a single time delay. He determined closed-form linear algebraic equations and calculated the criticality of bifurcations by normal forms. Cao and Freedman (1996) obtained the criterion of persistence and global attractivity for a predator-prey model with time-delay due to gestation. Yafia et al. (2007) considered a model with one delay and a unique non trivial equilibrium. They studied the dynamics of the model in terms of the local stability and of the description of the Hopf bifurcation at non trivial equilibrium. They proved that delay (taken as a parameter of bifurcation) crosses some critical values and determined the direction of the Hopf bifurcation and the stability or instability of the bifurcating branch of periodic solutions. Kar (2003) studied a Gauss-type prey predator model with selective harvesting and introduce a time delay in the harvesting term. He concluded, in general, delay differential equations exhibit much more complicated dynamics than ordinary differential equations since time delay could cause a stable equilibrium to become unstable and cause the population to fluctuate. Celik (2009) considered a ratio dependent predator-prey system with time delay where the dynamics is logistic with the carrying capacity proportional to prey population. Broer and Gaiko (2010) analyzed the complete global qualitative of quartic ecological model, particularly they studied the global bifurcations of singular points and limit cycles. Zhang and Zhang (2009) systematically studied a hybrid predator prey economic model, which is formulated by differential-difference-algebraic equations. They proved that this model exhibits two bifurcation phenomena at the intersampling instants. Lara and Martinet (2009) considered a discretetime control dynamical model with uncertainties, representing a bioeconomic system, proposed through stochastic viability approach to manage natural resources in a sustainable way due to uncertainties, dynamics and conflicting objectives (ecological, social, and economical). An efficient algorithm for individual-based, stochastic simulation of biological populations in continuous time presented by Allen and Dytham (2009). It is observed that a numerous number of research articles of the population dynamics proposed the interaction between the species and the stability analysis of the population in presence of harvesting effort but quite a few number of articles considered the bioeconomic models to investigate the dynamical behavior of the ecosystem towards the positive economic profit. Again, for the long run sustainability of the ecosystem it is necessary to compare the static as well as dynamical effects of harvesting through considering the economic perspective of the model system. Thus to formulate a biological economic system from an economic point of view and investigate the realistic static and dynamical behavior of the model system we need to use differential algebraic equations. After going through the above literature survey we can not find any biological economic model system using differential algebraic equations where prey population is harvested and the dynamical behavior of such model system is studied through considering state feedback controller. In this paper our objective is to examine the dynamical behavior of a biological economic prey predator model where prey population is harvested using differential algebraic and bifurcation theory. The continuous gestation delay of predator population is also incorporated in the model. We have divided the paper in two parts, in the first part we consider the model system with zero economic profit and singularity induced bifurcation is obtained at the interior equilibrium of the model system. To reduce the singularity induced bifurcation, state feedback controller is designed. But in the second part we consider the model system with positive economic profit and the occurrence of Hopf bifurcation is found at the interior equilibrium point through considering delay as a bifurcation parameter. It is also proved that the time delay can cause a stable equilibrium to become unstable. 2. The model and its qualitative properties In this section we consider a prey-predator model with Holling type of predation and continuously harvesting of prey species, the ecological set up of which is as follows. It is assumed that the predator is not harvested and hence harvesting does not affect the growth of the predator population directly. However, it is considered that the predators have competition among themselves for their survival. Again there exists conflict between predators and harvesters for common resource i.e. prey species. The growth of prey is assumed to be logistic. Let us assume x and y are respectively the size of the prey and predator population at time t. Thus, the consequent model becomes
dx x xy = rx1 h(t ), dt K a+x dy yx = dy y 2 , dt a + x
(1)
where r is the intrinsic growth rate of the prey, K is the environmental carrying capacity of prey, is the maximal relative increase of predation, a is Michaelis-Menten constant, h(t ) is the harvesting at time t, d is the death rate of predator, the predator consumes prey at the rate (we assume 0 < < 1 , since the whole biomass of the prey is not transformed to the biomass of the predator). Density dependent mortality rate y 2 describes either a self limitation of consumers or the influence of predation. is the intraspecific coefficient of the predator population. Self limitation can occur if there is some other factor (other than food) which becomes limiting at high population densities.
15
The functional form of harvest is generally considered using the phrase catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) hypothesis (Clark, 1990) to describe an assumption that catch per unit effort is proportional to the stock level. Thus we consider
h(t ) = qEx,
(2)
where E is the harvesting effort used to harvest prey population and q is the catchability co-efficient of prey population. The Antarctic krill-whale community is a good example of the present model. Krill is a main source of food of whales and the Antarctic krill population is being increasingly harvested. On the other hand, the moratorium imposed by IWC on killing of whales continues. Large catches from the lower trophic level (krill) can have serious implications for production at both the lower trophic level (krill) and the higher trophic level (whale). It is, therefore, necessary to regulate harvesting at the lower trophic level. Let us extend our model by considering the following algebraic equation
(pqx - c)E - s = 0,
(3)
where c is the constant fishing cost per unit effort, p is the constant price per unit biomass of landed fish and s is the total economic rent obtained from the fishery. Thus, using (2) & (3) system (1) becomes
dx x xy = rx1 qEx, dt K a+x dy yx = dy y 2 , dt a + x (pqx - c)E - s = 0,
(4)
Let us now consider this harvested prey predator system with continuous time delay due to gestation. Here the predator population consumes the prey population at a constant rate , but the reproduction of predators after predating the prey population is not instantaneous thus it will be incorporated by some time lag required for gestation of predators. Suppose the time interval between the moments when an individual prey is killed and the corresponding biomass is added to the predator population is considered as the time delay . Let us take the entire past history of prey biomass, which is to be measured 1 1 by exp (t 0 ) , where 0 < t is considered as a particular time in the past and t represents the present time. Thus the prey biomass in predator's equation is replaced by the following form
z (t ) =
x(t ) exp (t
0 ) d 0 .
(5)
Under this assumption the final system becomes

dx x xy = rx1 qEx, dt K a+x dy yz = dy y 2 , dt a + z dz 1 = ( x z ), dt (pqx - c)E - s = 0.
(6)
The differential algebraic system (6) can be expressed in the following way,
16
x xy qEx rx1 f 1 ( X , E , s) K a + x yx f ( X , E , s) = f 2 ( X , E , s) = dy y 2 a+x f 3 ( X , E, s) 1 ( x z) g ( X , E , s ) = (pqx - c)E - s = 0,
where X = (x, y, z) t . Let us now consider two cases separately with zero economic profit and with positive economic profit.
3. The model with zero economic profit
For s = 0, the system (6) becomes

dx x xy = rx1 qEx, dt K a+x dy yz = dy y 2 , dt a + z dz 1 = ( x z ), dt (pqx - c)E = 0.
(7)
Equilibrium points: existence and stability The following lemma represents all possible non negative equilibrium points of system (7).
Lemma 1 System (7) has two equilibrium points P0 (0,0,0,0) and P ( K ,0, K ,0) for any positive set of parameters. The third boundary 1
c ~ c ~ x equilibrium point P2 ( ~,0, ~, E ) exists if and only if c < Kpq where ~ = x z ,z = , pq pq
~ cr + Kpqr . The interior equilibrium E= Kpq 2

2
point P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) of the system (7) exists if c > cd + adpq and r + are satisfied x , y , z and
*
*
pq (cd + adpq c ) (c + apq)
>
cr . When these conditions Kpq

.
cd adpq + c * (cd adpq + c ) 1 c c cr E * are given by x * = , y* = ,z = , E* = r (c + apq) pq pq q Kpq a + c (c + apq) pq From system (7) we have the following matrix M = D X f D E f ( D E g ) 1 D X g
ay pq 2 Ex r 2 xr qE + K pqx c (a + x) 2 0 = 1 The characteristic polynomial of the matrix M is given by x a+x a y . 2 (a + z ) 1 0
z
a+z
d 2 y 0
3 + a1 ( X , E ) 2 + a 2 ( X , E ) + a 3 ( X , E ) = 0,
17 where
Kar and Chakraborty / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 13-34 ay (a + x)
2
1 a1 = d + + r (1 + 2 x ) + c pqx + K
cEq
a + z + 2 y ,
a2 =
1 ay cEq ay rz ayz 2rxz z 2rx 2x + + d + r 1 + + + + 2 2 a + z (a + z ) K ( a + x ) K c pqx (a + x) K (a + z ) (a + x) 2 (a + z ) 2 y
2ry +
4rxy 2ay 2 cEq(a + z z + 2ay + 2yz ) + + , K (c pqx)(a + z ) (a + x) 2

rz 4rxy axy ayz 2rxz + + 2ry + a + z K (a + z ) (a + x)(a + z ) 2 (a + x) 2 (a + z ) K
a3 =
ay 1 cEq d r (1 + 2 x ) + c pqx + K (a + x) 2 2ay 2 (a + x)

2
cEq( z + 2 y (a + z ) ) . (c pqx)(a + z )
The stability of the boundary equilibrium points P0 (0,0,0,0) and P ( K ,0, K ,0) of system (7) is given in the following lemma. 1
Lemma 2
a The boundary equilibrium point P0 (0,0,0,0) is unstable and P ( K ,0, K ,0) is locally asymptotically stable if < d 1 + . 1 K 1 The eigen values of the characteristic polynomial at the boundary equilibrium point P0 (0,0,0,0) are d , r , . Thus the boundary
equilibrium point P0 (0,0,0,0) is unstable. Again the eigen values of the characteristic polynomial at the boundary equilibrium point
1 ad dK + K P ( K ,0, K ,0) are r , , . It is clearly observed that the boundary equilibrium point P ( K ,0, K ,0) ) is stable 1 1 a+K a if < d 1 + . K Let us now study the dynamic behavior of the differential algebraic model system (7). The local stability of the boundary ~ equilibrium point, P2 ( ~,0, ~, E ) and the interior equilibrium point, P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) can be investigated using the singularity x z induced bifurcation phenomena. Here, we are interested to discuss the local stability of the model system (7) at the interior equilibrium point, P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) through bifurcation phenomena. For this purpose total economic rent is assumed to be the bifurcation parameter i.e., = s. Consequently we have the following theorem
Theorem 1 The differential algebraic system (7) has a singularity induced bifurcation at the interior equilibrium point P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ). When the bifurcation parameter s increases through zero the stability of the interior equilibrium point
P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) changes from stable to unstable.
Proof.
It is evident that D E g = pqx c has a simple zero eigen value. Thus, we can define ( X , E , s ) = D E g = pqx c.
(i) It follows from Lemma1 that

trace( D E f adj ( D E g ) D X g ) P3 = pq 2 x * E * 0.
(ii) It can be proved using Lemma1 that
18
xr r 2K ay (a + x)2
qE
z a+ z
x a+ x
0
ay (a + z )2
qx 0 0 pqx c
p3
DX f DX g
DE f DE g
=
P3
0 1
d 2 y 0 0
pqE = pq x y E
2 * * *
0.
ay (a+ x)2
(iii) It can also be shown using Lemma1 that

xr r 2K
qE
z
a+ z
x a+ x
0
ay (a + z )2
qx 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
DX f DX g DX
DE f DE g DE
D f D g D
p3
0 = 1
d 2 y 0 0 0
pqE pq = pq x y
2 * *
pqx c 1
p3
0.
It is observed from (i)-(iii) that all the conditions for singularity induced bifurcation (Venkatasubramanian et al., 1995) are satisfied. Hence the differential algebraic system (7) has a singularity induced bifurcation at the interior equilibrium point P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) and the bifurcation value is s=0. Again, it is noted that
M 1 = trace( D E f adj ( D E g ) D X g ) P3 = pq 2 x * E * , M 2 = D ( D X D f D E ) X D g X DE f DE g
1
D f D g
=
p3
1 E*
Consequently from Lemma1 we have,

2 M1 = pq 2 x * E * > 0. M2
Hence, it can be concluded from (Venkatasubramanian et al., 1995) that when s increases through zero, one eigenvalue of the model system (7) moves from C to C + along the real axis by diverging through . Consequently the stability of the model system (7) is influenced through this behavior i.e., the stability of the system at the interior equilibrium point P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ) changes from stable to unstable. In consequence to the above theorem it is clear that the differential algebraic model system (6) becomes unstable when the economic interest of the harvesting is considered to be positive. If we consider economic perspective of the fishery it is obvious that fishery agencies are interested towards the positive economic rent earned from the fishery. It is also noted that an impulsive phenomenon can occur through singularity induced bifurcation in prey predator ecosystem which may lead to the collapse of the sustainable ecosystem of the prey predator fishery. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the impulsive phenomenon from the prey predator ecosystem to resume the sustainability of the ecosystem and stabilize the model system when positive economic interest is considered for fishery managers. Thus, to stabilize the model system (6) in case of positive economic interest a state feedback controller, (Dai, 1989) can be designed of the form w(t ) = u ( E (t ) E * ), where u stands for net feedback gain. Let us introduce the state feedback controller to the model system (6) and rewrite model system as follows:
19
dx x xy = rx1 qEx, dt K a+x yz dy = dy y 2 , dt a + z dz 1 = ( x z ), dt (pqx - c)E - s + u ( E (t ) E * ) = 0.
(8)
Consequently, we have the following theorem:

Theorem 2 The differential algebraic model system (8) is stable at the interior equilibrium point, P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ), of the model system (7), if
pq 2 x * E * pq 2 x * y * E * + 2 * * pq x E , , u > max * x * y * 1 rx * y * x * y * 2 rx * rx * x * y * y * +y + + + K (a + x * ) 2 K ( a + x * ) 2 K ( a + x * ) 2 . 2 ax * y * rx * y * x * y * + K (a + x * )(a + z * ) 2 (a + x * ) 2 pq 2 x * y * E *
Proof. For the differential algebraic model system (8), we can obtain the following Jacobian at the interior equilibrium point P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ), of the model system (7),
x * y * rx * pq 2 x * E * + K u (a + x * ) 2 0 = 1 x * a + x* y * 0 * a y . * 2 (a + z ) 1 0
J p3
Therefore, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix J is given
3 + w1 ( X , E ) 2 + w2 ( X , E ) + w3 ( X , E ) = 0,
where
x * y * rx * pq 2 x * E * 1 + y * + , * 2 K u (a + x ) 2 rx * y * pq 2 x * y * E * x * y * rx * pq 2 x * E * x * y * y * , w2 = + + K u u ( a + x * ) 2 K (a + x * ) 2 2 ax * y * rx * y * pq 2 x * y * E * x * y * . w3 = + K u (a + x * )(a + z * ) 2 (a + x * ) 2 w1 =
20
According to the Routh Hurwitz criterion it can be concluded that the model system (8) is stable at the interior equilibrium point, P3 ( x * , y * , z * , E * ), of the model system (7) if the net feedback gain u satisfies the following condition:
pq 2 x * E * pq 2 x * y * E * + 2 * * pq x E u > max * , , * * * *2 * x * y * 1 rx y x y rx * rx x * y * y * +y + + + K (a + x * ) 2 K ( a + x * ) 2 K ( a + x * ) 2 . 2 ax * y * rx * y * x * y * + K (a + x * )(a + z * ) 2 (a + x * ) 2 pq 2 x * y * E *
Hence, it is possible to eliminate singularity induced bifurcation which is responsible for impulsive phenomenon in a sustainable ecosystem, using a suitably designed net feedback gain. Again, the economic interest of fishery managers can also be achieved using the state feedback controller function i.e., the stability can be resumed for the model system (8) when positive economic interest is considered.
4. The model with positive economic profit
In this section we consider the model system with positive economic profit i.e., s 0. Here we investigate the system behavior for two separate cases with and without time delay. 4.1 The model without time delay The model system (6) without time delay can be written as dx x xy = rx1 qEx, dt K a+x dy xy = dy y 2 , dt a + x (pqx - c)E - s = 0. The interior equilibrium point of the system (9) is P ( x , y , E ) where
y=
(9)
x d (a + x ) s , E= and x satisfies the following equation (a + x ) pqx c

(10)
where
C 0 x 4 + C1 x 3 + C 2 x 2 + C 3 x + C 4 = 0, C 0 = pqr , C1 = cr + 2apqr Kpqr , C 2 = dKpq + Kpq 2acr + cKr + a 2 pqr 2aKpqr + Kqs ,
C 3 = cdK adKpq cK a 2 cr + 2acKr a 2 Kpqr + 2aKqs ,
C 4 = acdK + a 2 cKr + a 2 Kqs .
From system (9) we have the following matrix

x y rx pq 2 x E + 2 K pqx c N = (a + x ) a y (a + x ) 2 x a+x . y
21
Thus, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix N at P ( x , y , E ) is given by
2 + b1 ( X , E ) + b2 ( X , E ) = 0,
where
b1 = b2 = x y pq 2 x E rx + y, K (a + x ) 2 pqx c ax y +
rx y x y 2 pq 2 x E y . K pqx c (a + x ) 3 (a + x ) 2 pq 2 E y r We find that b1 > 0 and b2 > 0 if > + . K pqx c (a + x ) 2
Hence, the interior equilibrium point P ( x , y , E ) of system (9) is asymptotically stable if pq 2 E y r . > + K pqx c (a + x ) 2 In particular, if we consider intra-specific coefficients of the predator population is zero i.e., = 0 then the interior equilibrium of the model system (9) becomes P ( x * , y * , E * ), where
x* = y* = ad , d
2 2 2 adq (ds + s ) 1 ar a d r adr + a dr aq (ds + s ) + and 2 d K (d ) cd + adpq c (d )(cd + adpq c ) K (d ) s ds E* = . cd + adpq c
It is noted that for the existence of the interior equilibrium point, P ( x * , y * , E * ), it is necessary > d , cd + adpq > c and
rK > Kps (d ) 2 adr + . d ( d )(cd + adpq c )
In this particular case the characteristic polynomial of the matrix N at P ( x * , y * , E * ), is reduced to,
2 + p1 ( X , E ) + p 2 ( X , E ) = 0,
where
p1 = p2 = x * y * pq 2 x * E * rx * , K (a + x * ) 2 pqx * c ax * y * (a + x * ) 3 > 0.
(11)
We find that
p1 > 0 if
pq 2 E * y * r . > + K pqx * c (a + x * ) 2
pq 2 E * y * r > + . K pqx * c (a + x * ) 2
Hence, the interior equilibrium point P ( x * , y * , E * ), of system (9) is asymptotically stable if
22
r (adpq + c(d )) 2 ( K (d ) + a (d + ))
, p1 = 0 and hence the roots of the Kq (c + apq )(d ) 3 characteristic equation (11) become purely imaginary and they are conjugate to each other. Also we have d traceN P ( x* , y * , E * ) ds
Again, it is observed that for s = s * =
s = s*
dq(c + apq )(d ) 2 (adpq + c(d )) 2
0.
Hence by the Hopf bifurcation theorem (Hassard et al., 1981), the system (9) enters into a Hopf type small amplitude periodic solution at s = s * in absence of near the positive interior equilibrium point P ( x * , y * , E * ). 4.2 The model with time delay In this section we consider the model system (6). It is evident that the coordinates of the interior equilibrium point, P ( x, y, z , E ) of model system (6) is as follows: y = y , E = E and x = z where x satisfying the equation (10) thus x can be evaluated from equation (10). From the model system (6) we have the following matrix
2 xy pq Ex rx + (a + x ) 2 K pqx c 0 R= 1 x a+x y 0 a y . (a + z ) 2 1 0
Thus, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix R is given by
3 + d1 ( X , E ) 2 + d 2 ( X , E ) + d 3 ( X , E ) = 0,
where
xy pq 2 Ex 1 d 1 = rx + y + , K (a + x ) 2 pqx c xy xy 2 pq 2 Ex rxy pq 2 Exy y , + + d 2 = rx K ( pqx c) K 2 pqx c (a + x ) (a + x ) 2 axy rxy xy 2 pq 2 Exy . d3 = + (a + x )(a + z ) 2 K (a + x ) 2 ( pqx c) r pq 2 E y It is noted that d 1 > 0 and d 3 > 0 if > . + K pqx c (a + x ) 2
Let us assume Then,
A( ) = d 1 d 2 d 3 . A( ) =
1
(t1 2 + t 2 + t 3 ),
23 where
t1 = +
2 pq 2 Ex 2 y 2 p 2 q 4 E 2 x 2 y 2 pq 2 rEx 2 y 2r x 2 y 2 2 x 2 y 3 + + 2 2 2 ( pqx c) K ( pqx c) (a + x ) K (a + x ) ( pqx c) (a + x ) 4
r 2 x 2 y K2
rxy 2 2 pq 2 Exy 2 2 xy 3 2 , K pqx c (a + x ) 2 2 2 2 r x 2 y a xy 2 pq 2 Ex 2 y 2x2 y2 p 2 q 4 E 2 x 2 2 pq 2 rEx 2 t2 = r x + + + 2 2 2 2 4 ( pqx c) K (a + x ) K (a + x ) ( pqx c) (a + x ) K ( pqx c) (a + x )(a + z ) 2 2rxy 2 pq 2 Exy 2 xy 2 + + y 2 2 , c K pqx (a + x ) 2 xy pq 2 Ex t 3 = rx + y . K (a + x ) 2 pqx c Now we have the following theorem which ensures the local stability of the interior equilibrium point, P ( x, y, z , E ) of the model system (6).
Theorem 3
pq 2 E y r If P ( x, y, z , E ) exists with > and t1 2 + t 2 + t 3 > 0, then P ( x, y, z , E ) is locally asymptotically stable. + K pqx c (a + x ) 2
Proof.
The condition
pq 2 E y r > + K pqx c (a + x ) 2
implies that
d1 > 0
and
d 3 > 0.
Finally,
t1 2 + t 2 + t 3 > 0 implies
that A( ) = d 1 d 2 d 3 > 0. Hence by Routh Hurwitz criterion, the theorem follows. Bifurcation analysis Prey-predator models with constant parameters are often found to approach a steady state in which the species coexist in equilibrium. But if parameters used in the model are changed, other types of dynamical behavior may occur and the critical parameter values at which such transitions happen are called bifurcation points. Now we analyze the bifurcation of the model system (6) assuming as the bifurcation parameter.
Theorem 4
If P ( x, y, z , E ) exists with 2 (a + x) 3 pq 2 E y r and < , then a simple Hopf bifurcation occurs at the positive > + ax K pqx c (a + x ) 2
unique value = * . Proof. The characteristic equation of the model system (6) at P ( x, y , z , E ) is given by
3 + d1 ( ) 2 + d 2 ( ) + d 3 ( ) = 0,
(12)
The equation (12) has two purely imaginary roots if and only if d 1 d 2 = d 3 for a unique value of (say * ) at which we have a Hopf bifurcation. Thus in the neighborhood of * the characteristic equation (12) can't have real roots. For = * we have ( 2 + d 2 )( + d 1 ) = 0. This equation has two purely imaginary roots and a real root as,
1 = i d 2 , 2 = i d 2 and 3 = d 1 .
The roots are of the following form
1 ( ) = p( ) + iq( ), 2 ( ) = p( ) iq( ) and 3 ( ) = d 1 ( ).

To apply Hopf bifurcation theorem as stated in Liu's criterion (Liu,1994) we need to verify the transversality condition,
24
dp ( ) d * 0. =
Substituting
1 ( ) = p( ) + iq ( ), in the equation (12) and differentiating the resulting equation w.r.t.

*
, and
setting p ( ) = 0 and q( ) = d 2 , we get the transversality condition at = as

d 2 (d1 d 2 d 3 + d 1 d 2 ) dp ( ) . d * = 2 2 2( d 2 + d 1 d 2 ) = = *
Thus from the expressions of d 1 , d 2 and d 3 we find,

ax * + y 2 * v 2 x 2 * + 2v( x + xy * ) + y 2 2 (a + x )(a + z ) 2 (a + x) 3 dp ( ) > 0 if < , d * = 2 ax = vxy + vx + y + 1 + vx + y * 3 2 * * * 2 pq E y r v= . K pqx c (a + x ) 2
where
Thus, it can be concluded that the interior equilibrium point, P ( x, y, z , E ) is locally asymptotically stable for
< * . Furthermore, according to the Liu's criterion a simple Hopf bifurcation occurs at = * and for > * , the interior
equilibrium point, P ( x, y, z , E ) approaches to a periodic solution. Hence the theorem follows.
5. Numerical simulations and discussion
In this section we assign numerical values to the parameters of the model system (6) and compute some simulations using those values. For the purpose of simulation experiments we mainly use the software MATLAB 7.0 and MATHEMATICA 5.2. This section can be classified into two categories. First category consists of the results where the total economic profit is considered to be zero. In the second category, numerical simulations are represented with positive economic profit. 5.1 Simulation when total economic profit is zero In order to ensure the analytical result of theorem1 numerically let us assign the following numerical values to the parameters of the model system (6); = 0.95, r = 2, = 0.75, K = 100, q = 0.5, a = 30, d = 0.002, = 0.05, p = 15, c = 1, = 2. It is noted that when s = 0, the interior equilibrium point of the model system (6) is P( x, y, z , E ) = P(0.133, 0.026, 0.133, 3.993). Again, it is observed that when s = - 0.1 the eigen values of the characteristic polynomial of the model system (6) are 77.7359, 0.5, 0.00123587 and the eigen values become 81.7046,-0.5,- 0.00140128 when s = 0.1. Therefore it is clear from the above result that when s increases through zero two eigen values of the characteristic polynomial of the model system (6) remain same but one eigenvalue of the model system (6) moves from C to C + along the real axis by diverging through . Hence, the stability of the model system (6) at the interior equilibrium point P ( x, y, z , E ) changes from stable to unstable. To stabilize the model system (6) in case of positive economic interest, let us consider a state feedback controller of the form w(t ) = u ( E (t ) 3.993), consequently we have got the differential algebraic model system (8) as follows,
25
dx x 0.95 xy = 2 x 1 0.5 Ex, dt 100 30 + x dy 0.75 yz = 0.002 y 0.05 y 2 , 30 + z dt dz 1 = ( x z ), dt 2 (15 0.5x - 1)E - s + u ( E (t ) 3.993) = 0.
It is possible to evaluate the numerical value of net feedback gain from theorem 2. For the above model system we have got u > max(3.96146,501.873,420.653). Considering u = 510, we find the interior equilibrium point of the model system (8) as (0.133642,0.0265247,0.133642,3.99298) when s = 0 and the interior equilibrium point of the model system (8) becomes (0.11794,0.0187393,0.11794, 3.9941) when s = 0.1. It is evident from Figure1&2 that the differential algebraic model system (8) is clearly stable when s increases through zero i.e., singularity induced bifurcation phenomenon is eliminated from the differential algebraic model system (6) at the interior equilibrium point when net economic profit increases through zero.
u =510 and s=0 0.16 Prey biomass Predator biomass
0.14
0.12
0.1 x&y 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 t
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure 1. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when u = 510 and s = 0.
26
u =510 and s=0.1 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 x&y 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 Prey biomass Predator biomass
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 t
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure 2. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when u = 510 and s = 0.1. 5.2 Simulation when total economic profit is positive In order to ensure the existence of Hopf bifurcation let us consider the parameters of the model system (6) as = 0.6, r = 0.2, = 0.08, K = 100, q = 0.05, a = 36, d = 0.0025, = 0.002, p = 12, c = 2, s = 2. Then the critical value of the bifurcation parameter * = 7.4563. If we consider the value of = 7.2 then it is observed from the figure1&2 that P ( x, y , z , E ) is locally asymptotically stable and the populations x and y converge to their steady states in finite time. Now if we gradually increase the value of , keeping other parameters fixed, then by theorem3 we have got a critical value * = 7.4563 such that P ( x, y, z , E ) loses its stability as passes through * . Figure3&4 clearly show the result. It is also noted that if we consider the
value of = 7.8, then it is evident from figure5&6 that the positive equilibrium P ( x, y, z , E ) is unstable and there is a periodic orbit near P ( x, y, z , E ).
27
=7.2
45 40 35 30 x&y 25 20 15 10 5 Prey biomass Predator biomass
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 3. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 7.2 < * .
=7.2
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
15
20
25
30 x
35
40
45
50
55
Figure 4. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 7.2 < * .
28
=7.4563
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 5. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 7.4563 = * .
=7.4563
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
15
20
25
30 x
35
40
45
50
55
Figure 6. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 7.4563 = * .
29
=7.8
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 7. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 7.8 > * .
=7.8
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
15
20
25
30 x
35
40
45
50
55
Figure 8. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 7.8 > * . The aforesaid Hopf bifurcation can also be illustrated if we consider another set of numerical values to the parameters of the model system (6).
30
Let us consider the following set of parameters: = 0.8, r = 0.25, = 0.08, K = 100, q = 0.5, a = 40, d = 0.003, = 0.002, p = 13.5, c = 3, s = 2. For this set of parameters the critical value of the bifurcation parameter * = 10.678. It is clearly observed that a simple Hopf bifurcation occurs at = * and for > * the interior equilibrium point, P ( x, y , z , E ) approaches to a periodic solution.
=10
55 50 45 40 35 x&y 30 25 20 15 10 5 Prey biomass Predator biomass
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 9. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 10 < * .
=10
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
20
30 x
40
50
60
Figure 10. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 10 < * .
31
=10.678
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 11. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 10.678 = * .
=10.678
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
20
30 x
40
50
60
70
Figure 12. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 10.678 = * .
32
=11.5
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 t
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
Figure 13. Variation of prey and predator biomass with the increasing time when = 11.5 > * .
=11.5
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 y
10
20
30 x
40
50
60
70
Figure 14. Phase space trajectories of prey and predator biomass beginning with different initial levels when = 11.5 > * .
6. Concluding remarks
The paper analyzes the dynamical behavior of a prey predator model using differential-algebraic systems theory. In general, delay differential equations exhibit much more complicated dynamics than ordinary differential equations thus we have studied the
33
effects of continuous time-delay on the dynamics of prey predator system. It is found that singularity induced bifurcation takes place when net economic revenue of the fishery is considered to be positive. In consequence to the aforesaid bifurcation, an impulsive phenomenon occurs and the system becomes unstable. The most important realistic feature of the paper is the state feedback controller which is designed to stabilize the model system when positive economic rent is taken into consideration. Numerical simulations are used to show that state feedback controller can be designed to resume the stability of a model system in case of positive economic profit. In the second part of the paper we have discussed the behavior of the model system with positive economic profit, here we have divided our discussion in two parts with and without time delay. In case of without time delay it is observed that though the model system is stable but it is possible to get a critical value of total economic profit so that the model system becomes unstable when total economic profit passes through the critical value and the model system enters into Hopf type small amplitude periodic solution. It is noted that continuous time delay also plays an important role to the dynamics of the model system. It is evident from the obtained results that the time delay can cause a stable equilibrium to become unstable and even a simple Hopf bifurcation occurs when the time delay passes through its critical value. The entire study of the paper is mainly based on the deterministic framework. On the other hand it will be more realistic if it is possible to consider the model system in the stochastic environment due to some ecological fluctuations and other factors. Thus, a future research problem would be considered in stochastic environment. Again, to achieve the commercial purpose of the fishery it is also possible to determine optimal harvesting strategies using game theory.
Acknowledgement Research of T. K. Kar is supported by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (C S I R), India (Grant no. 25(0160)/ 08 / EMR-II dated 17.01.08) References
Allen G.A. and Dytham C., 2009. An efficient method for stochastic simulation of biological populations in continuous time, BioSystems, Vol. 98, No. 1, pp. 37-42. Broer H.W., Naudot V., Roussarie R., Saleh K., 2005. Bifurcations of a predator-prey model with non monotonic response function, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Ser. I, Vol. 341 pp. 601-604. Broer H. W. and Gaiko V. A., 2010. Global qualitative analysis of a quartic ecological model, Nonlinear Analysis, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 628-634. Celik C., 2009. Hopf bifurcation of a ratio-dependent predator-prey system with time delay, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, Vol. 42, pp. 1474-1484. Cao Y. and Freedman H. I., 1996. Global attractivity in time-delayed predator-prey systems, J. Austral. Math. Soc. Ser B, Vol. 38, pp. 149-162. Clark C. W., 1990. Mathematical bioeconomics: the optimal management of renewable resources, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York. Dai L., 1989. Singular control system, Springer, New York. Dai G. and Tang M., 1998. Coexistence region and global dynamics of a harvested predator- prey system, SIAM J. Appl. Math., Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 193-210. Hassard B.D., Kazarinoff N.D. and Wan Y.H., 1981. Theory and application of Hopf bifurcation, Cambridge university press, Cambridge. Feng W., 2007. Dynamics in 3-species predator-prey models with time delays, Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems, Supplement, pp. 364-372. Kar T. K., 2003. Selective harvesting in a prey-predator fishery with time delay, Math. Comput. Model, Vol. 38, No. , pp. 449458. Kar T.K. and Matsuda H., 2006. Controllability of a harvested prey-predator system with time delay, Journal of Biological Systems, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 243-254. Lara M. D. and Martinet V., 2009. Multi-criteria dynamic decision under uncertainty: A stochastic viability analysis and an application to sustainable fishery management, Mathematical Biosciences, Vol. 217, No. 2, pp. 118-124. Liu, W. M., 1994. Criterion of Hopf bifurcations without using eigenvalues, J. Math. Anal. Appl., Vol. 182, No. 1, pp. 250-256. Myerscough M.R., Gray B.F., Hogarth W.L. and Norbury J., 1992. An analysis of an ordinary differential equation model for a two-species predator-prey system with harvesting and stocking, J. Math. Biol., Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 389-411. Orosz G., 2004. Hopf bifurcation calculations in delayed systems, Periodica Polytechnica Ser. Mech. Eng., Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 189-200. Venkatasubramanian V., Schattler, H. and Zaborszky J., 1995. Local bifurcations and feasibility regions in differential-algebraic systems, IEEE Trans Autom Control, Vol. 40, No. 12, pp. 1992-2013. Xiao D. and Ruan, S., 1999. Bogdanov-Takens bifurcations in predator-prey systems with constant rate harvesting, Fields Institute Communications, Vol. 21, pp. 493-506.
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Yafia R., Adnani F.E. and Alaoui H.T., 2007. Stability of limit cycle in a predator-prey model with modified Leslie-Gower and Holling-type II schemes with time delay, Applied Mathematical Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 119 - 131. Zhang X. and Zhang Q.L, 2009. Bifurcation analysis and control of a class of hybrid biological economic models, Nonlinear Analysis: Hybrid Systems, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 578-587.
Biographical notes Dr. T. K. Kar is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mathematics, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, in India. His research interests include Dynamical systems, stability and bifurcation theory, population dynamics, mathematical modeling in ecology and epidemiology, management and conservation of fisheries, bioeconomic modeling of renewable resources. He wrote around 50 academic papers on those topics. He also supervised several students of master and doctor degree. Kunal Chakraborty is a Lecturer at the Department of Mathematics, MCKV Institute of Engineering, Howrah, in India. He is currently doing his Ph.D. under the guidance of Dr. T. K. Kar in the Department of Mathematics, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, India. His research topic is Bio-economic modelling and development of solution techniques for the management and conservation of fisheries. He has obtained his post graduate degree in Mathematics from the University of Burdwan in 2006. Received October 2009 Accepted December 2009 Final acceptance in revised form December 2009
MultiCraft
Improvement in quality testing of Braille printer output with Euclidean distance measurement using camera calibration
Suman Karmakar*, Rudra Prasad Chatterjee* and Uma Dutta
Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute,M.G. Avenue, Durgapur-713209, India E-mails:(r_chatterjee@cmeri.res.in (Rudra Prasad Chatterjee*), suman2007@gmail.com (Suman Karmakar*) *Corresponding authors); umadutta@cmeri.res.in (Uma Dutta)
Abstract This paper focuses on quality testing of Braille printed paper using calibrated camera by detecting dots and measuring the Euclidean distances between them with equal gap, vertically and horizontally. For higher accuracy, camera calibration is essential to observe a planar checker board pattern from different distances and orientations. In this process, the position of the camera is fixed and the pattern can be freely moved. Radial lens distortion is modeled. Machine simulation and experimental results have also been discussed. Quality improvement can be achieved by giving a feedback after finding the distorted edges from image processing of the paper. This approach thus definitely helps the blind reader to avoid disturbances in reading the printed documents by both, single sided and inter-point printer. Keywords: Image processing, camera calibration, quality testing of Braille printer 1. Introduction Braille, a touch-reading system for the visually impaired people was first introduced in 1825 by Louis Braille (Hentzshel, 1993). Braille is a primary medium of reading and writing for the blind people or having low vision. Many blind and visually impaired individuals find their ability to access information more quickly and perform tasks that involve reading or writing more efficiently using Braille than by listening to a personal reader, dictating to personal secretary or alternative technologies such as audio recordings, talking computers, or other electronic devices. Braille character appears in dot format on Braille paper that can be identified by blind people on touching the enclave. To identify the proper position of the dots in the printer output, we need to maintain a fixed gap between every dot, as well as between every letter and every line. A method of thorough image processing to measure the gap between dots can help in this case. Generally, images taken by the digital camera result into a distorted image due to the lens distortion i.e. the actual output is always not available. Geometric distortion is an error on an image, between the actual image coordinates and the ideal image coordinates. Among various such nonlinear distortions, the radial distortion, which is along radial direction from the center of distortions, is the most severe part and is also the most common. Straight lines in the undistorted subject bulge in the characteristic barrel fashion, in the image. Straight lines running through the image center remain straight and a circle concentric with the image center remains circle, although its radius is affected. The most typical cases of distortion, barrel and pin-cushion distortion are primarily radial in nature, with a relatively simple one or two parameter model accounting for most of the distortion. Thus Camera calibration is a necessary step in 3-D computer vision in order to extract metric information from 2D images. The term, Camera re-sectioning (often called, camera calibration) is the process of finding the true parameters of the camera that produces a given photograph (Bougnoux, 1998; Brown, 1971; Gennery, 1979; Hartley and Zisserman, 2003; Faig, 1975).
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Karmakar et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 35-48
Related works A four-step camera calibration procedure with implicit image correction was carried out by Heikkila and Silven (1997). Planebased camera calibration by Sturm and Maybank (1999) was discussed. A novel camera calibration method based on genetic algorithm carried out by Chen et al. (2008) has been given. Simplified intrinsic camera calibration and hand-eye calibration for robot vision was carried out by Malm and Heyden in 2003. Perspective Geometry based single image camera calibration technique has been discussed by Avinash and Murali in 2008. In 2006, Yanqing and Zhiyan came out with a flexible camera calibration method for computer visual 3d reconstruction system. This paper gives a brief sketch on different camera calibration techniques in section 2, followed by section 3 with adaptive camera calibration technique. Section 4 describes tracking lens distortion. The undistortion process has been described in section 5. Section 6 suggests a procedure for quality measurement of processed images/outputs. Section 7 presents results and discussion while Section 8 is the conclusion. 2. Camera calibration techniques A. Photogrammetric calibration Photogrammetry is defined as a science of making measurements from photographs. Calibration is performed by observing an object whose geometry in 3-D space is known. The calibration object usually consists of two or three planes orthogonal to each other. Sometimes, a plane undergoing a precisely known translation is also used. These approaches require an expensive Calibration setup (Knyaz, 2006; Maas, 1997; Remondino and Borlin, 2004; Weckesser and Hetzel, 1994; Ritter et al., 2006). B. Self-calibration Calibration methods can be used when no Euclidean information is available, and, if properly designed, can also cope with varying intrinsic parameters. Knowledge of the camera motion and the intrinsic parameters allows for the Euclidean reconstruction of the scene. Images taken by the moving camera on a static image plane with fixed internal parameters are sufficient to recover both the internal and external parameters which allow reconstructing 3-D structure. This approach is very flexible. There are many parameters to estimate; sometime we cannot always obtain reliable results (Hartley, 1994; Luong and Faugeras, 1997; Hua et al., 2005; Maybank and Faugeras, 1992; Paulo et al., 1999). C. Zhengyou Zhang method This technique only requires the camera to observe a planar pattern shown at a few (at least two) different orientations. Zhang has developed a toolbox that allows others to implement calibrations that involve algorithms related to their personal research. This procedure is relatively accurate. In this technique several checkerboards pattern images (here 9x7 boxes) in various position with different distance are captured by a single digital camera (Zhang, 1998; Zhang, 1999). D. Mathematical Representation of 3-D Model Images
]T . A 3D point is denoted by M = [X, Y, Z]T . We use x to denote the augmented vector by ~ ~ T T adding 1 as the last element: m = [u, v,1] and M = [X, Y, Z,1]
A 2D point is denoted by m = u, v
A camera is modeled by the usual pinhole: the relationship between a 3D point M and its image projection m is given by
s m = A[R
and
t ]M
A = 0 0
u 0 v0 1
(1)
37
where s is an arbitrary scale factor; (R, t), called the extrinsic parameters, is the rotation and translation which relates the world coordinate system to the camera coordinate system; A is called the camera intrinsic matrix, and (u0, v0) are the coordinates of the principal point, and the scale factors in image u and v axes, and c the parameter describing the skewness of the two image axes. E. Homography between the model plane and its image: Without loss of generality, we assume the model plane is v on Z = 0 of the world coordinate system. Lets denote the column of the rotation matrix R by r i . From (1), We have,
ith
X u X v = A[r1 r 2 r 3 t ] Y = A[r1 r 2 t ] Y s 0 1 1 1
(2)
By abuse of notation, we still use M to denote a point on the model plane, but since Z is always equal to 0. In turn, therefore, a model points M and its image ms are related by a homography H:
sm = HM
with
H = A[r1 r2 t ]
(3)
The 3x3 matrix H is defined up to a scale factor. 3. Solving camera calibration This section provides the details regarding how to solve the camera calibration problem, effectively. The straight lines in several orientations throughout these images are used to determine the pattern of radial lens distortion. Figure 2. Shows the calibration process have been adapted here.
Figure 1. Original image (640pix X 480pix) of a calibration checkerboard pattern, taken with a Sony Cyber Shot DSC-H50 camera A. Determining the radial distortion coefficients The first part of the calibration process is to determine an image coordinate remapping that causes images taken by the camera to be true perspective images, that is, straight lines in the world project as straight lines in the image. The procedure makes use of one or several images with many known straight lines in it. Architectural scenes are usually a rich source of straight lines, but for most of the work here we used pictures of the checkerboard pattern shown below (Figure 1) to determine the radial lens distortion. The checkerboard pattern is a natural choice since straight lines with easily localized endpoints and interior points can be found in several orientations (horizontal, vertical, and various diagonals) throughout the image plane. The checkerboard pattern also has the desirable property that its corners are localizable independent of the linearity of the image response. That is, applying a nonlinear monotonic function to the intensity values of the checkerboard image, such as gamma correction, does not affect corner
38
localization. As a counter example, this is not the case for the corners of a white square on a black background. If the image is blurred somewhat, changing the image gamma will cause the square to shrink or enlarge, which will affect corner localization. The pattern in Figure 1 was photographed on a Sony Cyber Shot DSC-H50camera. Since this lens, like most, changes its internal configuration depending on the distance it is focused at, it is possible that its pattern of radial distortion could be different depending on where it is focused. Thus, care was taken to focus the lens at infinity and to reduce the aperture until the image was adequately sharp. Start
Print Pattern & attaching to planner surface
Taking images of model plane
Detecting feature point
Calculation of five intrinsic Parameters
Coefficient of radial distortion measurement by least-squares
End Figure 2. Flow chart for showing the calibration process 4. Tracking lens distortion A. Sobel edge detector For more easily visually tracking lens distortion of the test images, simple Sobel edge detector process is run which produce the image shown in Figure 2. Mathematically, the operator uses two 33 kernels which are convolved with the original image to calculate approximations of the derivatives - one for horizontal changes, and one for vertical. If we define I as the source image, and there are two images which at each point contain the horizontal and vertical derivative approximations, the computations are as follows:
+ 1 + 2 + 1 Py = 0 0 0 *I 1 2 1
(4)
39
+1 0 Px = + 2 0 +1 0
1 2 * I 1
(5)
where * here denotes the 2-dimensional convolution operation. The x-coordinate is here defined as increasing in the "right"-direction, and the y-coordinate is defined as increasing in the "down"-direction. At each point in the image, the resulting gradient approximations can be combined to give the gradient magnitude. Using this information, we can also calculate the gradient's direction:
P=
(Px 2 + Py2 )

(6)
Using this information, we can also calculate the gradient's direction:
P = arctan x P y
(7)
The pattern of distortion can now be made evident to a human observer by shrinking this edge image in either the horizontal or the vertical direction by an extreme amount. Table 1. A 9x9 Convolution filter that detects even corners of the checkerboard pattern 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 Table 2. A 9x9 Convolution filter that detects odd corners of the checkerboard pattern -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1
Figure 3. The edges of the checkerboard pattern Found by using Sobel edge detector of the Undistorted Pattern We observed that lines passing through the center of the image stay straight, as do the vertical lines at the extreme left and right of the image. Lines which lie at intermediate distances from the center of the image are bowed.
40
Since this filter Table-1&2 itself resembles a checkerboard pattern, it gives a strong response (positive or negative, depending on which type of corner) when centered over a checkerboard corner. Taking the absolute value of the filter output produces an image where the checkerboard corners appear as white dots, as in Figure 4 showing the odd and even position of the corners. Image points can be easily localized by first convolving the image with the filter in Tables 1&2. In abstract terms a convolution is defined as a product of functions and that are objects in the algebra of Schwartz function in. Convolution of two functions and over a finite range is given by
[ f * g ](t ) f ( )g (t )d
0
(8)
Where the symbol denotes convolution of and. Once the distortion parameters are solved for, it is possible to undistort any image taken with the same lens as the calibration images so that straight lines in the world image to straight lines on the image plane (Foster, 2006). 5. Undistortion image of Braille paper The undistortion process of the paper can be achieved by the method described in Zhang (1998). By comparing both Figure 4 and 5 we can observe a significant lens distortion. The dimension of Braille cell can be represented by maximum six dots and is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 3. The results of convolving the undistorted checkerboard image with the filter in Table 2 and 3, and taking the absolute value of the filter outputs
Figure 4. Braille original gray Image taken withSonyDSC-H50, showing Barrel distortion
Figure 5. Undistorted Braille image
41
Figure 6. Gray scale image of Braille Paper with selected 18 dots
Figure 7. Braille cell dimension
Figure 8. Threshold image by the thresholding value =.5451 6. Procedure for the quality measurement A. Process for finding distance between dots Thresholding is an image processing technique for converting a grayscale or color image to a binary image based upon a threshold value. If a pixel in the image has an intensity value less than the threshold value (Vth =0.5451), the corresponding pixel in the resultant image is set to black. Otherwise, if the pixel intensity value is greater than or equal to the threshold intensity, the resulting pixel is set to white. Image thresholding is very useful for keeping the significant part of an image and getting rid of the unimportant part or noise. This holds true under the assumption that a reasonable threshold value is chosen. Figure 8 shows the threshold image of printed Braille paper with the value of .5451. Removing small objects-removes from a binary image all connected components (objects) that have fewer than P pixels, producing another binary image, BW2. The default connectivity is 8 for two dimensions, 26 for three dimensions. Label connected components in a binary image returns a matrix L of the same size as BW. The centroid algorithm is based on the standard center of mass equation in discrete form (McDowell, 2004).
i. f ( j , i ) u x + j. f ( j , i ) u y j = j min i = i min j max
Rcm =
i max
j max
j = j min j = j min
f ( j, i)
jmax =maximum row index
j max
(9)
Where: imin =minimum column index, imax =maximum column index, jmin =minimum row index,
42
7. Results and discussion The camera to be calibrated is Sony Cyber Shot DSC-H50 camera. The image resolution is 640 x 480. The model plane contains a pattern of 9x7 squares, so there are 252 corners. The size of the pattern is 29mm.Five images of the plane under different orientations were taken, as shown above. We can observe a significant lens distortion in the images. The corners were detected as the intersection of straight lines fitted to each square. Our experiments are composed of single camera calibration setup. For the single camera experiments, we have tried various numbers of images. On the other hand, we found that using more than 5 images did not increase the accuracy any more. We applied this calibration algorithm to all the 5 images. The results are shown in Table 8. Start
Reading Image
Conversion (RGB to gray)
Thresholding Unit Matrix
Removing small object
Convolution filter
Label Matrix
Image region properties
Centroid
No Object
Distance among center
End
Figure 9. Showing distance measurement process
43
In Table 7, we have shown the distortion in pixels against the number of images. We have taken the Corner points of the original (distorted) Image and the corner point of the undistorted images. Due to undistortion of the image the corner point will shift with respect to the original image. We can see that the distortion is varied with number of image shown in Figure 11. C1 R1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
R2
R3 Figure 10. Detected Braille objects by centroid method Scanned from left to right Table 3. Distance (mm) between the centroids of R1 and R2 1R2(mm) Avg. Error(mm) 2.74 2.71 2.94 2.82 2.96 2.75 2.752.5=.25 10.35 10.24 11.11 10.65 11.18 10.39 .94(pixels) Table 4. Distance (mm) between the centroids of C1 and C3 5.72 21.61 6.34 23.96 C1C3(mm) 5.92 5.11 22.37 19.31 5.72 21.61 6.55 24.75 Avg. 5.89 22.26 Error 5.896.64=.75 2.83(pixels)
2.48 9.37
Table 5. Distance (mm) between the centroids of C1 and C2 2.66 10.05 2.24 8.46 C1C2(mm) 2.45 2.24 9.25 8.46 2.65 10.01 2.04 7.71 Avg. 2.38 8.99 Error 2.382.3=.08 .30(pixels)
Table 6. Distance (mm) between the centroids of R3 and R6 10.97 41.46 11.08 41.87 R3R6(mm) 13.18 10 49.81 37.79 9.24 34.92 7.9 29.85 Avg. 10.39 39.26 Error 10.3910.4=.01 .03(pixels)
Table 7. Distortion results of single camera calibration No of images Distortion (per pixels) 1 1.450092 2 1.553057 3 1.783507 4 1.462205 5 1.62168
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Karmakar et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 35-48 Table 8. Result of calibration processed by Matlab Principal Distortion(kc) Point(cc) K1 K2 K3 K4 312.0 222.2 0.00581 0.011 7083 7948 0.14421 0.06549 79 319.5 239.5 0.26423 -0.00 0000 0000 0.22984 0.00194 043 293.2 236.5 0.30255 0.008 6251 6528 0.21249 0.00360 24 319.5 239.5 0.13955 0.000 0000 0000 0.18865 0.00609 59 319.5 239.5 0.11923 0.003 0000 0000 0.15842 0.00457 12
No Of Image 5 4 3 2 1
Focal Length(fc) 801.1 3189 693.5 3180 633.5 0177 613.6 9139 567.4 4421 793.7 0163 692.0 4824 627.9 2847 612.2 6030 567.1 9535
K5 0.00 000 0.00 000 0.00 000 0.00 000 0.00 000
Pixel Error(err) 0.444 51 0.294 52 0.307 90 0.284 22 0.276 69 0.387 17 0.395 65 0.364 92 0.292 31 0.294 26
Figure 11. Average Pixel error of each corner point of the model plane 8. Conclusion An advantage of research work for camera calibration is that this method is much closer to accuracy than other processes used for object detection by centroid measurement and distance calculation. Zhengyou Zhang Method for camera calibration has been followed. This technique only requires the camera to observe a planar pattern shown at a few (at least two) different orientations. This research work has been carried out at Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, India and mainly focused on finding equal distance in the Braille printer output by image processing technique. The distorted images are compared with the modified undistorted one. Results, thereafter, finally establish this to be a very satisfactory quality testing procedure of a commercially fabricated Braille printer.
Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to Director, CMERI, Durgapur for extending his help regarding this project work. We thank Somajyoti Majumder scientist CMERI, Durgapur for his technical help, good ideas and valuable assistance during the experiment. References Avinash N. and Murali S., 2008. Perspective geometry based single image camera calibration. Journal of Mathematical Imaging and Vision, Springer Netherlands, Vol 30 , No. 3, pp 221 230. Bougnoux S., 1998. From projective to euclidean space under any practical situation, a criticism of self-calibration. 6th International Conference on Computer Vision, Bombay , India, pp. 790796. Brown D. C., 1971. Close-range camera calibration. Photogrammetric Engineering , pp. 855866.
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Chen F, Zhao J. and Zhao H.W., 2008. A novel camera calibration method based on genetic algorithm. IEEE Transactions, Singapore, pp. 22222227. Faig W., 1975. Calibration of close-range photogrammetry systems: Mathematical formulation. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 41, No. 12, pp. 14791486. Foster M. P., 2006.Normalized Convolution Techniques. MP Foster - clara.net. Gennery D., 1979. Stereo-camera calibration. In Proc. 10th Image Understanding Workshop, Stanford University Stanford, California 94305, pp. 101108. Hartley R. and Zisserman A., 2003 . Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision. Cambridge University Press, second edition, ISBN 0521 54051 8, pp. 155157. Hartley R.I., 1994.An algorithm for self calibration from several views. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 908912. Hentzshel T.W., 1993. An optical braille reading system. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. United Kingdom. Heikkila J. and Silven O. 1997. A four-step camera calibration procedure with implicit image correction. InfoTech Oulu and Department of Electrical Engineering University of Oulu FIN-90570 Oulu, Finland. Hua T.P., Sugiyama A. and Faucon G. 2005. A new self-calibration technique for adaptive microphone arrays, 2005 International Workshop on Acoustic Echo and Noise Control High Tech Campus, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, September 12 - 15, 2005, pp. 237-240. Knyaz V.A., 2006. Automated calibration technique for photogrammetric system based on a multi-media projector and a CCD camera, ISPRS Image Engineering and Vision Metrology, Dresden, pp. 25-27. Luong Q.T.and Faugeras O., 1997.Self-calibration of a Table IX technical data of the imaging system (Sony DSC-H50) moving camera from point correspondences and fundamental matrices. International Journal of Computer Vision, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 261-289. Maas H. G., 1997. Dynamic photogrammetric calibration of industrial robots. in videometrics V, SPIE Proceedings Series, Vol. 3174, SPIEs 42nd Annual Meeting, San Diego, 27.7.- 1.8. Malm H. and Heyden A., 2003. Simplified intrinsic camera calibration and hand-eye calibration for robot vision. IEEE Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Las Vegas, Nevada. Maybank S.J. and Faugeras O.D., 1992 .A theory of self calibration of a moving camera. International Journal of Computer Vision, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.123152. McDowell M., 2004. An integrated centroid finding and particle overlap decomposition algorithm for stereo imaging velocimeter. NASA Technical Memorandum (NASA/TM2004-213365). Paulo R. S., Mendonc A. and Cipolla R., 1999. A simple technique for self-calibration. Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR '99), 23-25 June 1999, Ft. Collins, CO, USA. IEEE Computer Society, ISBN 0-7695-0149-4, pp. 1063-6919. Remondino F. and Borlin N. 2004. Photogrammetric calibration of image sequences acquired with a rotating camera. Int. Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vol.34 (5/W16). Ritter M., Hemmleb. M., Faber P.C., Lich B. and Hohenberg H. 2006. Sem/fib stage calibration with photogrammetric methods. ISPRS Commission V Symp. 2006 (Int. Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences), Vol. XXXVI Part 5. Salvi J., Armangu X. and Batlle J., 2002. A comparative review of camera calibrating methods with accuracy evaluation. Pattern Recognition, pp. 16171635. Sturm P. F and Maybank S. J., 1999. On plane-based camera calibration: a general algorithm, singularities, applications. Computational Vision Group, Department of Computer Science, The University of Reading Whiteknights, IEEE 1063-6919/99. Weckesser P. and Hetzel G., 1994. photogrammetric calibration method for an active stereo vision system. Intelligent Robotic Systems (IRS), pp. 430-436. Yanqing Z. and Zhiyan W., 2006. A flexible camera calibration method for computer visual 3D reconstruction system. IEEE Transactions 0-7803-9737-1/06, Vol 2, Guilin, China. Zhang Z.. A flexible new technique for camera calibration. Technical Report MSRTR-98-71, Microsoft Research, December 1998. Available together with the software at http://research.microsoft.com/zhang/Calib/ Zhang Z., 1999.Flexible Camera Calibration By Viewing a Plane From Unknown Orientations. International Conference on Computer Vision , Corfu, Greece, pp. 666-673.
Biographical notes Suman Karmakar received his bachelors degree in Computer Science and Engineering Department from Bankura Unnayani Institute of Engineering, Bankura under West Bengal University of Technology in 2007. He joined Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur as a Project Fellow in 2007. He involved in different project like Development of Software for the Optimization of Silicon Rubber
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Mould Characteristics, and Development of high speed Braille Printer. His work area includes programming in VC++ and image processing using Matlab and C++. Rudra Prasad Chatterjee (M08) became a Member (M) of IEEE in 2008 of Communication Society. He received his bachelors degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Dr.B.C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur under West Bengal University of Technology in 2005. He joined National Institute of Science and Technology, Berhampura, Orissa as a lecturer in 2005. Later he joined Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur as a Scientist in 2006. His work area includes wireless control of robotic devices, mobile network etc. He has been involved in SUPRA Institutional Project (SIP-24) Design and Development of Snake Robot for Disaster Management. He has published ten papers including national and international journals. Uma Datta received her bachelors degree in Radio Physics and Electronics from Calcutta University in 1981 and Masters in Electrical from Regional Engineering College, Durgapur in 1994. She joined Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur in 1984, as a Scientist. She became the Head of the Department of Electronics and Control Lab in the year of 2005. Her work area includes Instrumentation Engineering and Control System. She has supervised the following projects at CMERI: Development of Expander Extruder for processing oil seeds with Automatic Control (sponsored), Design and Development of CTC roller sharpening machine with automatic control (sponsored by: Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India.), Design and development of Electro-magnetic Stirrer for 1.3 Kg. Molten AL-356 (sponsored by: NMRL, Govt. of India) etc. She has published twenty papers including national and international journals. Received June 2009 Accepted August 2009 Final acceptance in revised form September 2009
Table 9. Technical data of the imaging system (Sony DSC-H50) Max resolution 3456x 2592 Image ratio w:h 4:3, 3:2 Effective pixels 9.1 million Sensor size 1/2.3" 6.16x4.62 mm,0.28 cm Sensor type CCD Normal range 50cm focus Aperture range F2.7 - F4.5
(a)
(b)
Figure 12. (a) Principal Point of the number for square widths of images of the model plane Check board squares counted from left to right (b) Note that the center of the image is around box no 5.
47
Figure 13. Braille original gray Image
Figure 14. Braille Undistorted image
Figure 15. Histogram of the gray Braille image
Figure 16. Histogram of the Braille threshold
Figure 17. Shifting the corner point of undistorted model plane
48
Figure 18. Five images of a model plane, together with the extracted corners (indicated by cross)
Figure 19. Five undistorted images of a model plane
MultiCraft
Defining the change of meshing rigidity caused by a crack in the gear tooths foot
P. Czech1*, P. Folga1, G. Wojnar1
1
Faculty of Transport, Silesian University of Technology, Katowice, Poland * Corresponding Author: e-mail:piotr.czech@polsl.pl
Abstract In this paper, research results concerning the influence of the cracks at the base of the tooth of wheel on the change of the wheel rigidity is presented. In order to achieve this, a series of experiments was conducted with the use of models FEM and BEM. The correctness of the models was verified with the use of analytic method, whereas the final results were confirmed in a research experiment conducted on the endurance machine MTS. The achieved results enabled the conduction of research devoted to the possibility of use of simulation models of toothed gears to get the teaching data for artificial neural networks. The best of neural networks correctly worked during tests with real data. Keywords: gearbox, FEM, BEM, stiffness 1. Introduction The meshing rigidity according to the ISO/DIS 6336 norm is defined as the ratio of the increase of the normal strength to the increase of the deformation existing in the buttress of pairs of teeth with the unitary width of the non-deviation gear. The deformation is determined in the perpendicular direction to the tooth profile in the front intersection. The meshing rigidity is dependent on the toothed wheels geometry and the physical properties of the materials they are constructed of. The main factors influencing the values of meshing rigidity are (Jakiewicz and Wsiewski, 1992): the data concerning the meshing (number of teeth, the coefficient of the profile shift, the profile of the reference, etc.), the load value, roughness and waviness of the sides of tooth, elasticity module. In the ISO/DIS 6336/1 norm a number of methods of meshing rigidity marking are given and they differ from each other mainly in terms of the calculation precision of results. The most precise method of meshing rigidity marking is the A method, according to which in the conducted analysis all factors having influence on it should be taken into account. The methods in this group are numeric calculation methods, such as finite elements method (FEM) and boundary elements method (BEM). In this paper, both mentioned methods will serve as a tool to mark the meshing rigidity in both a proper and damaged gear. The use of the numeric methods in the tests of damages in toothed gears may be found in (Chaari et al, 2009, Ciavarella and Demelio, 1999, Ding et al, 1995, Howard et al, 2001, Kramberger et al, 2004, Pehan et al, 1997, Pehan et al, 2008, Zouari et al, 2007). In the literature, one may find the simplified methods of meshing rigidity marking. Among them is the suggestion in (Mller, 1986) which concerns a method of analytic marking of the meshing rigidity. That method, however, has serious limitations preventing the conduction of a complete experiment. This limitation is the possibility to mark the value of the meshing rigidity only for the undamaged teeth of the toothed gears. In this paper that method was use to verify the numeric models FEM and BEM. In addition, the experimental verification of the results was conducted on the endurance machine, MTS.
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Czech et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp.49-56
2. Analytic method of marking the meshing stiffness In the paper (Mller, 1986), the following analytic way of marking the meshing stiffness was suggested: defining the material constants, the geometry of the tooth and the size of the load, marking the deflection of the tooth in the chosen points of the normal strength application to the profile, marking the deflection of the co-operating tooth in the previously assumed points of strength application (teeth co-operation), calculation of the flattening of the surface of both teeth in the successive points of contact, marking the total deformation of the pair of teeth, marking the meshing rigidity in separate defined co-operation points. Marking of the changes in rigidity of a tooth in a pinion, the wheel and the meshing is conducted with the use of the dependence:
F C = 1 w 1 F C = 2 w 2
(1)
(2)
F C = z F F + C C 1 2
(3)
where: F unitary load strength N/mm, w1 deflection of the tooth in pinion m, w2 deflection of the tooth of wheel m, C1 rigidity of the tooth of pinion N/mm m, C2 rigidity of the tooth of wheel N/mm m, Cz meshing rigidity N/mm m. Because this method does not enable to mark the tooth rigidity with a cracked base, it was used only to verify the numeric models of FEM and BEM. In order to verify the FEM and BEM models, the results achieved with the use of them were compared with the results achieved with the use of Mller analytic method. An example presented in (Mller, 1986) was used, with the following assumptions: number of teeth of pinion z1=20, number of teeth of a wheel z2=35, coefficient of the shaft of the pinion profile x1=0,3, coefficient of the shaft of the wheel profile x2=0,1, thickness of the pinion sf1=2,033 (this value corresponds with the value of the toothed gear module), wheel thickness sf2=2,077 (this value corresponds with the value of the toothed gear module), angle of the profile =200, tip clearance c0=0,2 (this value corresponds with the value of the toothed gear module), the height of the tool head ha0=1,25 (this value corresponds with the value of the toothed gear module), scale on the principal circle pb=0,282 (this value corresponds with the value of the toothed gear module), number of contact =1,525, unitary load Q=4 MPa. The comparison of the meshing rigidity marked with FEM and BEM method with the results achieved with the use of Mller analytic method are shown in Table 1 and in Figure 1. Additionally, in Table 1, the percentage differences (%) between the results achieved in case of FEM and BEM method and the Mller analytic method are presented. In the analysis of the meshing stiffness values marked with the use of numeric methods FEM and BEM and the Mller analytic method one may state their conformity in quality and quantity. The differences in the achieved results may result from not taking into account in numeric calculations the contact effects, which is the flattening of the teeth surfaces.
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Czech et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp.49-56 Table 1. Meshing rigidity marked with the use of Mller analytic method, FEM and BEM Meshing rigidity marked with the use of: Point of co-operation on the contact line BEM Mller FEM % (%) (N/mm m) (N/mm m) (N/mm m) 1 12,573 12,126 3,5 11,228 2 14,363 14,414 0,3 13,840 3 15,664 15,622 0,3 15,145 4 16,369 16,552 1,1 15,970 5 16,450 16,822 2,3 16,625 6 15,943 16,366 2,6 15,449 7 14,936 15,147 1,4 14,526 8 13,551 13,898 2,7 13,157 9 11,920 11,460 3,9 10,432
20 18 Meshing rigidity N/m m m 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 line A B C 6 7 8 9 Point of co-ope ration on the contact
% (%) 10,7 3,6 3,3 2,4 1,1 3,1 2,7 2,9 12,5
Figure 1. Meshing rigidity marked with the use of: A Mller, B FEM, C BEM 3. Marking of the meshing stiffness with the use of finite elements method Marking of the meshing stiffness with the use of FEM method enables to take into account all factors appearing in contact of teeth in toothed gears. Such complete approach to the issue causes numeric difficulties and rather long numeric calculation time. That is why after conduction of a number of numeric experiments a simplified method of marking the meshing stiffness based on the assumptions of the analytic method shown in paper (Mller, 1986) was worked out. After generating the profile of the pinion tooth and the wheel, the deformations are marked in points of strength application, and next the rigidity changes of a single tooth in a radius function separately for the pinion and for the wheel. Next, having in mind the course of rigidity changes of single teeth it is possible to mark the meshing rigidity of one pair of teeth in a randomly chosen point on the contact line. Knowing the meshing rigidity of one pair of teeth it is possible to mark the meshing rigidity in a multi-pair contact. The geometry of the profile of a pinion tooth and the wheel was marked as a set of points coordinates on specially created software prepared by Transport Faculty of Silesian University of Technology. This software enables, in accordance with the assumed pinion or wheel parameters (module, number of teeth, correction, etc.) to mark the curve describing the evolvent part of the tooth profile and the shape of the tooth foot according to (Mller, 1996). The load method and the tooth support method assumed in the numeric calculations is presented in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. The load method and the tooth support method In the calculations three teeth of a wheel were used with fastened rim and normal strength to the profile loading the middle tooth. The unitary load strength was applied in successive points of the tooth profile. Those points were placed on the corresponding radii of the gear, being the equivalent of various points of teeth co-operation on the contact line. In order to create the numeric model of the pinion and the wheel the program Cosmos/M. The net with the appropriately chosen density was constructed of elements type PLANE2D. The created numeric model took into account the real shape geometry of a tooth and the deformation of the toothed wheel rim. In the conducted calculations, during marking the meshing rigidity, the flattening of the surface of both teeth in successive points of contact caused by the touch of those surfaces was not taken into consideration. In order to mark the influence of the crack in a tooth base on the meshing rigidity such wheels were used with parameters corresponding to the assumed during the simulation research with the use of dynamic model of a gear and the tests on the rotating power post FZG (Czech, 2006). Gear specifications are presented in the Table 2. Table 2. Specifications of gearbox Parameter Value Number of pinion teeth z1 = 16 Number of wheel teeth z2 = 24 Obliquity angle = 0o Addendum modification coefficient x1 = 0,8635 Gear modification coefficient x2 = -0,5 Main pressure angle = 20 Nominal module mn = 4.5 mm Contact ratio = 1,32 Addendum coefficient hao = 1 Tip clearance coefficient co = 0,25 Wheel width b = 20 mm The crack in the foot of the tooth was modelled as an undercut with parameters presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Way of modelling the crack in the tooth foot
53
The position of the undercut was chosen in the point where the biggest concentration of the stress appeared in the foot of tooth on its stretched side (Ciavarella and Demelio, 1999, Kramberger et al, 2004, Mller, 1972, Pehan et al, 1997). The width and the depth of the gap were in accordance with the one assumed during tests on the real object of the working gear on FZG stand (Czech, 2006). The tests were conducted for the correct gear and the gear with a defect in the form of a crack in the foot of wheel tooth. The example results achieved with the use of FEM method of the deflection of the tooth without damage and with damage in the form of crack in the foot of the tooth are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. The tooth deflection marked with the use of FEM method under the influence of applied unitary strength for an undamaged tooth and a tooth with a modelled crack in the foot The rigidity of the pinion, the wheel and the meshing marked with the use of FEM method are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Marked with the use of FEM method: pinion rigidity, wheel rigidity and meshing rigidity, with the depth of the undercut: A 0 mm, B 1 mm, C 2 mm, D 3 mm The conducted analyses confirmed the correctness of the assumption in paper (Czech, 2006) about the decrease of meshing rigidity in case of appearing crack of the tooth base. 4. Marking of the meshing rigidity with the use of boundary elements method In order to mark the meshing rigidity with the use of BEM method, special software was used, created for this purpose on the Faculty of Transport of Silesian University of Technology. This software enables to generate any profile of the teeth of a wheel and the calculation of the rigidity for wheels without damages, as well as with appearing damage in the form of a crack in the tooth base. The assumptions of the tests were the same as the ones for FEM method. The software, which was used, enables the refinement of the points of the tooth profile in places of biggest stresses concentration. This application enables the analysis of the flat state of the deformation, making it possible to take into the concentration directly the points describing the profile of the tooth as kinematic pairs of the boundary elements. In the tests the elements with three kinematic pairs and square functions of shape were used. The support method and the way of force application were in accordance with the ones assumed in meshing rigidity tests with the use of FEM method. The example results of the tooth deflection under the influence of the applied unitary strength, achieved with the use of BEM method are shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6. The tooth deflection marked with the use of BEM method under the influence of applied unitary strength for an undamaged tooth and a tooth with a modelled crack in the foot (scale = 10:1) The conducted experiment was repeated for an undamaged wheel and for a wheel with an undercut in the foot of the tooth. The undercut was done on the depth of 1, 2 and 3 mm, which was in accordance with the tests on a real object of a working gear on a rotating power post (Czech, 2006). The results for pinion rigidity, wheel rigidity and meshing rigidity, achieved after BEM analysis, are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Marked with the use of BEM method pinion rigidity, wheel rigidity and meshing rigidity, with the depth of the undercut: A 0 mm, B 1 mm, C 2 mm, D 3 mm The assumptions presented in paper (Czech, 2006) concerning the decrease of the meshing rigidity in case of the crack appearing at the base of the tooth were confirmed by the achieved results. 5. Experimental verification of the results The aim of the tests was the experimental verification of the designed numeric model of a toothed wheel. The machining station tests were conducted on a resistance machine MTS-810 with a power range up to 50 kN (Figure 8). The use of the MTS machine in tests enables the conduction of the thermo-mechanical endurance tests. The machining station is built of: extensometers suitable for tests in room temperature and in high temperatures, resistance furnace type MTS 653 02.A Furnace with temperature up to 1200oC, heating chamber up to 500oC, inductive heater by LEPEL company, type DWGT-504-279, system Test Star II and Test WARE SX for digital operation of endurance machines, system for heat fatigue test. System of digital operation Test Star II enables the independent steering of two quantities simultaneously. It gives possibility to conduct heat fatigue tests by independent steering of the heat cycle and the mechanic load. The load may be realised by steering of one quantity only: power, shift or deformation.
55
Figure 8. The MTS-810 machine The conducted tests were performed with steering of power ranging from 0 to 7.5 kN. The power range was chosen in such a way, in order not to exceed the elastic deformation. The load was applied on the wheel tooth tip. In the experiments the deflection in the power application point in the direction of its influence was registered with the use of extensometers joined with the registration device. Tooth load method with attached extensometer is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Tooth load method and the extensometer used for registration of the shift The tests were conducted for an undamaged wheel and for a wheel with a modelled undercut in the tooth foot at the depth of 1, 2 and 3 mm. The parameters of the tested wheel were in accordance with the one used in dynamic model tests of a toothed gear and the conducted test on rotating power post FZG (Czech, 2006). The achieved results of the experiment were compared with the results achieved during tests with the use of FEM and BEM and put together in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Rigidity of a wheel tooth marked on its tip The conducted tests on an endurance machine MTS confirmed the correctness of the numeric experiments using FEM and BEM.
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The appearing differences may result from the applied methodology, different in case of each experiment. 6. Conclusion According to the research made so far, around 60% of toothed gear failures result from tooth failure, and around 90% of these involve local failures, such as cracking at the tooth root. The cracking is accompanied by disturbance of tooth contact conditions, resulting from local change of meshing rigidity. The key objective of the gear diagnostics procedures is to identify such process in its early stages. Non-invasive diagnostics, including vibroacoustic diagnostics, is of particular importance here. At present, failure symptoms found in the signal, are more and more often studied with the aid of artificial intelligence methods. Such methods are resistant to interference, and allow modelling of any nonlinearities and generalization of knowledge. On the basis of the achieved results, in paper (Czech, 2006) the following influence of the crack in the tooth foot on the change of meshing rigidity was assumed: 0 mm: 0...9 % change of meshing rigidity, 1 mm 10...19 % change of meshing rigidity, 3 mm 30...40 % change of meshing rigidity. These assumptions enabled in the next part of the tests (Czech, 2006) to check the correctness of neural classifiers work, which were taught with the use of standards achieved from a dynamic model of a toothed gear working in a power transmission system. The testing process, however, was conducted using data achieved from a real gear. As a result of the conducted research it was possible to build a correctly working neural classifier of both the kind, as well as the kind and advancement of the gear damage. In the next investigations, the artificial neural networks (eg SVM, MLP, RBF, PNN), fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms in diagnostic systems which could recognise the type and level of local damages of the teeth of the toothed gears will be used. The classifiers will be based on input data derived from acceleration signals. References Chaari F., Fakhfakh T., Haddar M., 2009. Analytical modelling of spur gear tooth crack and influence on gearmesh stiffness. European Journal of Mechanics - A/Solids, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 461-468. Ciavarella M., Demelio G., 1999. Numerical methods for the optimization of specific sliding, stress concentration and fatigue life gears. International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 21, pp. 465-474. Czech P., 2006. Toothed gear troubleshooting by means of artificial intelligence. PhD Thesis. Katowice. Ding Y., Jones R., Kuhnell B., 1995. Numerical analysis of subsurface crack failure beneath the pitch line of a gear tooth during engagement. Wear, Vol. 185, pp. 141-149. Howard I., Jia S., Wang J., 2001. The dynamic modeling of a spur gear in mesh including friction and crack. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 831-853. Jakiewicz Z., Wsiewski A., 1992. Gearboxes. WKi, Warszawa. Kramberger J., Sraml M., Potrc I., Flasker J., 2004. Numerical calculation of bending fatigue life of thin-rim spur gears. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 71, pp. 647-656. Mller L., 1986. Gearboxes. Dynamics. WNT, Warszawa. Mller L., 1972. Gearboxes. Strength researches. WNT, Warszawa. Mller L., 1996. Gearboxes. Design. WNT, Warszawa. Pehan S., Hellen T. K., Flasker J., Glodez S., 1997. Numerical methods for determining stress intensity factors vs crack depth in gear tooth roots. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 19 No. 10, pp. 677-685. Pehan S., Kramberger J., Flaker J., Zafonik B., 2008. Investigation of crack propagation scatter in a gear tooths root. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 75, No. 5, pp. 1266-1283. Zouari S., Maatar M., Fakhfakh T. and Haddar M., 2007. Three-dimensional analyses by finite element method of a spur gear: effect of cracks in the teeth foot on the mesh stiffness. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 475-481.
Biographical notes Dr. Piotr Czech, Dr. Piotr Folga, Dr. Grzegorz Wojnar are assistant professors at the Silesian University of Technology, Transport Faculty, Department of Automotive Vehicle Construction. They have published several papers in various national, international conferences and journals. They are the winners of many competitions, such as the competition for the Prize of President of the Council of Ministers and for Fiat Prize.
Received December 2009 Accepted January 2010 Final acceptance in revised form January 2010
MultiCraft
Integrating genetic algorithms and tabu search for unit commitment problem
M. Sudhakaran1, P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj2*
1 2*
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India E-mails:(karan_mahalingam@yahoo.com (M. Sudhakaran); ajayvimal@yahoo.com (P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj) *Corresponding author)
Abstract Optimization is the art of obtaining optimum result under given circumstances. In design, construction and maintenance of any engineering system, Engineers have to take many technological and managerial decisions at several stages. The ultimate goal of all such decisions is to either maximize the desired benefit or to minimize the effort or the cost required. This paper shows a memetic algorithm, a real coded Genetic Algorithm combined with local search, synergistically combined with Tabu Search is effective and efficient for solving large Unit Commitment (UC) problems in electrical power systems. A set of feasible generator schedule is first formulated by real coded genetic algorithm method. Then these pre-committed schedules are optimized by ordinary local search and tabu search. The tabu search based hybrid GT algorithm was tested on reported UC problems previously addressed by some existing techniques such as Dynamic Programming (DP), and Simple Genetic Algorithms. Numerical results for systems up to 36 units are given and commented on. A comprehensive unit commitment software package is developed. The future scope of the paper using the proposed method finds a place in the conclusion. Keywords: Unit commitment, economic load dispatch, memetic algorithm, hybrid GT algorithm, local search, tabu search, combinatorial optimization 1. Introduction Optimization, the best way of doing things, is obviously of great interest in the practical world of engineering. In recent years, for power system management, many important decisions are made by describing the system under study as precisely and quantitatively as possible, selecting some measures of system effectiveness, and then seeking the state of the system which gives the most desirable solution to the criteria. Modern electric power systems built with nonlinear characteristics are highly interconnected with wide geographical distribution. This demands the optimization of a complex objective function under few practical constraints. Hence power system network optimization involves maximization or minimization of objective function under certain constraints. An efficient unit commitment plays an important role in the economic operation of a power system. The objective of unit commitment is to determine when to start up and shut down units such that the total operating cost can be minimized. The standard unit commitment problem is formulated subject to several constraints that include minimum up-time and down-time, crew constraints, ramp rate limits, generation constraints, load balances, must-run units and spinning reserve constraints. The ideal method of solving the generator scheduling problem involves an exhaustive trial of all the possible solutions and then choosing the best amongst these. This straightforward method would test all combinations of units that can supply the load and reserve requirements. The combination that has the least operating cost is taken as the optimal schedule. Given enough time this enumerative process is guaranteed to find the optimal solution but the solution must be obtained within a time that makes it useful for the intended purpose. Even when the problem is highly constrained, the efficiency of the solution is poor except for the simplest of cases. Several researches have been done in the unit commitment field for the past two decades. Many papers have recently provided a complete literature synopsis of the solution methods for unit commitment problems. These methods include priority list (Wood and
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Sudhakaran and Ajay-D-Vimal Raj / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 57-69
Wollenberg, 1984), dynamic programming (Tong et. al., 1991), integer programming (Michaelwich, 1990), branch and bound (Wood and Wollenberg, 1984), linear programming (Tong et. al., 1991), network flow programming (Tong et. al., 1991), lagrangian relaxation (Cheng et. al., 2000) and simulated annealing (Mantawy et. al., 1999). All these methods only provide near global optimal solutions and the quality of each solution is affected by either the solution time limitation, or the feasibility of the final solution. Computer storage requirements used to be another major limiting factor but this is fast becoming a thing of the past as the cost of computer memory continues to drop. Recently there is an upsurge in the use of methods such as Genetic Algorithms and artificial neural networks that mimic natural processes to solve complex problems. Genetic Algorithms have become increasingly popular in recent years in science and engineering disciplines. Some works have been published covering the solution of the unit commitment problem using GA (Maifeld and Sheble, 1996). Solution coding and fitness functions are the most important issues in solving problems using GA. In the literature, unit commitment solutions coding have been done in the binary form. The fitness function has been constructed as the summation of the objective function and penalty terms for constraints violations. The Tabu Search is a powerful optimization procedure that has been successfully applied to a number of combinatorial optimization problems (Mantawy et. al., 1999). It has the ability to avoid entrapment in local optima by employing a flexible memory system. In this paper, a simple TS algorithm based on short-term memory has been proposed for solving the unit commitment problem (Glover and Laguna, 2000). Maifeld and Sheble (1996) have presented a genetic-based unit commitment (UC) scheduling algorithm. It has made use of GA with domain specific mutation operators for finding good unit commitment schedules. The test results of three different electric utilities have been compared with that of Lagrangian relaxation UC method. Bakirtzis et al. (1996) have developed a genetic algorithm that uses different quality function techniques to solve the unit commitment problem. The test results up to 100 generator units have been compared with that of dynamic programming and Lagrangian relaxation methods. Swarup et al. (2002) have employed a new solution methodology to the UC problem using genetic algorithm. The strategy has been found to be efficient and serve to handle larger size UC problems. Gaing (2003) has built an integrated approach of discrete binary particle swarm optimization (BPSO) with the lambda-iteration method for solving the UC problem. It has been solved as two subproblems using BPSO method for minimization of the transition cost. The economic dispatch problem has been solved by lambda-iteration method for the minimization of the production cost. The feasibility of the method has been demonstrated on a 10- and a 26-unit system, and the test results have been compared with that of GA method. Zhao et al. (2006) have presented an improved particle swarm optimization (IPSO) algorithm for power system UC problem. It has adopted an orthogonal design in order to generate the initial population that are scattered uniformly over a feasible solution space. The IPSO algorithm has been tested on a modeled 10-unit system and the performance is compared with that of GA and EP methods. Ting et al. (2006) have integrated a new approach of hybrid particle swarm optimization (HPSO) scheme, which is a blend of HPSO, BPSO and real-coded particle swarm optimization (RCPSO), to solve the UC problem. The UC problem has been handled by BPSO, whereas the economic load dispatch problem has been solved by RCPSO. Funabashi et al. (2007) have formulated a twofold simulated annealing method for the optimization of fuzzy-based UC model. The method has served to offer a robust solution for UC problem. Victoire et al. (2005) have applied a hybrid PSO and sequential quadratic programming (SQP) technique, prelude to tabu search (TS) method for solving the UC problem. The combinational part of the UC problem has been solved using the TS method. The nonlinear optimization part of economic dispatch problem (EDP) has been solved using a hybrid PSO-SQP technique. The effectiveness of hybrid optimization technique has been tested on a NTPS zone-II 7-unit system. Grey and Sekar (2008) have presented a unified solution of the SCUC using linear programming (LP) as the optimization tool and an extended DC network model for accounting for security and contingency concerns and for calculating the ED. An extended DC model that includes line flows permits a more practical approach to include security consideration. Unlike the traditional SCUC algorithms presented in the literature, the proposed unified method solves the optimization from the network outward to the generation schedule. In this paper, we propose a new hybrid GT algorithm for solving the UC problem. The algorithm integrates the main features of the genetic algorithm based Memetic Algorithm and Tabu Search. The paper is organized as follows: In section 2, the problem formulation for unit commitment with all constraints is presented. The proposed Hybrid GT Algorithm, which is a genetic algorithm, combined with local search and Tabu Search is given in section 3. Implementations of GA and TS in proposed Hybrid GT algorithm are shown in section 4 and section 5 respectively. Test cases and simulation results are discussed in section 6 and conclusions and the future scope of the paper are summarized in section 7. 2. Problem formulation The generator scheduling problem involves the determination of the start up / shut down times and the power output levels of all the generating units at each time step, over a specified scheduling period T, so that the total start up, shut down and running costs are minimized subject to system and unit constraints. The fuel cost, FCi per unit in any given time interval is a function of the generator power output. A frequently used cost function is
FCi = Ai Pi + Bi Pi + Ci Rs/Hr
Ai, Bi, Ci represent unit cost coefficients, while Pi is the unit power output.
(1)
59
The Generator start up cost depends on the time the unit has been off prior to start up. The start up cost in any given time interval can be represented by an exponential cost curve
SCi = i + i { exp(Toff ,i / i )} 1
(2)
i is the hot start up cost, i the cold start up cost, i the unit cooling time constant and is Toff,i the time a unit has been off. The shut down cost, SD is usually given a constant value for each unit. The total production cost, FT for the scheduling period is the sum of the running cost, start up cost and shut down cost for all the units.
FT =
t =1
FC
i =1
i,t
+ SCi,t + SDi,t
(3)
The overall objective is to minimize FT subject to a number of constraints]: (i) System hourly power balance, where the total power generated must supply the load demand PD and system losses PL,
Pu
i =1
i i
(PD + PL ) = 0
t = 1,2...........T
(4)
(ii)
Hourly spinning reserve requirements R must be met
P
i =1 i
max
ui (PD + PL ) = R
t = 1,2...........T
(5)
(iii)
Unit rated minimum and maximum capacities must not be violated
Pi
(iv) (v)
min
Pi Pi
max
(6)
The initial unit states at the start of the scheduling period must be taken in to account. Minimum up / down (MUT / MDT) time limits of units must not be violated,
(T on t 1,i MUTi )(ut 1,i ut ,i ) 0

(T off t 1,i MDTi )(ut ,i ut 1,i ) 0
(7) (8)
Toff / Ton is the unit off / on time, while ut,i denotes the unit off / on [0,1] status. Other constraints such as unit rate limits, crew constraint limitations, unit status restrictions, unit derating factors can be considered but are not included in this paper. 3. GA implementation in the proposed GT algorithm The details of the implementation of GA components are summarized here as follows: 3.1. Coding of solution The solution in the unit commitment problem is represented by a binary matrix (U) of dimension T X N. The proposed method for coding is a mixer of binary and decimal numbers. Each column vector in the solution matrix (Which is the operation schedule of one unit) of length T is converted to its equivalent decimal number. The solution matrix is then converted into one row vector (chromosome) of N decimal numbers (U1, U2, UN), each represents the schedule of one unit. The numbers U1, U2, UN are integers ranging from 0 to 2N - 1. Accordingly, a population of size NPOP is stored in a matrix NPOP X N. 3.2 Fitness function As we are generating always feasible solutions in the proposed GT algorithm, the fitness function is taken as the reciprocal of the total production cost. The fitness function is then scaled to prevent the premature convergence. Linear scaling is used in our algorithm, which requires linear relationship between the original fitness function and the scaled one (Michaelwich, 1990).
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3.3 Crossover In this paper the window crossover operation is performed between two chromosomes in their binary form. Applying window crossover operator to parents X and Y, and obtaining offspring Z, works as follows: (i) Set parent X to have fitness (X) > fitness (Y) (ii) Sample l from uniform (0,T), w from uniform (0,N), u from uniform (1,N-w), and h from uniform (1,T-1) distributions. (iii) Define a window W1, of dimension lw, with left upper corner [u,l] and right lower corner [u+w,h+l]. (iv) Define a window W2 as the complement of W1. (v) If (dimension of W1is greater than dimension of W2 ) Copy genes of X[W1] to Z[W1] and genes from Y[W2] to Z[W2]. Else Copy genes of X[W2] to Z[W2] and genes from Y[W1] to Z[W1]. 3.4 Mutation Mutation operation is performed by randomly selecting chromosome with a prespecified probability. The selected chromosome is decoded to its binary equivalent. Then the unit number and time period are randomly selected and the rule of mutation is applied to reverse the status of units keeping the feasibility of the constraints Sudhakaran et al. (2002). 3.5 Swap Mutation Operator After performing crossover and mutation, the swap mutation operator is added. The swap operator uses the full load average costs (AFLC) of the generating units to perform a swap of unit states. The AFLC of a unit is defined as the cost per unit of power when the generator is at its full capacity. When the fuel cost is given by the equation FCi = Ai Pi2 + Bi Pi + Ci Rs/Hr AFLC can be expressed as AFLCi = Ci / Pimax + Bi + Ai Pimax The generating units are ranked by their AFLC in ascending order. Units with lower AFLC should have higher priority to be dispatched. At a given hour, the operator probabilistically swaps the states of two units i and j only if the unit i is ranked better than unit j (i<j) and the state of the units are off and on, respectively. This operator is a modified version of the priority list dispatching heuristic, where the generating units are committed in a predetermined order. 4. TS Implementation in the proposed GT algorithm Tabu Search is characterized by an ability to escape local optima by using a short-term memory of recent solutions. This is achieved by a strategy of forbidding certain moves. The purpose of classifying certain moves as forbidden i.e. tabu is basically to prevent cycling. Moreover, TS permits backtracking to previous solutions, which may ultimately lead, via a different direction, to better solutions. The main two components of TS algorithm are the Tabu List (TL) restrictions and Aspiration Level (AV) of the solution associated with the recorded moves. They are discussed in the following sections. 4.1 Tabu List (TL) TL is managed by recording moves (trial solutions) in the order in which they are made. Each time a new element is added to the bottom of a list, the oldest element on the list is dropped from the top. TL sizes, which provide good results, often grow with the size of the problem and stronger restrictions are generally coupled with smaller sizes. Best sizes of TL lie in an intermediate range between these extremes. In some applications a simple choice of TL size in a range centered around 7 seems to be quite effective. 4.2 Aspiration Criteria (AV) Another key issue of TS arises when the move under consideration has been found to be tabu. Associated with each entry in the tabu list there is a certain value for the evaluation function called Aspiration Level (AV). Roughly speaking, AV criteria are designed to override tabu status if a move is good enough. In the proposed algorithm TS is used to generate new neighbors to randomly selected members of the GA populations. The flow chart of Figure 2 describes the main step of the TS algorithm.
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Sudhakaran and Ajay-D-Vimal Raj / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 57-69 Start
Initialize the variables for GA and TS
Generate the initial population for GA and it is the current population
Calculate the objective function for current population members.
Calculate and scale the fitness function for current population members.
Is stopping Criterion reached? No
Yes Stop
Copy the best members in current population to the new population. Using TS algorithm generate new members in new population Apply window cross over operation to the current population to complete the new population b Apply the Mutation operation to the members of new population
Check the feasibility of each member in new population to accept or reject.
Figure 1. Flowchart of proposed hybrid GT method
Let the current population be the new population.
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Sudhakaran and Ajay-D-Vimal Raj / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 57-69 Select randomly a chromosome in the current population.
Decode the chromosome from decimal form into its Binary Form
Generate randomly a few of the neighbour solutions to the selected chromosome
Calculate fitness function of each neighbour in the set
Sort the neighbours in an ascending order according to their fitness function. Perform the following test on the set of neighbours one by one until one of them is accepted
Is the Selected Neighbour TABU?
Yes
Is AV Satisfied?
No
No Accept the solution, Code it from binary to decimal form and add it to the new population of GA
Yes
No Is the required no. of solutions reached? Yes Go to the next step of Main Program.
Figure 2. Flow chart of Tabu search part
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5. Local Search At each generation, two local searches 1-opt and 2-opt, were applied to the best solution of the new generation. 1-opt flips one bit of the solution matrix, whereas 2-opt switches the status of two bits. The 2-opt operator first searches for improvement by switching the status of two units at each hour. Then, the search continues by switching the status of a unit at two different hours. As soon as a better solution is found the local search is stopped and the modified solution replaces the original solution in the new generation. 6. Proposed hybrid GT algorithm In solving the Unit Commitment problem, status of a unit i at hour t (ut,i)and start-up/shut-down status of unit i at hour t (vt,i) which are binary variables, and the units output power variables (Pt,i) which are continuous variables need to be determined. The first is a combinatorial optimization problem while the second is a nonlinear one. A hybrid of GA and TS is proposed to solve the combinatorial optimization. The Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is solved by lambda iterative technique. The proposed hybrid GT algorithm differs from other evolutionary computing techniques in providing an acceptable solution within a relatively short time. In this technique in phase 1, the genetic algorithm samples a large search space, climbs many peaks in parallel, and is likely to lead the search towards the most promising solution area. In phase 2, Tabu search is used to narrow down the global optimal solution area, and the local searches 1-opt and 2-opt are used to tune the method towards the global optimal solution. Figure 1 gives the flow chart of the proposed hybrid GT algorithm The algorithm has the procedural steps as follows: 1. Initial population of np trial solutions is generated. Each solution is taken as a real vector with their dimensions corresponding to the number of control variables. 2. From the expression (5) the fitness function value is evaluated for each solution vector. 3. The termination condition is checked. If the termination condition is reached, the process is stopped, if not the next step is pursued. 4. The best members of the current population are copied to the new population. 5. Tabu search algorithm is used to generate new members in the new population (up to 15%) as neighbours to randomly selected solutions in the current population. 6. The window crossover operator is applied to complete the members of the new population 7. Non-uniform mutation operator is applied to the new population 8. 1-opt and 2-opt local searches are applied for the fine tuning of the solution space to get the global optimal solution 9. The members of the new population are tested so as to treat them as members of the current population. Then the process is continued from step-2. The tabu search part of the proposed algorithm is shown in Figure 2 and the steps are explained as follows, 1. A chromosome is randomly selected from the current population and decoded from decimal to binary form. 2. For the selected chromosome a few neighbour solutions are randomly generated and their fitness function values are calculated. 3. The neighbours are sorted in an ascending order according to their fitness value and the following test is performed on the set of neighbours one by one until one of them is accepted. 4. The selected neighbour is checked. If it is a TABU, the satisfaction of aspiration value (AV) is checked. If it is not a TABU, the solution is accepted and step 6 is pursued. 5. If AV is satisfied, the solution is accepted and step 6 is pursued. Otherwise the neighbour is rejected and the next step is taken. 6. If the required number of solutions is reached, the process returns to the main program. Otherwise it will go to step 1. Stopping Criteria There are several possible stopping conditions for the search. In our hybrid algorithm, we stop the process if one of the following two conditions is satisfied: The number of iterations performed since the best solution last changed is greater than a predefined maximum number of iterations, (or) If maximum allowable number of iterations (generations) is reached. 7. Test problems In order to test the validity of the proposed hybrid GT algorithm, the results of five constrained optimization problems have been considered Baskar and Subburaj (2000) All the problems are test cases to solve nonlinear optimization problems. For the proposed method the parameters were selected as: Population size = 20, Crossover probability = 0.6, Mutation probability = 0.02, the
64
maximum number of generations = 500, TL size Z = 7. All the programs were developed using MATLAB package. Every test case was solved for 50 individual trials on Pentium IV computer with 2.5 GHz for the proposed Hybrid GT algorithm. For the purpose of comparison of performance of different algorithms, the results of Hybrid algorithm (Kim and Myung, 1997), CADE algorithm (Storn, 1999) and Real coded GA (Baskar and Subburaj, 2000) are taken directly from the sources. Test problems: Problem 1 : Minimize f(x) = 100 (x2 x12)2 + (1 x1)2 Subjected to the nonlinear constraints C1: x1 + x22 0 C2 : x12 + x2 0 And bounds 0.5 x1 0.5 and x2 1.0 The known global solution is f (0.5, 0.25) = 0.25. Minimize f(x) = x1x2 Subject to the nonlinear constraints C1: x2 2x14 + 8x13 8x12 2 C2: x2 4x14 + 32x13 88x12 + 96x1 36 and Bounds 0 x1 3 and 0 x2 4 The known global solution is f (2.32952, 3.17849) = 5.508014.
Problem 2 : `
Table 6. gives the comparison of results for the 5 test cases. From the above case study it is true that GA is spending most of its time competing between different hills, rather than improving the solution along a single hill on which the optimal solution is located. Table 7 shows the comparison of execution time taken by all the algorithms for solving the test cases. From the comparison tables and figures it is proved that the proposed hybrid GT algorithm is performing better than other algorithms both in terms of reliability and computation efficiency. In this paper, a new integrated Hybrid Genetic Tabu search algorithm is proposed to solve the combinatorial optimization problems. When the problem is highly nonlinear, this algorithm out performs other algorithms in terms of the quality of the solution and computation expenses. In phase 1 of the proposed algorithm, the real coded GA is used to narrow down the solution space and in phase 2 the Tabu search is used along with the local searches to locate the global optimal solution. This hybrid algorithm handles either inequality or equality constraints and the feasible region do not have to be convex and gradient or other auxiliary informations are not required. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, this method is applied to five constrained optimization test problems and the results obtained are compared with other methods. From the study it is clearly proved that the proposed Hybrid GT algorithm is superior and it can achieve over other conventional algorithms and hybrid algorithms. 8. Power system examples In order to test the proposed hybrid algorithm, the following four examples from the literature were considered. (i) 4 unit system (Saneifard et.al., 1997) (ii) 8 unit system (Sudhakaran et al., 2000) (iii) 10 unit system (Cheng et. al., 2000) (iv) 36 unit system (Ma and Shahidehpour, 1999) The following control parameters have been chosen after running a number of simulations: Population size = 20, Crossover probability = 0.55, Mutation probability = 0.01, the swap mutation probability = 0.3. The maximum number of generations = 1500, TL size Z = 7. For a sample, the data for the 10 unit system is shown in Table 1 and the 24 hr load cycle in Table 2. The comparisons of results for the above four test cases are shown in Table 3 and Table 5. The schedule obtained by the proposed method for the example problem 3 is shown in Table 4. The superiority of the proposed algorithm is obvious. It is clear that the Hybrid GT algorithm performs better than the individual algorithms, in terms of both total production cost and execution time. 9. Conclusion The paper solves the unit commitment problem by the Hybrid GT algorithm, which incorporates the concept of Tabu search into the Genetic Algorithm method and it is demonstrated with the numerical examples. For the example problems 1 and 2, the results obtained from the proposed algorithm were compared with the DP method and GA method. For the example problems 3 and 4, the results were compared with the Lagrangian relaxation (LR) method and GA method. The convergence of GT algorithm is shown in Figure 3 and the reliability of the proposed method is shown in Figure 4. From the above comparison it is proved that the proposed hybrid GT algorithm can be applied to the unit commitment of large power system with any number of units and it can
65
give global optimal solution with lesser computation time. The proposed method should be used for solving the unit commitment problem by taking into account the ramp rate limits as it is a limitation for the amount of power generated per hour, security limits and voltage constraints limit at various buses has to be checked in order to provide a secured power system. Therefore Hybrid GT algorithm can also be tested for a unit commitment problem having ramp rate limits, voltage constraints and security limits. In this approach a hybrid GT based algorithm solves the unit commitment problem. The proposed algorithm integrates the main features of the most commonly used evolutionary methods such as GA and Tabu Search for solving combinational optimization problems. The algorithm is based mainly on the TS whereas the GA method is used to generate new members in the population to guide the search towards the optimal solution. The use of genetic scheme improves the performance of coding the combination of units and to arrange the ON / OFF status of the units. GT method is used for power output estimation and to locate the global optimal solution by fine tuning the search process. The implementation of the proposed method is demonstrated using a test systems and power system examples. The results proved the effectiveness of the algorithm in solving the UC problem with a reduced production cost. In the proposed approach, an integrated genetic algorithm method with tabu search technique has been used to solve the unit commitment problem. The feasibility of the proposed method was demonstrated on a 4,8, 10 and 36 unit system and the test results were compared in terms of production cost with those obtained by the GA and DP methods
Acknowledgement The authors are very thankful to the authorities of Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry605 014 for providing all facilities to complete this piece of work. References Baskar S, Subburaj P, 2000. Performance of hybrid real coded genetic algorithms, JIE, Vol. 81, pp 25-32. Su C.-C.and Hsu Y.-Y., 1991. Fuzzy dynamic programming: an application to unit commitment, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No.3, pp. 64 65. Cheng C.-P., Lie C.-W. and Liu C.-C., 2000. Unit commitment by Lagrangian relaxation and genetic algorithms, IEEE Transactions on Power systems, Vol.15, No.2, pp. 707-714. Gaing Z.-L., 2003. Discrete particle swarm optimization algorithm for unit commitment, in Proc. 2003 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Vol. 1, pp. 418-424. Glover F. and Laguna M., 1997. Tabu search, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, USA. Grey and Sekar, 2008, Unified solution of security-constrained unit commitment problem using a linear programming methodology, IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 6, pp. 856867. Juste K.A, Kita H, Tanaka E, and Hasegawa J, 1999. An evolutionary programming solution to the unit commitment problem, IEEE Transactions on Power systems, Vol.14, No.4, pp. 1452-1459. Kazarlis S. A., Bakirtzis, A. G., and Petridis. V., 1996. A Genetic algorithm solution to the unit commitment problem, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 83-92. Kim J.-H.and Myung H., 1997, Evolutionary programming techniques for constrained optimization problems, IEEE Transaction on Evolutionary Computation, Vol.1, No.2, pp 129-140. Ma H. and Shahidehpour S.M., 1999. Unit commitment with transmission security and voltage constraint, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.14, No.2, pp. 757-764. Maifeld T.T.and Sheble G.B., 1996. Genetic-based unit commitment algorithm, IEEE Transactions on Power systems, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 1359-1370. Mantawy A.H, Youssef L. Abdel-Magid, Shokri Z. Selim, 1998. Unit commitment by tabu search, IEE proceedings-Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Vol.145, No.1, pp. 56-64. Mantawy A.H, Youssef L. Abdel-Magid, Shokri Z. Selim, 1999. Integrating GA, TS and SA for the unit commitment problem, IEEE Transactions on Power systems, Vol.14, No.3, pp. 829-836. Michalewicz Z., 1990, Genetic Algorithm + Data Structure = Evolution Program, Springer Verberg Heidelberg, New York. Saber A.Y., Senjyu T., Yona A., Urasaki N., and Funabashi T., 2007. Fuzzy unit commitment solution-A novel twofold simulated annealing approach, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 77, pp. 1699-1712. Saneifard S., Prasad N.R., Smolleck H.A.,1997. A fuzzy logic approach to unit commitment, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.12, No.2, pp. 988-995. Storn R., 1999, System design by constraint adaptation and differential evolution, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, Vol.3, No.1, pp. 22-34. Sudhakaran M., Kannan P.S. and Venkatesh P., 2000, Application of computational intelligence to economic load dispatch, JIE, Vol.81, pp 39-43. Sudhakaran M., Slochanal M.R. and Praba K.B, 2000. Application of fuzzy logic to unit commitment problem, NCIEES-2000, PSG Tech, Coimbatore.
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Sudhakaran M, Slochanal M.R., 2002. Application of refined genetic algorithm to unit commitment problem, National seminar on Effective Utilization of Generated Power, IE chapter, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. Swarp K. S. and Yamashiro S., 2002. Unit commitment solution methodology using genetic algorithm, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 17, pp.87-91. Ting T. O., Rao .M. V. C., and Loo .2006.C. L., A novel approach for unit commitment problem via an effective hybrid particle swarm optimization, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 21, No.1, pp. 411-418. Tong S.K, Shahidehpour S.M and Ouyang Z, A Heuristic, 1991. Short term unit commitment, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp.1210 1216. Victoire T. A. A. and Jeyakumar A. E., 2005.Unit commitment by a tabu-search-based hybrid-optimization technique, IEE Proc. Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Vol. 152, No .4, pp. 563-574. Wood A.J. and Wollenberg B.F., 1984. Power Generation, Operation and Control, John Wiley and Sons. Zhao B., Guo C. X., Bai,. B. R. and Cao Y. J., 2006. An improved particle swarm optimization algorithm for unit commitment, International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 482-490.
ANNEXURE Table-1 Cost coefficients 10-unit system Particulars Pmax(MW) Pmin(MW) A($/h) B($/MW-h) C($/MW -h) Min up (h) Min dn (h) Hot start cost($) Cold start cost($) Cold start hrs(h) Initial status (h)
2
1 455 150 1000 16.19 0.0004 8 8 4500 9000 5 8
2 455 150 970 17.26 0.0003 8 8 5000 10000 5 8
3 130 20 700 16.6 0.002 5 5 550 1100 4 -5 20
4 130 680 16.50 0.0021 5 5 560 1120 4 -5 25
5 162 450 19.7 0.0039 6 6 900 1800 4 -6 80 20
6 85 25
7 55 10
8 55 10
9 55 10
10
370 22.26 0.0071 3 3 170 340 2 -3
480 27.74 0.0079 3 3 260 520 2 -3
660 25.92 0.0041 1 1 30 60 0 -1
665 27.27 0.0022 1 1 30 60 0 -1
670 27.79 0.0017 1 1 30 60 0 -1
Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Table-2 Daily generation 10-unit system P Load (MW) Hour P Load (MW) 700 13 1400 750 14 1300 850 15 1200 950 16 1050 1000 17 1000 1100 18 1100 1150 19 1200 1200 20 1400 1300 21 1300 1400 22 1100 1450 23 900 1500 24 800
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Table 3. Comparison of solution quality Total production cost ($) Units 4 8 DP method 78358 95345 GA method 77377 93849 Proposed GT method 77320 90258 Execution time (Sec) 15 95
Table 4. UC schedule obtained after final population- 10 Unit system
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Sudhakaran and Ajay-D-Vimal Raj / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 57-69 Table 5. Comparison of solution quality Total production cost ($) Units 10 36 DP Method 565825 1348176 GA Method 565825 1347787 Proposed GT Method 561238 1342386 Execution time(Sec) 182 380
Table 6. Comparison of results for the test problems Problem No. 1 Exact Optimal Best Hybrid Algorithm Kim and Myung (1997) 0.250000 0.250000 0.250000 -5.508013 -5.508013 -5.508013 CADE Storn (1999) 0.250000 0.250000 0.250000 -5.508014 -5.508014 -5.508014 Real Coded GA, Baskar and Subburaj (2000) 0.250000 0.250000 0.250000 -5.50801 -5.50795 -4.41250 Proposed Hybrid GT Algorithm 0.250000 0.250000 0.250000 -5.508014 -5.508014 -5.508014
b m w b m w
0.250000
-5.508014
b- best; m-mean; w-worst; Results of 50 Independent runs Table 7 Performance of different algorithms for the test problems Problem No. 1 2 Best Hybrid Algorithm (Sec) Kim and Myung (1997) 1.759 1.382 CADE (Sec) Storn (1999) 1.263 3.1434 Real Coded GA (Sec) Baskar and Subburaj (2000) 4.4 4.61 Proposed Hybrid GT Algorithm (Sec) 0.55 0.72
Figure 3 GT convergence characteristics 10-unit system
69
Figure 4 Reliability of GT Method 10-unit system
Biographical notes Dr. M. Sudhkaran is Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry, (India). He has engaged in teaching and research activities since the last 15 years. His field of specialization is Power Systems. Dr. M.S.K. has published several papers in various national, international conferences and journals. He is guiding 6 students for Ph.D. work. Dr. P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj is Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry, (India). He has engaged in teaching and research activities since the last 15 years. His field of specialization is optimization techniques in Power Systems. Dr. Raj has published several papers in various national, international conferences and journals. Received December 2009 Accepted January 2010 Final acceptance in revised form January 2010
MultiCraft
The physical meaning of a nonlinear evolution equation of the fourth order relating to locally and non-locally supercritical waves
A. Huber 1,2
2 1 Address constantly: Prottesweg 2a, A-8062 Kumberg, Austria Institute of Theoretical Physics Computational Physics, Technical University Graz, Petersgasse 16, A-8010 Graz, Austria E-mail: soliton.alf@web.de
Abstract In this paper the physical meaning of a nonlinear partial differential equation (nPDE) of the fourth order relating to wave theory is deduced to the first time. The equation under consideration belongs to a class of less studied nPDEs and an explicit physical meaning is not known until now. This paper however bridges the gap between some known results and a concrete application concerning wave theory. We show how one can derive locally supercritical solitary waves as well as locally and nonlocally forced supercritical waves and analytical solutions are given explicitly. Keywords: Nonlinear partial differential equations, evolution equations, supercritical solitary waves, locally supercritical waves, non-locally supercritical waves.
1. Introduction - outline of the problem - some known results The scaled nPDE e.g. (Huber, 2008a,b) in (1+1) dimension under consideration is given by:
2u 4u 2u 2u + 3 +3 = 0 , u = u ( x , t ) , u C 4 ( , ) , t > 0 , (1) 2 2 t xt x xt where the function u ( x , t ) describes a wave propagation depending on time t. We seek for classes of solutions for
which u = F ( x , t ) , where F C 4 ( D ) and D R2. Hint: In what follows, we suppress the item classes, so classes of solutions are simply solutions. In recent papers (Huber, 2005, 2008a), the tanh-approach was used to calculate soliton-solutions of the nPDE, eq.(1). Alternatively, new solutions can also found in (Huber, 2005, 2008a,b) and (Huber, 2007). It is known that there exist two different types of single soliton-solutions; regular solutions as well as irregular solutions which have singularities where the arguments of the traveling waves vanish. Further, the author has proven the Painlev-conjecture (Huber, 2008a), so we conclude that the nPDE, eq.(1) possesses the Painlev-property. It was shown that general solutions of eq.(1) are expressed in terms of elliptic functions by use of the Weierstrassian expansion method (Huber, 2008a) and moreover, the application of the classical Lie group formalism also leads to new types of solutions (Huber, 2008a). Although several solutions of eq.(1) exist no direct connection to a physical problems is known. Now, the purpose is to present a concrete application of physical relevance to the first time. We start by using a frame of reference introducing u ( x ,t ) = f ( ) with = x t , = const. into eq.(1) to derive the nODE
d2 f + 3 d2 d4 d4 f
d2 f = 0. d2
(1.1)
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Huber / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 70-79
Putting h = f
(2)
as new dependent variable we have the following nODE of the second order:
d 2h + 3h2 h = 0 . d2
In context to soliton theory means the solitons velocity and we point out that there are four types of solutions possible: Case A: Supercritical solitary waves: They occur only for > 0 and sufficiently large, Case B: Supercritical stationary cnoidal waves: They occur only for < 0 and sufficiently small, Case C: Stationary hydraulic fall: Only if admits a special value, so that L < 0 , Case D: Unsteady periodic soliton radiation: This case appears if is small (sometimes known as transcritical solutions). 2. Supercritical solitary waves Here we assume eq.(1.2) in the following general form with suitable boundary conditions (BC):
(1.2)
(2) and the prime means derivation w.r.t the independent variable . g ( ) is a given function (the forcing) which is differentiable and has a compact support (i.e. it is nonzero only in a closedbounded set). Recall that ( 1 + ) g H is the upstream near the critical flow speed and in our case, = 3 and = 1 holds. Physical intuition tells that for a given , and g ( ) the shape of the free surface is controlled by the upstream flow velocity, e.g. , (Benjamin, 1967; Benjamin and Feir, 1967 and (Camassa and Wu, 1991). Therefore, it is of interest to study the solution behavior for different values of . The forcing function g ( ) is due to the bottom topography of a fluid domain or due to an external pressure on the free water surface. We shall see that there exist a number C > 0 so that eq.(1) has (i) at least two solutions for > C , (ii) one solution for
h' ' + h 2 h = g ( ) , < < , > 0 , h' ( = ) = h( = ) = 0 ,
= C and (iii) no solution if < C , (Craik, 1985) and (Coles, 1965).

2.1 Locally forced supercritical waves In scaling processes, especially those of an ideal flow over a small bump, (Hammack and Segur, 1974; Gurtin, 1975; Grimshaw, 1987) the height of the bump is divided by H and the length of the bump base B should be divided by the horizontal length scale L. If the length is very short then B/L is very small since L is very large for long wave assumption. After scaling we regard the base length of the bump as zero. But the area under the bump is not zero. It is known that Diracs function possesses such a property. The forcing that has a very short base length is called the local forcing. So we consider for the nODE eq.(2):
h' ' + h 2 h =
P ( ) , > 0 , 2
(2.1)
looking for solitary wave solutions of eq.(2.1) . Hence h satisfies the BC: h' ( = ) = h( = ) = 0 . (2.2) By direct integration solution of eq.(2.1) connected by the BC (2.2) are given explicitly in terms of hyperbolic secant functions
h( ) =
3 + sec h 2 C , > 0 2 4
3 h( ) = sec h 2 C , < 0, 2 4
(2.3)
where C+ and C are constants. The continuity condition for the free surface at = 0 gives h( 0 + ) = h( 0 ) h( 0 ) implying
that C + = C holds. Recalling the property of ( ) , that means that h' ( ) must have a jump discontinuity at = 0 , so that
h( 0 + ) h' ( 0 ) =
P P , or with = 1 it follows that h( 0 + ) h' ( 0 ) = holds. 2 2
(2.4)
This condition can be rewritten by considering eq.(2.3) to give the expression
72
+ P . (2.5) h( 0 ) tg C + tgh C = 4 4 2 Eq.(2.5) holds for a nonzero P only if C + C and from C + = C we have C + = C = C 0 . Hence, eq.(2.5) can be written
as
d3 f P 1 f c = 0 , where f = tgh , f = f ( ) . C and c = 3 4 0 6 df Since we can write f 3 f = f ( f + 1 )( f 1 ) in polynomial form it follows that we have three possibilities once again:
(i) (ii) (iii) when c < 2 / 3 3 , eq.(2.6) has three distinctive roots, when c > 2 / 3 3 , eq.(2.6) has only one real root with the absolute value > 1 , when c = 2 / 3 3 , eq.(2.6) has a double root.
(2.6)
Therefore the constant c becomes
c=
P 6
2 2 3
(2.6a)
and determines the critical value of so that a closed-form expression is obtained:
C = 3
3 2 P 2 . 16
(2.6b)
Moreover a concrete expression for the constant C 0 follows immediately by
4 arctgh( f ) . So we have three possibilities once again: (i) C 0 has two values > C , (ii) only one value for the choice = C and (iii) there exists no solution in case of 0 C . For a given C 0 the solutions of eq.(2.3) are determined to give the following hyperbolic functions once again C0 =
(2.6c)
2 sec h 3 h( ) = 2 2 sec h If a special choice for the constant C 0 is made, (down) if C 0 > 0 , ( C 0 < 0 ) respectively.
4 4
( C0 ) , ( + C0 ) ,
for 0
(2.6d)
for 0
(2.6d) defines cusped solitary waves (Huber, 2008c). The cusp is concave up
From the equations (2.6), (2.6a) and (2.6c) we can assume the following chain of relations: P < 0 c < 0 f > 0 C 0 > 0 , that means the cusp is concave up,
P > 0 c > 0 f < 0 C 0 < 0 , that means the cusp is concave down. (2.6e) Otherwise from (2.6e) one can assume the relation: sign ( P ) = -sign ( C 0 ) . Further from (2.6d) and (2.6e) which determines the free surface profile, we conclude that if P < 0 , ( P > 0 ) , then the cusps of
the solitary waves are concave up (down). That means that a surface suction ( P < 0 ) corresponds to a dent of the free surface and a surface pressure ( P > 0 ) correlates to a crest of the free surface.
Remark: In the case of P < 0 we have h
= ( 3 ) /( 2 ) sec h 2 / ( 4 ) < ( 3 ) /( 2 ) , that is the amplitude of the
free solitary wave. The bifurcations diagram h
vers. is given by
73
h
The curve of
P 4
, has two branches in principal. The upper (lower) branch correlates to 4 / 3 , (2 / 3) , respectively.
h1
3 cos
4 / 3 P + 1 arccos 2 / 3 . 3 6 2 = C / . As P 0 + , C 0,1 0 and C 0,2 . Hence
(2.7)
These two branches are joined at C on which approaches to 3 / 2 and zero, respectively. For P < 0 , the amplitude
is equal to 3 / 2 all the time. The cusp solitary waves have two peak in each single
solution and as P 0 the two peaks disappear gradually.

2.2 Non-locally forced supercritical waves The non-local forcings are special classes and cannot be approximated by a delta function. In general, such problems have to be solved numerically (especially BVP and IVP). Referring to eq.(2) we solve this equation in the domain ( , ] analytically. An analytic solution of eq.(2), considering the above given domain, is given by
h( ) =
3 sec h 2 ( C 0 ) , < , 2 2
(2.8)
where we assume the constant C 0 as a pure phase shift. If we consider the appearance of a bump, say g ( x ) in general as above, the constant C 0 cannot be chosen arbitrarily. It is known that C 0 can only take up some discrete values; the next step naturally is to determine these values (Whitham, 1974; Miles, 1986). Therefore we introduce a new quantity E (C 0 ) defined through
+
E ( C0 ) :=
or similarly
g( ) h' ( ) d
(2.9)
h( + ) h 2 ( + ) . 2 2 3 Assuming a half solitary wave (e.g. > + , h( + ) = 0 ) the polynomial Q( ) , defined by E ( C0 ) = Q( h ) = E ( C 0 ) + h 2 , 2 3

following relation holds: h( + ) = 0 E ( C 0 ) = 0 .
{ h' ( + ) } 2 + +
(2.9a)
(2.9b)
must therefore have a double zero smaller than the third real zero. This happen if E ( C 0 ) = 0 and we conclude that the If E ( C 0 ) is valid, then the function h( ) satisfies 0 < h( ) < - 3 / (2 ) for > 0 . Hence, E ( C 0 ) = 0 is the condition to determine C 0 . In general C 0 is an implicit function of which may be multiple valued. To derive C 0 we solve the IVP up to
+ similarly to eq.(2): h' ' + h 2 h = 0 , > ,

with (2.10)
3 sec h 2 (2.10a) ( C 0 ) , 2 4 h' ( ) = h( ) tgh (2.10b) ( C 0 ) . 4 Usually, starting by a trial value of C 0 the above given initial conditions could derived. The given IVP eq.(2.10a) and eq.(2.10b) have a unique solution since the nODE, eq.(2.10) satisfies the Lipschitz condition. So we can plot the function E vs. C 0 for a h( ) =
fixed .
74
Finally we give some hints to relevant papers, especially relating to supercritical phenomena. These citations cover several applications in civil engineering and related domains: Supercritical flow interaction occurring in the marine boundary layer between closely spaced coastal capes discusses (Haacks and Burk, 2001) and surface waves related with roughness is found in Toombes and Chanson (2007). The case of supercritical flow at weirs is studied in (Ghodsian, 2003); a simulation of the supercritical flow by using the classical shallow water equations gives Krger and Rtschmann (2006) as well as Tjernstrm and Grisogno (2000). A general introduction is suggested in Subramania (1997).
3. Analysis, results and discussion
Before we discuss the main problem, eq.(2.1) let us start by computing some solutions of eq.(1.2). Introducing a new variable so that p( h( )) = h' ( ) we derive the following nODE of the first order:
p p' + 3 h 2 h = 0, p = p( h ), p 0 .
This equation admits solutions expressed as p( h ) = sufficient to consider only the upper sign of the root). Integrating once again we derive at the function h () by
(3)
h 2 2 h 3 c1 where c1 is an arbitrary constant of integration (it is
p( h ) = (
dh
) , where 0 is a further constant of integration.
Several special cases are considered: (i) = 1 and c1 = 0 : this elementary case allows a solution by
h( ) =
Typical solitary solutions occur; in Figure 1 we show the waves for different values of the constant 0 .
1 1 2 1 21 , i. ctgh ( 0 ) 1 tgh ( 0 ) = 2 1 + cosh ( 0 ) 2 2
(3.1)
hx 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -4 -2 2 4 x
hx 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -4 -2 2 4 x
hx 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -4 -2 2 4 x
Figure 1 Typical pure solitary solutions of the eq.(3) for different values of the phase shift constant 0 . Acting as a phase shift the constant 0 influences the wave so that the crest twists right or left; on the other hand by vanishing constant the peak is symmetrically to the vertical axis. To be a solitary wave the function has to be vanishing for and in fact this condition is fulfilled and for 0 the solution tends to a finite value. (ii) the general case with = c1 = arbitrary can be handled only by numerical standard methods leading to an elliptic integral of the first kind. For the case (iii) = 1 and c1 = 1 , we calculate:
( 5 + i 7 ) 0 ( 5 + i 7 ) 2 7 , i 2 = 1 , 7 sn 2 , 2 2 7 5i 0 means an arbitrary integration constant and numerically the complex-valued modulus is m = 0,4375 + 0,8268i . h1,2 ( ) = i i 4 7 +2
(3.2)
These solutions can be regarded as a further new contribution to existing solutions. Both the Figure 2 and Figure 3 represent the contour graphics as well as mappings onto the complex plane, respectively. Two poles can be explicitly seen together with the distribution of the field lines around them (for simplicity we assume the constant 0 to be vanishing and consider the plus sign).
75
7 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 10 8 6
4 0 2 -2 -10.500.5 1 -1.5 4 6 8 10 0 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 2 Contour charts of the solution (3.2) for different values of the complete elliptic integral K(k) in the complex plane, we assume the integration constant 0 =0. Two poles are shown surrounded by their branch lines.
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 -0.25 -0.5 -0.75 0.4 0.8 11.2 1.6 0.6 1.4 1.8
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2
7.5 5 2.5 0 -2.5 -5 -7.5 -7.5-5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5
2 1 0 -1 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Figure 3 Altitude charts of the solution (3.2) for different values of the domain: from left to right: 0 < < 2 , 0 < < , 0 < < / 2 and 0 < < 3 / 2 . In the first and third domain it seems that the poles move together. Let us now introduce some special cases for the modulus of the solution (3.2), especially k = 0 and k = 1 , respectively to derive the sine and their hyperbolic varieties. Splitting up these limiting cases into a real and a complex part we calculate for the real parts:
Re[h1 ( )] =
Re[ h1 ( )] =
7 4
sin
8 sinh
7 sin 4 8 sinh 4 8 1 for the case m = 1 . 4 cos 4 8 + cosh 4 8 2
( [
for the case m = 0 ,
(3.2a) (3.2b)
])
The function (3.2a) vanishes in the limit as 0 and takes infinite as . The limiting behavior for (3.2b) is similar to (3.2a) in case of but the function takes a finite value as 0 . Both of the real parts can be seen in Figure 4. The first and the second derivatives of the real parts are discontinuously differentiable at the point = 0 and have singularities there.
h1 7.5 5 2.5
x
h1 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

x
-4
-2 -2.5 -5 -7.5
-4
-2
Figure 4 Planar plots of the real parts of the functions eq.(3.2a) right and eq.(3.2b) left. A remarkable discontinuity on the vertical axis is observed, the peaks are symmetrically regarding also to the vertical axis.
76
Asymptotically for example, for large values of the argument, that is , we have for the function (3.2.a) the series representation up to order four (and similar for eq.(3.2.b)):
1 Re [ h1 ( ) ] = 4
7 2
1 17 14 + 45
1 1 + O .
(3.2.c)
Some notes relating to the interpretation in the Poincar (p,h)-phase plane of eq.(3) may not be omitted. The critical points P1 ( 0 ,0 ) and P2 ( 0, 1 3 ) , respectively are unstable nodes. To see this it is shown that the eigenvalues at P are = i ; so the origin is an unstable node and for P2 we have = 1 ; 1 therefore an unstable saddle point. Unstable hence the limit for p(h) tends to i as h in case of > 0 , c1 > 0 and
< 0 , c1 < 0 . In Table 1 we summarize the complete limiting behavior and Figure 5 represents characteristic curves in the phase
plane.
Case 1 2 3 4
Choice of the parameters
lim p( h ) h0
1
lim p( h )
> 0, c1 > 0 < 0 , c1 < 0 > 0 , c1 < 0

< 0 , c1 > 0
i i i i
i i
1
Table 1. Limiting cases of the function p(h), eq.(3) in the Poincar (p,h)-phase plane, i 2 = 1 , c1 is a constant, the wave number.
Figure 5 Phase plane trajectories p=p(h) for the nODE eq.(3), left: positive values for c1, right: negative values of the constant
c1 are used. Note: The singular points are not considered.
The non-locally supercritical function eq. (2.8) possesses all necessary properties to be a soliton, i.e. the function rapidly vanishes as but it is remarkable that the solution becomes unstable. Figure 6 shows the analytical solution eq.(2.8) resulting in a typical supercritical solitary motion.
77
h x 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
h' x 0.5 -2 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 2 4 x
Figure 6 Left: Typical supercritical solitary motion generated by the eq.(2.8) with = 2 and c1 = 1 . Right: the first derivative (full line) and the second derivative (dotted line) with the same parameter choice. Let us now discuss the locally forced supercritical waves, especially eq.(2.1) with a small change so that we can consider
P ( ) but < 1 and h( = ) = h' ( = ) = 0 . When < 0 the solution vanishes identically, that 2 is in detail h( ) 0 as 0 .
h' ' + h 2 h =
Therefore solving this problem given above is equivalent to solve the IVP: h' ' + h 2 h = 0 , h( 0 + ) = 0 ,
h' ( 0+ ) = P / 2 .
So, the relating quantity E ( C 0 ) , eq.(2.9a) as a first integral together with the polynomial of the third order in our case admits:
1 2 (3.3) h' = + h h 2 , Q( h ) = E + h h 2 , > 0 , h( 0 + ) = 0 . 2 2 2 So we can plot the polynomial Q( h ) vs. the function h. Moreover the dependence E ( C 0 ) vs. C 0 for a fixed is seen in
E ( C0 ) =
Figure 7. We remark that the polynomial (3.3) must have a double root which is, indeed fulfilled (independently of the value of , e.g. < 0 and/or > 0 we have h1,2 = 0 , h3 = 1 2 ).
Q h 0.4
El 1 0.5
0.2 h -2 -1 -0.2 -0.4 -1 1 2 -3 -2 -1 -0.5 1 2 3 C0
Figure 7 Left: Graphical plot of the polynomial of the third order, eq. (3.3), right: The connection E ( C 0 ) vs. C 0 for a fixed .
4. Summary
The present paper deals with an nPDE of the forth order. The crucial aspect however is the fact that up to now no direct physical application is known. We show to the first time the relation to wave propagation concerning supercritical waves by considering a special force term, the Diracs delta function. By applying the procedure another remarkable result could derive: It is shown how that the nPDE under consideration admits new types of solutions in terms of Jacobian functions. The cases of locally and nonlocally forced supercritical waves (including solitary-like) are studied in detail. Some remarks relating the behavior in the phase plane are given. So the present paper is suitable to expand the knowledge of the nPDE under consideration. Finally, to clarify the analysis, some important graphic simulations are presented.
78
List of common used symbols and notation PDE partial differential equation nPDE nonlinear partial differential equation ODE ordinary differential equation nODE nonlinear ordinary differential equation 4 set of complex-valued functions, four times differentiable a set of real-valued functions D a domain generally a wavelenght, in context to solitons: the velocity of solitons L a special velocity for the stationary hydraulic fall
C
g H L
(.)
BC C+, CP
h
sn m
a special (critical) velocity for the supercritical fall acceleration due to gravity the high of a channel (or upstream depth) a horizontal length scale the high of a bump Diracs delta function boundary condition(s) arbitrary constants of integration a constant amplitude for the limit case further arbitrary constants of integration the Jacobian elliptic function sine amplitudinis the modulus of the elliptic function
ci , 0
Acknowledgements The author would like to dedicate the present paper to the much honoured Univ.-Prof. Dipl.-Phys. Dr. rer. nat. Wolfgang von der Linden, Head of the Institute of Theoretical Physics Computational Physics at the Technical University of Graz, Austria. The author is further grateful to Professor Dr. Wolfgang von der Linden for kindly supporting his scientific intensions.
References
Benjamin T.B., 1967. Instability of periodic wave trains in nonlinear dispersive systems, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, Vol. 229, p.59. Benjamin T.B., Feir J.F., 1967. The desintegration of wave trains on deep water, Part 1, Theory, J. Fluid. Mech. Vol. 27, p.417. Camassa R., Wu T.Y., 1991. Stability of forced solitary waves, Trans. R. Roy. London A Vol. 337, p.429. Craik A.D.D., 1985. Wave interaction and Fluid Flows, University Press, New York. Coles D., 1965. Transition in circular Cuette flow, J. Fluid. Mech. Vol. 21, p.385. Ghodsian M., 2003. Supercritical flow over a rectangular side weir, Can. J. of Civil Eng. Vol. 30, No. 3, p.596. Grimshaw R., 1987. Resonant forcing of barotropic coastally trapped waves, J. Phys. Oceanagr. Vol. 17, p.53. Gurtin M.E., 1975. On the breaking of water waves in a sloping beach of arbitrary shape, Q. Appl. Math. Vol. 33, p.187. Hammack J.L., Segur H., 1974. The Korteweg-de Vries equation and water waves, Part 2, Comparison with experiments, J. Fluid. Mech. Vol. 65, p.289. Haacks T., Burk S.D., 2001. Supercritical flow interaction within the Cape Blanco Cape Mendocino orographic complex, Amer. Meterological Soc. Vol. 129, No. 4, p.688. Huber A., 2008a. The calculation of novel class of solutions of a non-linear fourth order evolution equation by the Weierstra transform method, Appl. Math. and Comp. Vol. 201, p.668. Huber A., 2008b. A note on new solitary and similarity class of solutions of a fourth order non-linear evolution equation, Appl. Math. and Comp., Vol. 202, p.787. Huber, A., 2008c. A note on a class of solitary-like solutions of the Tzitzica-equation generated by a similarity reduction, Physica D Vol. 237, p.1079. Huber A., 2005. Solitary solutions of some nonlinear evolution equations, Appl. Math. and Comp. Vol. 166, No. 2, p.464. Huber A., 2007. A novel algebraic procedure for solving non-linear evolution equations of higher order, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, Vol. 34, No. 3, p.765. Krger S., P. Rtschmann P., 2006. Modelling 3D supercritical flow with extended shallow-water approach, J. Hydraulic Eng. Vol. 132, No. 9, p.916
79
Miles J.W., 1986. Stationary transcritical channel flow, J. Fluid. Mech. Vol. 162, p.489. Subramania K., 1997. Flow in Open Channels, McGraw Hill. Tjernstrm M., Grisogno B.B., 2000. Simulation of supercritical flow around points and capes in a costal atmosphere, J. Atmospheric Sci. Vol. 57, No. 1, p.108. Toombes L., Chanson H., 2007. Surface waves and roughness in self-aerated supercritical flow, Environmental Fluid. Mech. Vol. 7, No. 3, p.259. Whitham G.B., 1974. Linear and Nonlinear Waves, J. Wiley, New York.
Biographical notes Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Huber Alfred is a distinguished lecturer at the Institute of Theoretical Physics Computational Physics at the Technical University Graz, Austria following his habilitation treatise. He did his diploma thesis titled Systematic in the physics of elementary particles focusing the quarkonium states in the field of elementary particle physics at the former Institute of Nuclear Physics at the Technical University Graz, Austria. He completed his scientific education with the doctoral programme of technical sciences at the Institute of Chemical Technology of Inorganic Compounds at the Technical University Graz, Austria subject to nuclear solid state physics and advanced electrochemistry. Thesis titled Synthesis and characterization of doped -manganese dioxides. Also the author has a learnt vocation for a chemical assistant at the Research Centre of Electron Microscopy at the former Technical High School Graz, Austria. He is the author of 27 articles which have appeared in world-wide renowned scientific journals. His research interests are nonlinear partial differential equations (nPDE) of higher order with applications especially in physics and chemistry. The author developed several new algebraic procedures for solving nPDE. Special interests are further given in classical and non-classical symmetry methods, nonlinear transformations and the application of nonlinear methods in describing electrochemical interfaces, nonlinear wave propagation and further nonlinear topics of advanced character. Received December 2009 Accepted December 2009 Final acceptance in revised form January 2010
MultiCraft
Flow field development in a direct injection diesel engine with different manifolds
Benny Paul1*, V. Ganesan2
1,2
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India * Corresponding author: e-mail:benny.mace@gmail.com
Abstract This paper reports a study on the effect of helical, spiral, and helical-spiral combination manifold configuration on air motion and turbulence inside the cylinder of a Direct Injection (DI) diesel engine motored at 3000 rpm. Three-dimensional model of the manifolds and the cylinder is created and meshed using the pre-processor GAMBIT. The flow characteristics of these engine manifolds are examined under transient conditions using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code STAR-CD. The predicted CFD results of mean swirl velocity of the engine at different locations inside the combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke are compared with experimental results available in the literature. We also compared the volumetric efficiency of the modeled helical manifold. The results obtained showed reasonably good agreement with the measured data given in the literature. Further, this paper discusses the predicted flow structure, swirl velocity and variation of turbulent energy inside the cylinder with different manifold. Comparisons of volumetric efficiency with different manifold configuration at 3000 rpm speed are also presented. The turbulence is modeled using RNG k- model. It is observed that helical-spiral manifold gives the maximum swirl ratio inside the cylinder than helical manifold. But volumetric efficiency observed is less for helical-spiral manifold engine. Swirl inside the engine is important for diesel engine. Hence, for better performance a helical-spiral inlet manifold configuration is recommended. Keywords: Flow structure, spiral manifold, helical manifold, helical-spiral combined manifold, turbulence, swirl, CFD, Diesel engine 1. Introduction Flow of air through the manifold and mixing of the fuel with air inside the cylinder is more important in the case of diesel engine because these factors, directly affect the volumetric efficiency, combustion performance, output and emission levels of the engine. Control of flow through the manifold is critical for meeting the emission regulations and fuel economy requirements. Parameters like engine speed, manifold and combustion chamber configuration (Chen et al., 1998) directly influence the swirl in DI diesel engines and subsequently it plays a vital role in mixing air and fuel inside the cylinder. Optimization of swirl becomes an important aspect in the design of intake systems of diesel engines. Nowadays, with the availability of powerful computers, the CFD prediction methods for in-cylinder flow of IC engines have become popular. They can give very useful information regarding the flow pattern and has the potential to reduce the total development time of the intake system of an IC engine. Engine manufactures require precise engine design to bring the end product to the market in a short time period and hence CFD codes play an important role in IC engine design. Borgnakke (1981) presented a flow model to predict the swirl vortices and turbulence in an open chamber cup-in-piston engine. The work was compared with experimental data over a range of engine intake manifold and combustion chamber configurations. Lot of work has been done on engine flow and on the parameters that affect the turbulence, performance and emissions in a DI diesel engine. Kim et al. (1999) carried out the modeling of flow distribution in exhaust manifold. Modifications were made on the inlet and exhaust manifolds based on the results obtained. They also conducted experiments and validated the performance and emissions of the engine. Akira et al. (1990) presented an experimental analysis for turbulence inside the combustion chamber of direct injection diesel engine. The study provided a better understanding of the effects of piston bowl shape, engine speed,
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Paul and Ganesan / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 80-91
manifold shape and compression ratio on the flow fields in a DI diesel engine. Chiavola et al. (2001) conducted a study on the flow behavior in intake and exhaust system of an internal combustion engine and observed that the flow phenomenon in ducts closely affects the volumetric efficiency of the engine. Many researchers (Brandstatter, 1985; Payri et al., 1996 and Zhu et al. 2005) had conducted experimental / simulation work on flow modeling to study the effect of engine configurations viz piston bowl, valve profile, manifold configurations, inlet manifold duct length, pent roof piston etc. Binachi et al. (2003) and Sridhar et al. (2004) had discussed a study related to the effect of operating parameters in the turbulence and swirl level in DI diesel engine. Flow parameter measurements technique including practical and simulation methods are explained in many research papers, viz, Dent et al. (1974), William et al. (1997) and Auriemma et al. (2003). From the review of literature, it can be noted that, design of inlet manifold configuration is very important in an IC engine. Hence, this study looks up on the effect of helical, spiral, and helical-spiral combined configuration on the induced mean swirl velocity in the piston bowl at TDC, swirl ratio during suction and compression stroke, turbulent kinetic energy variation and volumetric efficiency at engine speed 3000 rpm. Objective of the present study is: Modeling the engine with inlet valve, exhaust valve and manifold Effect of inlet manifold configurations on the in-cylinder flow Turbulence in a diesel engine under non-firing conditions Effect of different (helical, spiral, helical-spiral) inlet manifold configurations on volumetric efficiency, turbulence, and swirl in the engine.
By using the CFD code, flow field can be predicted by solving the governing equations viz., continuity, momentum and energy. The renormalization group theory (RNG k-) turbulent model is used for analyzing the physical phenomena involved in the change of kinetic energy. In this work, three manifolds (helical, spiral, and helical-spiral combination are considered and in-cylinder flow field investigations are carried out for an engine speed 3000 rpm. The simulated tangential velocity normalised with piston speed (W/Vp) in the bowl at TDC obtained from the model is verified with the available experimental results for the engine geometry having helical manifold. The experimental results are available from the literature (Margary et al., 1990). 2. Engine and computational details The base engine is same for all three manifold configurations CFD analysis. The detailed specification of the base engine selected for the simulation is given in Table 1. The engine selected is a single cylinder research DI diesel engine with helical inlet manifold and operating characteristics similar to IVECO 8140 DI diesel engine. Bore Stoke Displacement Connecting rod length Bowl entry diameter Bumping clearance Compression ratio 3. Methodology The methodology adopted for the present work is as follows. Flow through the intake manifold is simulated to study the incylinder flow field during non-reacting conditions, which includes the following steps: Solid modeling of the intake manifold and cylinder geometry with valves. Mesh generation. Solution of the governing equations with appropriate boundary conditions. Comparison of the simulated results with the available results in the literature. Table 1. Geometrical Details of the engine 1 93 mm Inlet valve diameter 90 mm Exhaust valve diameter 0.611 liters Maximum inlet valve lift 171 mm Inlet valve opening IVO) 52 mm Inlet valve closing 1.2 mm Inlet/Exh. valve overlap 16 Engine speed range 39.7 mm 30 mm 9.1 mm 80 BDC 2180 ATDC 160 1000-3000rpm
The study is expected to explore the potential of using CFD tool for design and optimisation of engine inlet manifold. The commercial CFD code STAR-CD is used for the analysis of flow. The CFD package includes user interfaces to input problem parameters and to examine the results. The code contains three elements 1. Pre-Processor 2. Solver
82 3.
Paul and Ganesan / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 80-91 Post Processor
Pre processor mainly involves the creation of basic 3D model, grid generation and fixing of the boundary conditions. Modeling and meshing is done in GAMBIT and is exported to STAR-CD for completing the mesh. Figure 1 shows the spiral manifold for the flow simulation and Fig 2 shows the helical manifold configuration and Fig. 3 shows the helical-spiral manifold. In this analysis approximately 326672 lakhs of hexahedral structured mesh is created for the manifolds and cylinder.
Figure 1 Spiral manifold configuration
Figure 2 Helical manifold
Figure 3 Helical-spiral manifold
Numerical solution techniques that form the basis of the solver perform the following 1. 2. 3. Approximation of unknown flow variables by means of simple functions Discretisation by substitution of the approximations into governing flow equations and subsequent mathematical manipulations Solution of the algebraic equations
Partial differential equations for conservation of mass, momentum, energy, chemical species, turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate are integrated over individual finite control volumes and the resulting volume integrals are transformed to their surface counterparts. The equations represent an algebraic form of the discretised conservation equations, which are solved using an iterative methodology. The pressure-velocity coupling is achieved using PISO (Pressure Implicit Splitting of Operators) algorithm. The second order differencing scheme MARS (Monotone Advection and Reconstruction Scheme) is used for the present investigation. Post processor of the code is used for the analyses and display of results are in the following manner:
Domain geometry and grid display Vector plots Line and shaded contour plots 2D and 3D surface plots Particle tracking
More recently these facilities also include animation for dynamic result display. In addition to graphics, all codes have data export facilities for further manipulation external to the code. 4. Mathematical model Flow through the intake system is treated as compressible and the flow conditions inside the cylinder have been predicted by solving the continuity, momentum, and energy equations (Auriemma et al, 2003 and Versteeg and Malalasekhara 1995). The mass and momentum equation which are used for the solution are given in tensor form as:
t
t
x j
x j
( u ) = s
j
j i ij
(1)
p
i
ui
( u u ) = x
+ si
(2)
83
where t = time, xi = Cartesian coordinate, ui = absolute velocity component in direction xi.ij = stress tensor, sm= mass source, si = momentum source components. For the engine analysis where the fluid flow is usually turbulent the variables ui , and other dependent variables including ij assume their ensemble averaged values, giving a relation for the stress tensor as:
ij = 2 S ij
2 3 uk xk
ij u i' u 'j
(3)
where u' are fluctuations about the ensemble average velocity and the over bar denotes the ensemble averaging process. The rightmost term in the above represents the additional Reynolds stresses due to turbulent motion. These are linked to the mean velocity field through the turbulence models. In the present study RNG k- turbulence model, which is an improvement over standard k- model is employed. The RNG k- model provides a more general and fundamental approach and is expected to yield improved predictions of near wall flows, separated flows, flows in curved geometries and flows that are strained by effects such as impingement or stagnation. In this model more terms appear in the dissipation rate in transport equation, including rate of strain term which is important for treatment of flows in rapid distortion limit such as separated flows and stagnation flows. These features make the RNG k- model more accurate and reliable. The RNG k- equation is represented by:
(k ) t + div ( kU ) = div k eff gradk + 2 t Eij . Eij
(4)
gradk
( ) +
t
d iv
( U ) =
d iv
e ff
+ C 1* C
2
2 t E ij . E ij
(5)
5. Boundaries and initial conditions Constant pressure is used as boundary condition at both the intake and the exhaust manifolds. Attach boundaries are specified on the coincident cell face near the cells above / below the valve. No slip wall boundary condition in conjunction with logarithmic law of wall is used. Walls are considered to be adiabatic. 6. Grid independence study Grid independence test is conducted for the base engine with helical manifold to study the effect of grid density on the predicted results. For this purpose, simulation is conducted with varying grid density from 1 to 4 lakhs / litre. Figure 3 shows the Swirl Ratio (SR) comparison of helical manifold with different grid density and Fig. 4 compares the mass averaged Turbulent Kinetic Energy (TKE) curves for the four grids during the suction and compression. The variation of the SR, TKE and time consumed for one cycle is given in Table 2. The percentage variation between 2 and 3 lakhs grids is 6% whereas for 4 and 5 lakhs is 1.8 %. The time consumed for one cycle is 30 to 40% higher than 4 lakhs for SR. It is observed that between four lakhs and three lakhs the variation of TKE is 1.5%. Considering the computational cost and time, the grid density of 3 lakhs/ litre is selected. Based on the grid independence test carried out, all the simulation cases are conducted with 3 lakhs/litre cells. Table 2 Grid independence study TKE Variation % 7 6 1.8 Between 1& 2 Between 2 & 3 Between 3 & 4 7 4 1.5
No Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
SR Variation % Between 1& 2 lakh /l Between 2 & 3 lakh /l Between 3 & 4 lakh /l
Time Variation 15 hours 20 hours 30 hours
84
7. Mean swirl velocity in the piston bowl at TDC Figures 4 to 6 show the radial distribution of mean swirl velocity and (W/Vp) and RMS velocity component normalized with piston speed in the piston bowl at TDC for different manifold configurations at 3000 rpm. It is observed that the W/Vp for helicalspiral combined manifold is maximum near the cylinder head (Z=3) at 3000 rpm. The mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) normalized with piston speed increases as it moves away from the cylinder axis. The RMS velocity fluctuation observed inside the piston bowl at TDC of compression is less affected by the inlet manifold configurations.
W/Vp and RMS velocity
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 8 10
helical helical-spiral RMS spiral
spiral RMS helical RMS helical-spiral
Z= 3
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Distance from cylinder axis (mm)

Figure 4 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) and RMS velocity in the piston bowl at TDC and 3000 rpm.
7 W/Vp and RMS velocity 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 8 10
helical spiral helical-spiral RMS helical RMS spiral RMS helical-spiral
Z= 6
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Figure 5 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) and RMS velocity in the piston bowl at TDC and 3000 rpm
85
7 W/Vp and RMS velocity 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 8 10
helical-spiral helical spiral RMS helical-spiral RMS helical RMS spiral
Z= 9
12
14
16
18
20
22
24

Figure 6 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) and RMS velocity in the piston bowl at TDC and 3000 rpm The flow structure is found to be extremely difficult to analyse because of its complexity inside the cylinder. To aid both, interpretation and explanation it was found useful to assign labels to identify different location on which studies were carried out (Z= 30, 50 and 70 mm from cylinder top face) at IVC. Radial distance r from the cylinder axis is selected as 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 and 45 mm. On these locations the mean swirl velocity (W/Vp) normalized with piston speed plotted. The location is shown in Fig. 7 Figures 8 to 10 present the in-cylinder mean swirl velocity distribution with helical-spiral combined configuration at three planes from cylinder head with engine speed of 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm. In all the figures it is observed that the swirl mean velocity magnitudes are higher close to the wall compared to center. This is again attributed to the manifold configuration, which directs the incoming air towards the wall. Because of swirling action (solid body rotation) fluid particles away from the center moves at a higher velocity as compared to the location near the center in all engine speed. The mean velocity magnitude seems to increase with respect to engine speeds. However, between 2000 and 3000 rpm there is not much of a change.
Figure 7 Location of measurement for mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) at IVC
86
5 4 3 W/Vp 2 1 0 0 10 20
Z=30
1000 rpm 2000 rpm 3000 rpm
30
40
50
distance from cylinder axis

Figure 8 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) in the piston at IVC for different speed with helicalspiral manifold
Z=50
1000 rpm 2000 rpm 3000 rpm
3 W/Vp 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 distance from cylinder axis

Figure 9 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) in the piston at IVC for different speed with helicalspiral manifold
87
Z=70
1000rpm 2000 rpm 3000 rpm
3 W/Vp 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 distance from cylinder axis 40 50
Figure 10 Radial distribution of mean swirl velocity component (W/Vp) in the piston at IVC for different speed with helicalspiral manifold 8. Swirl ratio inside the cylinder
Figure 11 shows the variation of Swirl Ratio (SR) inside the cylinder with respect to crank angle for different manifold configurations at 3000 rpm. During the suction stroke, the swirl ratio increases till the maximum valve lift position and gradually decreases till the end of valve closing and again increases at the end of compression stroke. The reason is same, which has been which explained in an earlier section. In the comparison of swirl ratio at 3000 rpm, maximum value is obtained for helicalspiral combined manifold configuration over the other two manifolds.
5 4 3 SR 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500
helical spiral helical-spiral
600
700
Crank Angle
Figure 11 Swirl ratio inside the cylinder for different manifold at 3000 rpm
88
9. Tangential velocity inside cylinder at maximum valve lift
When the valve is at full open position, the intake flow is maximum towards the cylinder, forming a re-circulation zone below the valve (Figures 12 to 14). In the case of helical-spiral combined manifold the formation of re-circulation zone is observed in many locations. The strength of re-circulation zone provided by spiral and helical configuration are weak.
Figure 12 Velocity vector at max. valve lift position for helical manifold
Re circulation Zone
Figure 13 Velocity Vector at Max. Valve Lift Position for Spiral Manifold
Re Circulation Zone
Figure 14 Velocity vector at max. valve lift position for helical-spiral manifold
89
10. Turbulent kinetic energy inside the cylinder
Figure 15 shows the variation of Turbulent Kinetic Energy (TKE) with crank angle at 3000 rpm for different manifolds. It is observed that the inlet manifold configuration affects the turbulence of the fluid inside the cylinder. It reaches the peak value during the maximum valve open condition. The variation of TKE is probably due to different level of air induced through the inlet manifold. The dissipation of KE is on account of increased fluid motion. Due to this, high SR is observed for helical-spiral combination than other manifolds and low level of TKE as shown in Figure 11.
helical spiral helical-spiral 100 TKE m 2/s 2 80 60 40 20 0 0 60 120 180 Crank Angle 240 300 360
140 120
Figure 15 TKE inside the cylinder for different manifold at 3000 rpm
Figures 16 to 18 presents the kinetic energy contour at the end of intake stroke for helical, spiral and helical-spiral combination manifold. TKE is higher for helical manifold compared with the other two manifolds at 3000 rpm. It is uniformly distributed in the entire cylinder at the beginning of compression stroke for helical-spiral manifold.
Figure 16 TKE inside the cylinder for helical manifold at the beginning of compression stroke at 3000 rpm 11. Volumetric efficiency
Figure 19 shows the comparison of volumetric efficiency for different manifolds at 3000 rpm. The spiral manifold shows lower value due to the flow restriction than other configurations. Improvement of volumetric efficiency is achieved by helical-spiral combination.
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Figure 17 TKE Inside the cylinder for spiral manifold at the beginning of compression stroke at 3000 rpm
Figure 18 TKE inside the cylinder for helical-spiral manifold at the beginning of compression stroke at 3000 rpm
Volumetric Efficiency (%)
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
helical spiral helical-spiral
1 Different T ype of Manifold
Figure 19 Volumetric efficiency of different manifold configuration at 3000 rpm. 12. Conclusion
After the analysis of different manifolds in the previous sections, analysis is extended to compare the effect of different manifold configurations on flow structure. The helical-spiral manifold geometry creates higher velocity component (W/Vp) inside the combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. Swirl ratio inside the cylinder and turbulent kinetic energy are higher for
91
spiral manifold. Volumetric efficiency for the spiral-helical combined manifold is 10% higher than that of spiral manifold. The summary of the comparison is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Helical-spiral combined manifold creates higher swirl inside the cylinder than spiral manifold. Helical manifold provides higher volumetric efficiency. Helical-spiral combined manifold provides higher mean swirl velocity at TDC of compression. The average RMS of turbulent swirl velocity fluctuation inside the piston bowl at TDC of compression is less affected by the induced swirl created by the manifold configurations.
However, further investigations based on combustion and heat release rate analysis is essential for getting a better understanding of the flow inside the cylinder and its effect on the emissions.
References
Auriemma M., Caputo G., Corcione F.E., Valentino G. and Riganti G. 2003. Fluid-dynamics analysis of the intake system for a HDDI diesel engine by STAR-CD code and LDA technique. SAE Paper No.2003-01-0002. Borganakke, C., 1981. Predictions of in cylinder swirl velocity and turbulence intensity for an open chamber cup in piston engine. SAE Paper No-810224. Brandstatter, W., 1985. The effect of inlet port geometry on in-cylinder flow structure. SAE Paper No. 850499. Chen, A., A. Veshagh and S. Wallace 1998. Intake flow predictions of a transparent DI diesel engine. SAE Paper No.981020. Chiavola, O. 2001. Integrated modelling of internal combustion engine intake and exhaust system. IMechE. J. Engine Research, Vol. 215, Part A, pp. 495-506. Dent, J. C., and J. A. Derham 1974. Air motion in a fourstroke direct injection diesel engine. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., Vol. 188, pp. 21-35. Kim H.-S., Park S.-B., Myung C.-L., Cho K.-M. and Yoon K.-J. 1999. A study of flow characteristics inside the two types of exhaust manifold and CCC system. SAE Paper No. 1999-01-0457. Margary, R., E. Nino and C. Vafidis 1990. The effect of intake duct length on the in-cylinder air motion in a motored diesel engine. SAE Paper No.90005. Murakami A., Masatsuguakimoto., Arai M., and Hiroyasu H. 1990. Measurement of turbulent flow in the combustion chamber of D.I diesel engine. SAE Paper No 900061. Payri, F., Desantes J.M. and Pastor V.J. 1996. LDV measurements of the flow inside the combustion chamber of a 4-valve D.I. diesel engine with axisymmetric piston- bowls. Experiments in Fluids, Vol. 22, pp. 118-128. Sridhar, G, Paul P.J. and H. S. Mukunda H.S. 2004. Simulation of fluid flow in a high compression ratio reciprocating internal combustion engine. Proc. ImechE, Part A: J. Power and Energy, Vol. 218, No. 6, pp. 403-416. Taylor III W., Leylek J.H., Tran L.T.., Shinogle R.D. and Jain S.K. 1997. Advanced computational methods for predicting flow losses in intake regions of diesel engines. SAE Paper No. 970639. Versteeg, H. K., and Malalasekhara W., 1995. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Methods. Longman group Ltd, London. Zhu, Y., H. Zhao and N. Ladomatos 2005. Computational fluid dynamics study of the effects of the re-entrant lip shape and ttoroidal radii of piston bowl on a high-speed direct injection diesel engines performance and emissions. Proceedings of the IMechE, Vol. 219, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering. pp. 1011 1023.
Biographical notes Dr. V. Ganesan is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India. He is into teaching and research activities for the last 40 years. His major areas of interests are IC engines and Gas turbines. Dr. Ganesan has published more than 300 papers in national and international journals and conferences. He has attended/conducted many international conferences and has chaired many technical sessions all over the globe. Dr. Benny Paul is working as an Asst. Professor in Mechanical Engineering Department of M. A. College of Engineering, Kothamangalam, Kerala, India. He has published several papers in various international conferences and journals. His current research interests are on the effect of manifold configuration on flow and combustion inside the cylinder of a direct injection diesel engine. Received November 2009 Accepted December 2009 Final acceptance in revised form January 2010
MultiCraft
Optimization of CNC end milling process parameters using PCA-based Taguchi method
1
Sanjit Moshat, 2*Saurav Datta, 3Asish Bandyopadhyay and 4Pradip Kumar Pal
2 1, 3, 4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata- 700032, West Bengal, INDIA Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT), Rourkela, Orissa-769008, INDIA * Corresponding Author (e-mail: sdattaju@gmail.com, Saurav Datta)
Abstract In order to build up a bridge between quality and productivity, the present study highlights optimization of CNC end milling process parameters to provide good surface finish as well as high material removal rate (MRR). The surface finish and material removal rate have been identified as quality attributes and are assumed to be directly related to productivity. An attempt has been made to optimize aforesaid quality attributes in a manner that these multi-criterions could be fulfilled simultaneously up to the expected level. This invites a multi-objective optimization problem which has been solved by PCA based Taguchi method. To meet the basic assumption of Taguchi method; in the present work, individual response correlations have been eliminated first by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Correlated responses have been transformed into uncorrelated or independent quality indices called principal components. The principal component, imposing highest accountability proportion, has been treated as single objective function for optimization (multi-response performance index). Finally Taguchi method has been adapted to solve this optimization problem. The aforesaid methodology has been found fruitful in the cases where simultaneous optimization of huge number of responses is required. Keywords: CNC end milling, surface finish, material removal rate (MRR), principal component analysis (PCA), Taguchi method 1. Introduction In the proposed research work, material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness of the product prepared by CNC end milling operation are to be studied experimentally and the results, thereof, obtained are to be interpreted analytically. Quality and productivity are two important but conflicting criteria in any machining operations. In order to ensure high productivity, extent of quality is to be compromised. It is, therefore, essential to optimize quality and productivity simultaneously. Productivity can be interpreted in terms of material removal rate in the machining operation and quality represents satisfactory yield in terms of product characteristics as desired by the customers. Dimensional accuracy, form stability, surface smoothness, fulfillment of functional requirements in prescribed area of application etc. are important quality attributes of the product. Increase in productivity results in reduction in machining time which may result in quality loss. On the contrary, an improvement in quality results in increasing machining time thereby, reducing productivity. The interdependence and correlation among quality and productivity is very complex and difficult to understand. It also depends on the tool-work material. Investigations on development of mathematical relationship and correlation that exists among aforesaid features have been attempted by previous researchers but to a limited extent. Literature depicts that optimization of MRR, product quality etc. has also been attempted. In most of the cases, optimization was based on single objective function. In practical case, it is felt that optimizing a single response may yield positively in some aspects but it may affect adversely in other aspects. The problem can be overcome if multiple objectives are optimized simultaneously. It is, therefore, required to maximize MRR, and improve product quality simultaneously by selecting an appropriate (optimal) process environment. Milling is a versatile and useful machining operation. End milling is the most important milling operation and it is widely used in most of the manufacturing industries due to its capability of producing complex geometric surfaces with reasonable accuracy and
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surface finish. However, with the inventions of CNC milling machine, the flexibility has been adopted along with versatility in end milling process. It is found that many research works have been done so far on continuous improvement of the performance of end milling process. In end milling, surface finish and material removal rate are two important aspects, which require attention both from industry personnel as well as in Research & Development, because these two factors greatly influence machining performances. In modern industry, one of the trends is to manufacture low cost, high quality products in short time. Automated and flexible manufacturing systems are employed for that purpose. CNC machines are considered most suitable in flexible manufacturing system. Above all, CNC milling machine is very useful for both its flexibility and versatility. These machines are capable of achieving reasonable accuracy and surface finish. Processing time is also very low as compared to some of the conventional machining process. On the other hand, material removal rate (MRR), which indicates processing time of the work piece, is another important factor that greatly influences production rate and cost. So, there is a need for a tool that should allow the evaluation of the surface roughness and material removal rate value before the machining of the part and which, at the same time, can easily be used in the production-floor environment contributing to the minimization of required time and cost and the production of desired surface quality. Both the surface roughness and material removal rate greatly vary with the change of cutting process parameters. That is why proper selection of process parameters is also essential along with the prediction of the surface finish (lower Ra value) and material removal rate in CNC end milling process. Yang and Chen (2001) demonstrated a systematic procedure of using Taguchi parameter design in process control of individual milling machines. The Taguchi parameter design had been done in order to identify the optimum surface roughness performance with a particular combination of cutting parameters in an end-milling operation. Ghani et al. (2004) applied Taguchi optimization methodology to optimize cutting parameters in end milling while machining hardened steel with TiN coated carbide insert tool under semi-finishing and finishing conditions of high speed cutting considering the milling parameters - cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. Oktem et al. (2005) had focused on the development of an effective methodology to determine the optimum cutting conditions leading to minimum surface roughness in milling of mold surfaces by coupling Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a developed genetic algorithm (GA). Kopac and Krajnik (2007) presented the robust design of flank milling parameters dealing with the optimization of the cutting forces, milled surface roughness and the material removal rate (MRR) in the machining of an Al-alloy casting plate for injection moulds. Grey-Taguchi method combined the orthogonal array (OA) design of experiments (DOE) with grey-relational analysis (GRA), which enabled the determination of the optimal combination of milling parameters for multiple process responses. Previous researchers have studied various aspects of process optimization of milling. It has been found that in most of the cases, Taguchi method along with grey relation analysis or RSM has been largely recommended. However, these approaches are based on the assumption that individual quality attributes are uncorrelated i.e. they have been treated as independent. But in practical case the reverse situation may arise. In order to overcome this shortcoming, the present study proposes application of Principal Component analysis (PCA) coupled with Taguchi method to solve such correlated multi-attribute optimization of CNC end milling operation. PCA has been proposed to eliminate correlation between the responses and to estimate uncorrelated quality indices called principal components; Datta et al. (2009a). The quality index (principal component) having highest accountability proportion has been treated as equivalent single objective function; which has been finally optimized by Taguchi method. 2. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a way of identifying patterns in the correlated data, and expressing the data in such a way so as to highlight their similarities and differences, Johnson and Wichern (2002). The main advantage of PCA is that once the patterns in data have been identified, the data can be compressed, i.e. by reducing the number of dimensions, without much loss of information. The methods involved in PCA are discussed below: 1. Getting some data 2. Normalization of data 3. Calculation of covariance matrix. 4. Interpretation of covariance matrix. The normalized data have then been utilized to construct a variance-covariance matrix M , which is illustrated as below:
94
N 1,1 N 2,1 M = . . N q ,1
where N k , l =
N 1, 2 N 2, 2 . . N q, 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 1, u N 2, p . . N q, p
(1)
Cov (Yi*k , Yi *l ) , , Var (Yi *k )Var (Yi *l ) , ,
(2)
In which u stands for the number of quality characteristics and p stands for the number of experimental runs. Then, eigenvectors and Eigenvalues of matrix M can be computed, which are denoted by V j and j respectively. In PCA the eigenvector V j represents the weighting factor of j number of quality characteristics of the component. For example, if Q j represents the jth quality characteristic, the jth principal component quality indicator with the required quality characteristic.
j
jth principal
can be treated as a
j = V1 j Q1 + V2 j Q2 + ........................ + V jj Q j = V j' Q
It is to be noted that every principal component
(3)
represents a certain degree of explanation of the variation of quality
characteristics, namely the accountability proportion (AP). When several principal components are accumulated, it increases the accountability proportion of quality characteristics. This is denoted as cumulative accountability proportion (CAP). If a quality characteristic Q j strongly dominates in the jth principal component, this principal component becomes the major indicator of such a quality characteristic. It should be noted that one quality indicator may often represent all the multi-quality characteristics. Selection of individual principal components ( j ), those to be included in the composite quality indicator , depends on their individual accountability proportion. 3. Taguchi method Taguchis philosophy, developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi, is an efficient tool for the design of high quality manufacturing system. Taguchis Orthogonal Array (OA) provides a set of well-balanced experiments (with less number of experimental runs), and Taguchis signal-to-noise ratios (S/N), which are logarithmic functions of desired output; serve as objective functions in the optimization process. Taguchi method uses a statistical measure of performance called signal-to-noise ratio. The S/N ratio takes both the mean and the variability into account. The S/N ratio is the ratio of the mean (Signal) to the standard deviation (Noise). The ratio depends on the quality characteristics of the product/process to be optimized. The standard S/N ratios generally used are as follows: - Nominal-is-Best (NB), lower-the-better (LB) and Higher-the-Better (HB). The optimal setting is the parameter combination, which has the highest S/N ratio, (Taguchi, 1986; Mahapatra and Chaturvedi, 2009). Because, irrespective of the quality criteria may be (NB, LB, HB) S/N ratio should always be maximized. Once experimental data (quality attribute value) is normalized using NB/LB/HB criteria; normalized value lies in between zero to one. Zero represents worst quality to be rejected and one represents most satisfactory quality. Since S/N ratio is expressed as mean (signal) to the noise (deviation from the target); maximizing S/N ratio ensures minimum deviation and hence it is (S/N ratio) to be maximized. Taguchis S/N Ratio for (NB) Nominal-the-best (Quality characteristics is usually a nominal output, say Diameter)
=10 ln10
1 n 2 n i =1 2
(4)
Taguchis S/N Ratio for (LB) Lower-the-better (Quality characteristics is usually a nominal output, say Defects)
95
= 10 ln10
1 n 2 yi n i =1
(5)
Taguchis S/N Ratio for (HB) Higher-the-better (Quality characteristics is usually a nominal output, say Current)
= 10 ln10
1 n 1 n i =1 yi2
(6)
= S / N Ratio , y i = Value of the quality characteristic at ith setting , n = Total number of trialruns at ith setting , = Mean , = S tan dard Deviation
4. Experimental setup and procedure Details of experimental plan are given below. a) Checking and preparing the Vertical CNC milling machine system ready for performing the machining operation. b) Preparing rectangular aluminum plates of size 95 mm 75 mm 10 mm in shaping machine for performing CNC end milling. c) Calculating weight of each plate by the high precision digital balance meter before machining. d) Creating CNC part programs for tool paths with specific commands using different levels of spindle speed, feed and depth of cut and then performing end milling operation. e) Calculating weight of each machined plate again by the digital balance meter. f) Measuring surface roughness and surface profile with the help of a portable stylus-type profilometer, Talysurf (Taylor Hobson, Surtronic 3+, UK) The present experimental work seeks to evaluate the optimal result for selection of spindle speed (S), feed rate (f) and depth of cut (d) in order to achieve good surface roughness (Ra value) and high material removal rate (MRR) during the CNC end milling process. Table 1 represents selected process control parameters used during the experiments. These parameters have been allowed to vary in three different levels. Table 1: Process control parameters and their limits Spindle speed, S Feed rate, f (rpm) (mm/min) 300 30 450 50 600 70 Depth of cut, d (mm) 0.2 0.5 0.8
Coded levels -1 0 +1
The values of coded and actual value of each parameter used in this work are listed in Table 1. The experimental matrix adopted as per Taguchis L9 Orthogonal Array (OA) design. Based on the scope on parameter variation available in the machine/setup; the parameters range of variation has been selected. The machine used for the milling is a DYNA V4.5 CNC vertical milling machine having the control system SINUMERIK 802 D with a vertical milling head. For generating the milled surfaces, CNC part programs for tool paths have been created with specific commands. The photograph of DYNA V4.5 CNC milling machine has been shown in Figure 1. The compressed coolant servo-cut has been used as cutting environment. Commercially available CVD coated carbide tools have been used. The tools used are flat end mill cutters produced by WIDIA (EM-TiAlN). The tools are coated with TiAlN coating. For each material a new cutter of same specification has been used. The details of the end milling cutter are given below: Cutter diameter = 8 mm Overall length = 108 mm Fluted length = 38 mm Helix angle = 300 Hardness = 1570 HV Density = 14.5 g/cc Transverse rupture strength =3800 N/mm2
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The test work pieces are made of Aluminum of size 95 mm x 75 mm x 10mm rectangular plate. Different plates of same dimension and material are used for each experimental run. Material properties are given below: Density: 2600-2800 kg/m3 Melting Point: 660 C Elastic Modulus: 70-79 GPa Tensile Strength: 230-570 MPa Yield Strength: 215-505 MPa Roughness measurement has been done using a portable stylus-type profilometer, Talysurf (Taylor Hobson, Surtronic 3+, UK). Material removal rate (MRR) has been calculated from the difference of weight of work piece before and after experiment.
MRR =
Wi W f
st
mm 3 .min 1
Here, Wi is the initial weight of work piece in g; Wf is the final weight of work piece in g; t is the machining time in minutes; s is the density of aluminum (2.7 x 10-3 g/mm3). The weight of the work piece has been measured in a high precision digital balance meter (Model: DHD 200 Macro single pan DIGITAL reading electrically operated analytical balance made by Dhona Instruments), which can measure up to the accuracy of 10-4 g and thus eliminates the possibility of large error while calculating material removal rate (MRR) in CNC end milling process. Experimental data of Ra value and MRR (material removal rate) corresponding to L9 OA design of experiment has been tabulated below (Table 2).
Figure 1: CNC vertical milling machine used for experiment Table 2: Experimental design and collected response data Parametric combination (Design of experiment) Response features Spindle Speed Feed rate Depth of Cut Ra MRR (rpm) (mm/min) (mm) (m) (mm3/min) 300 30 0.2 1.1670 62.500 300 50 0.5 1.5440 229.743 300 70 0.8 1.7200 428.803 450 30 0.5 0.9696 133.076 450 50 0.8 1.5410 304.770 450 70 0.2 1.2100 148.200 600 30 0.8 1.2500 172.811 600 50 0.2 1.0000 116.400 600 70 0.5 1.440 338.680
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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5. Methodology adopted for optimization (Datta et al., 2009b) Assuming, the number of experimental runs in Taguchis OA design is m , and the number of quality characteristics is n . The experimental results can be expressed by the following series: Here,
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,.........., X i ,...., X m
X 1 = { X 1 (1), X 1 (2)......... X 1 (k )..... X 1 (n)}

. . . .
X i = { X i (1), X i (2)......... X i (k )..... X i (n)}

. . . .
X m = { X m (1), X m (2)......... X m (k )..... X m (n)}

Here,
X i represents the i th experimental results and is called the comparative sequence in grey relational analysis. Let, X 0 be the reference sequence: Let, X 0 = { X 0 (1), X 0 (2)......... X 0 ( k )..... X 0 ( n)} X 0 and
The value of the elements in the reference sequence means the optimal value of the corresponding quality characteristic.
X i both includes n elements, and X 0 (k ) and X i (k ) represent the numeric value of k th element in the reference sequence and the comparative sequence, respectively, k = 1, 2,........, n . The following illustrates the proposed parameter optimization
procedures in detail, (Su and Tong, 1997). Step 1: Normalization of the responses (quality characteristics) When the range of the series is too large or the optimal value of a quality characteristic is too enormous, it will cause the influence of some factors to be ignored. The original experimental data must be normalized to eliminate such effect. There are three different types of data normalization according to whether we require the LB (lower-the-better), the HB (higher-the-better) and NB (nominal-the-best). The normalization is taken by the following equations. (a) LB (lower-the-better)
X i* (k ) =
min X i (k ) X i (k )
(7)
(b) HB (higher-the-better)
X i* (k ) =
X i (k ) max X i (k )
(8)
(c) NB (nominal-the-best)
X i* (k ) =
min{ X i (k ), X 0b (k )} max{ X i (k ), X 0b (k )}
(9)
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Here,
i = 1, 2,........, m; k = 1, 2,........., n
X i* (k ) is the normalized data of the k th element in the i th sequence. X 0b (k ) is the desired value of the k th quality characteristic. After data normalization, the value of X i* (k ) will be
between 0 and 1. The series X i , i analysis. Step 2: Checking for correlation between two quality characteristics
* * * Qi = { X 0 (i ), X 1* (i ), X 2 (i ),............, X m (i )}
= 1, 2,3,........, m. can be viewed as the comparative sequence used in the grey relational
Let,
where, i = 1, 2,......., n.
It is the normalized series of the i th quality characteristic. The correlation coefficient between two quality characteristics is calculated by the following equation:
jk =
Cov(Q j , Qk )
Q Q
j
(10)
j = 1, 2,3......, n.
here, k = 1, 2,3,........, n.,
jk
Here,
jk is
the correlation coefficient between quality characteristic j and quality characteristic k ; Cov (Q j , Qk ) is the
covariance of quality characteristic
j and quality characteristic k ; Q j and Qk are the standard deviation of quality
characteristic j and quality characteristic k , respectively. The correlation is checked by testing the following hypothesis:
H 0 : jk = 0 H1 : jk 0
(There is no correlation) (There is correlation)
Step 3: Calculation of the principal component score (a) (b) Calculate the Eigenvalue
k and the corresponding eigenvector k (k = 1, 2,......, n) from the correlation matrix
formed by all quality characteristics. Calculate the principal component scores of the normalized reference sequence and comparative sequences using the equation shown below:
n
Yi (k ) = X i* ( j ) kj , i = 0,1, 2,......., m; k = 1, 2,........, n.

j =1
(11)
where, Yi ( k ) is the principal component score of the k th element in the i th series.
X ( j ) is the normalized value of the j th element in the i th sequence, and kj is the j th element of eigenvector k .
* i
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Moshat et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp. 92-102 (c) The principal component having highest accountability proportion (AP) can be treated as the overall quality index; which is to be optimized finally. The quality loss 0,i (k ) of that index (compared to ideal situation) is calculated as follow: (d)
* X 0 (k ) X i* (k ) , no significant correlation between quality characteristics 0,i (k ) = Significant correlation between quality characteristics Y0 (k ) Yi (k ) ,
Optimal setting is then evaluated by minimizing this 0,i (k ) (quality loss estimate) by using Taguchi method. 6. Data analysis and evaluation of optimal setting Experimental data (Table 2) have been normalized using equation (8). For surface roughness and MRR, a (Higher-the-better) HB criterion has been selected. The normalized data are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Data preprocessing of each performance characteristics (Normalization of experimental data) Normalized data Sl. No. Surface roughness MRR Ideal condition 1.0000 1.0000 1 0.6785 0.1458 2 0.8977 0.5358 3 1.0000 1.0000 4 0.5637 0.3103 5 0.8959 0.7107 6 0.7035 0.3456 7 0.7267 0.4030 8 0.5814 0.2715 9 0.8372 0.7898 After normalization, a check has been made to verify whether the responses i.e. quality indices are correlated or not. The correlation coefficient between surface roughness and MRR becomes 0.901 (p-value=0.000), which indicates that responses are highly correlated. The coefficient of correlation, between two responses, has been calculated using equation (10). Table 4: (Analysis of correlation matrix) Eigenvalues, eigenvectors, accountability proportion (AP) and cumulative accountability proportion (CAP) computed for the four major quality indicators
Eigenvalue Eigenvector AP (Accountability proportion) CAP(Cumulative accountability proportion)
1.9014
0.0986
0.707 0.707
0.951 0.951
0.707 0.707
0.049 1.000
In order to eliminate response correlations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been applied to derive two independent quality indexes (called principal components), using equation (11). The analysis of correlation matrix is shown in Table 4. The independent quality indexes are denoted as principal components 1 (1st PC) and 2 (2nd PC). Table 5 represents the values of these independent principal components for 9 experimental runs. It has been found that 1st Principal Component itself can describe 95.1% variability in the data (AP=0.951). Therefore, the 2nd PC i.e. 2 can be eliminated and the 1st PC i.e. 1 has been treated as the equivalent quality index. Quality loss estimates have been calculated and values are tabulated in Table 6.
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Table 5: Principal components in all L9 OA experimental observations Uncorrelated quality attributes (Principal components) Sl. No. Ideal condition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (1st PC) 1 1.4140 0.5828 1.0135 1.4140 0.6179 1.1359 0.7417 0.7987 0.6030 1.1503 (2nd PC) 2 0.0000 0.3766 0.2559 0.0000 0.1792 0.1309 0.2530 0.2289 0.2191 0.0335
Table 6: Calculation of 0 i ( k ) (quality loss) for 1st principal components Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0i (1st PC )
0.8312 0.4005 0.0000 ~ assumed as 0.00005 0.7961 0.2781 0.6723 0.6153 0.8110 0.2637
S/N ratio 1.6059 7.9479 86.0206 1.9806 11.1160 3.4487 4.2183 1.8196 11.5778
Taguchis Lower-the-Better (LB) criterion has been used to minimize this quality loss. Figure 2 reveals S/N ratio plot from which optimal factorial combination has been evaluated. The optimal setting becomes S1 f3 d3. Result has been verified through confirmatory test, showed satisfactory results (improvement in quality). The maximum possible number of the principal components to be computed is equal to the number of responses. The present study deals with two responses and hence two principal components 1 and 2 . Accountability proportion of 2 being negligible compared to 1 ;
has been neglected and 1 has been treated as the major principal component (composite principal
component). But the case where to deal with more than two principal components in which accountability proportion of all principal component bear remarkable values those cannot be neglected; the problem of computing composite principal component arises (Datta et al., 2009a). The optimization technique adapted in the present work takes care of response correlations which are being neglected by traditional optimization techniques; the method is also not free from limitations. The main disadvantage of this method is the lack of physical interpretation of individual principal components. While eliminating response correlation; correlated responses are converted into independent i.e. uncorrelated quality indices (principal components) which do exist in practice. It is just a mathematical index to succeed in case of a correlated multi-response optimization problem. There are various formulas on aggregation of individual principal components as reported in literature to compute a (MPI) multi-response performance index (composite principal component). There is no strong mathematical background to compute this MPI. Therefore, it depends on the discretion of decision makers [Datta et al. (2009a)]. To avoid this discrepancy the study explores a meaningful ideology on elimination of individual principal components having negligible accountability proportion and to consider the principal component (having highest accountability proportion) as the representative overall performance index.
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Figure 2: S/N ratio plot (Evaluation of optimal setting) 7. Conclusions In the foregoing study, the use of PCA based hybrid Taguchi method has been proposed and adopted for solution of multiobjective optimization, along with a case study, in CNC end milling operation. From the study and analyses, the following conclusions can be drawn. The proposed method has been found efficient for solving multi-attribute decision making problem i.e., for multiobjective product as well as process optimization; for continuous quality improvement. Application of PCA can eliminate multi co-linearity (correlation) of the output responses and transform these correlated responses into uncorrelated quality indices called principal components. Absence of correlation between the responses is the basic assumption for applying Taguchi optimization technique. It can be recommended that the PCA based hybrid Taguchi method is good, for example, in case of processes (chemical and pharmaceutical) industries when there are hundreds of response variables. In the foregoing study, interaction effects of process control parameters have been neglected. But in practical case, this assumption may not be valid. Therefore, there exists scope to incorporate these interactions in the analyses of optimization. If interactive effects of factors are considered, it would be very interesting to find how Taguchi design of experiment changes from the previous case. The application feasibility of the said technique can be investigated in problems dealing with ample process responses. References Datta S., Nandi G., Bandyopadhyay A. and Pal P.K., 2009a. Application of PCA based hybrid Taguchi method for multi-criteria optimization of submerged arc weld: A case study, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 45, No. 3-4, pp. 276-286. Datta S., Nandi G. and Bandyopadhyay A, 2009b. Application of entropy measurement technique in grey based Taguchi method for solution of correlated multiple response optimization problems: A case study in welding, Journal of Manufacturing Systems, (in press) DOI: 10.1016/j.jmsy.2009.08.001. Ghani J.A., Choudhury I.A. and Hassan H.H., 2004. Application of Taguchi method in the optimization of end milling parameters, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 145, No. 1, pp. 84-92. Johnson R.A. and Wichern D.W. 2002, Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632. Kopac J. and Krajnik P., 2007. Robust design of flank milling parameters based on grey-Taguchi method, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 191, No. 1-3, pp. 400-403. Mahapatra S.S. and Chaturvedi, V., 2009, Modeling and analysis of abrasive wear performance of composites using Taguchi approach, International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 123-135. Oktem H., Erzurumlu T. and Kurtaran H., 2005. Application of response surface methodology in the optimization of cutting conditions for surface roughness, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 170, No. 1-2, pp. 11-16.
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Su C.T. and Tong L.I., 1997. Multi-response robust design by principal component analysis, Total Quality Management, Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 409-416. Taguchi G., 1986. Introduction to quality engineering, Proceedings of Asian Productivity Organization, UNIPUB, White Plains, NY. Yang L.J. and Chen C.J., 2001. A systematic approach for identifying optimum surface roughness performance in end-milling operations, Journal of Industrial Technology, Vol 17, pp.1-8.
Biographical notes Mr. Sanjit Moshat is an Ex. P. G. scholar of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. He did his M. E. in Production Engineering from Jadavpur University in the year 2007. Dr. Saurav Datta (*) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela India. He obtained his BME (Hons), and PhD degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching and research. His current area of research includes Welding Technology, Manufacturing Processes, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making, Quality Engineering, optimization & Simulation modeling. Dr. Asish Bandyopadhyay is a Professor of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. He has been serving at the university for the last 23 years. He completed his undergraduate and postgraduate studies in Mechanical Engineering and was awarded PhD (Engg) degree from Jadavpur University. Before joining Jadavpur University, he served in heavy industries in India for approximately six years. His fields of interest include manufacturing and machining technology and heat transfer. Dr. Pradip Kumar Pal is presently a Professor of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, India. He obtained his BME (Hons), MME and PhD degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University. He has been involved with teaching and research since 1985 at said university. His teaching and research areas include manufacturing science, machine tool vibration and welding technology.
Received December 2009 Accepted January 2010 Final acceptance in revised form February 2010
MultiCraft
Comparative evaluation of modified pulse width modulation schemes of Z-source inverter for various applications and demands
S. Thangaprakash1*, A. Krishnan2
1*
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore (TN), - 641 062, INDIA 2 Dean (Academic), K.S.R. College of Engineering, Tiruchengode (TN), - 637 215, INDIA * Corresponding Author: e-mail:s_thangaprakash@rediffmail.com
Abstract This paper presents a comparative evaluation of five different methods of modified pulse width modulation schemes to control the recently developed buck-boost type Z-source inverter. Since its inception, different control techniques have been proposed to insert the shoot-through periods in the traditional switching waveform of the power switching devices. Simple boost control, maximum boost control, constant boost control and modified space vector modulation based control methods have been presented by world wide researchers for various types of loads and applications. However, the detailed comparative evaluation has not been reported to select the suitable control method according to the application and demand. In this paper, for the common boost factor and modulation index, the output voltage, output current, output line harmonics profile of the inverters with different PWM schemes powered by the same dc power supply and three phase RL load were conducted. Comparison results are analyzed for two control variables (modulation index and boost factor) and are evidently reported. For each method, the boost factor, voltage gain, duty ratio and voltage stress across the switches are expressed and the relationships among them are analyzed. By comparing them, proper control method can be adapted according to the requirement of different applications and demands. Keywords: Z-source inverter, buck-boost, pulse width modulation (PWM), modified space vector modulation (MSVM), shoot-through, voltage stress. 1. Introduction The distribution of the shoot-through in the switching waveforms of the traditional pulse width modulation concept is the key factor to control the Z-source inverter shown in Figure 1. The dc-link voltage boost (diagonal capacitor voltage), controllable range of ac output voltage, voltage stress across the switching devices and harmonic profile of the output profile are purely based on the method of control algorithm adapted to insert the shoot-through. There are a number of control methods which have been presented so far to control Z-source inverter, that include the sinusoidal PWM and modified space vector modulation based PWM techniques. In this paper, five types of PWM control algorithms: simple boost control (SBC), maximum boost control (MBC), constant boost control (CBC), and traditional and modified space vector based pulse width modulation schemes (MSVM) are comparatively evaluated for different operating modes. The buck-boost operation of the inverter is based on the boost factor, which in turn based on the placement of the shoot-through time period in between the active states. The shoot-through period is carefully inserted before or after the active states by keeping the time period of the active states constant (Loh et al., 2007). The simple boost control is proposed by Peng (2003); it uses two straight lines equal to or greater than the peak value of the three phase references to control the shoot-through duty ratio in a traditional sinusoidal PWM. Simple boost control is very simple and easy to implement and in this method, switching stress is high. Maximum boost control method is proposed by Peng et al. (2005a). Under a given modulation index and shoot-through duty ratio, a maximum boost in the dc link voltage than simple boost control is achievable to produce the maximum voltage gain. A detailed analysis for how the various conventional pulse width modulation strategies can be modified to switch a Z-source inverter either continuously or discontinuously, while retaining all the unique harmonic performance features is clearly discussed by Loh et al. (2005). Shen et al. (2006) proposed constant boost control, this
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Thangaprakash and Krishnan / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 103-115
method provides a maximum voltage gain at any given modulation index without producing any low-frequency ripple that is related to the output frequency. Thus the Z-source network requirement will be independent of the output frequency and determined only by the switching frequency. Modified space vector modulation is proposed by Tran et al. (2007). Maximum voltage boost in the dc-link with improved harmonic profile at the output of the inverter by turning the maximum time period of the traditional zero state into shoot-through state with modified voltage space vector is reported by Thangaprakash et al. (2010a). This control method allows the Z-source inverter to be operated in wide range of control with improved performance.
Figure 1 Structure of the three phase Z-source inverter For the same boost factor, switching frequency and modulation index, the output voltage, output current, output line harmonics profile of the inverters powered by the same dc power supply and loaded by the same three phase RL load were conducted with different PWM techniques. In the next section, the aforementioned pulse width modulation schemes for Z-source inverters are investigated with their relevant expressions of key parameters that are followed by the simulation results of five major control methods, detailed comparative evaluation and analysis. 2. Modulation schemes and parameters for evaluation Many PWM control methods have been developed and used for voltage source inverters (VSI). The voltage source inverter has six active states, when the dc voltage is immersed across the load, and two zero states when the load terminal are shorted through the lower or upper switches (results shoot-through). The Z-source inverter has an additional zero state, called shoot-through state. How to insert this shoot-through state becomes the key point of the PWM control methods for the Z-source inverter. In this section, five different control techniques for Z-source inverter are reviewed and the parameters for comparison are defined. In the next section, these control methods are analyzed and evaluated in many fonts like, boost factor (B), gain (G), voltage stress across the switches (Vs) with respect to different shoot-through duty ratio (Do) and modulation index (ma). In SBC, MBC and CBC techniques, the three phase sinusoidal modulating signals with 120 degree phase shift are compared with the carrier triangular signal. When the magnitude of the modulating signal is greater than the carrier signal, the upper power switch in the respective phase leg is ON and the switch is OFF, when the modulating signal is less than the carrier signal. The complement signals are given to the lower switch of the phase leg. The shoot-through period is generated by comparing the same triangular wave with straight lines or envelopes of the modulating signal or sinusoidal signal depending upon the technique used and inserted in the switching waveform with the help of OR gate. In addition to the six active and two null states associated with a conventional VSI, the Z-source inverter has seven shoot-through states representing the short-circuiting of a phase-leg (E1), two phase-legs (E2) or all three phase-legs (E3). These shoot-through states again boost the dc link capacitor voltages and can partially supplement the null states within a fixed switching cycle without altering the normalized voltsec average, since both states similarly short-circuit the inverter three-phase output terminals, producing zero voltage across the ac load (Woo et al., 2007). Shoot-through states can therefore be inserted to existing PWM state patterns of a conventional voltage source inverter to derive different modulation strategies for controlling a three-phase-leg z-source inverter (Thangaprakash et al., 2010b). Third harmonic injection method also implemented to eliminate third order harmonics from the ac output voltage and current profile. 2.1 Simple boost control Simple boost control uses two straight lines to control the shoot-through states, as shown in Figure 2 (a). When the triangular carrier waveform is greater than the upper envelope, V1, or lower than the bottom envelope, V2, the circuit turns into shoot-through state. Otherwise it operates just as traditional carrier-based PWM. Figure 2 (a) shows the pulse generation of the three phase leg switches (S1, S3 and S5-positive group/upper switch and S2 , S4 and S6-negative group/lower switch).This method is very uncomplicated; however, the resulting voltage stress across the device is relatively high because some traditional zero states are
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not utilized either partially or fully. For a complete switching period, Ts is total switching period, T0 is the zero state time period T and D0 is the shoot-through duty ratio D0 = 0 . Ts Then the boost factor (B) can be, 1 1 = (1) B= T 1 2 D0 1 2 0 Ts Voltage gain (G) of the inverter can be written as, v ma (2) G = ac = ma * B = 1 2 D0 vdc / 2 Where vac is ac output voltage and vdc is input dc voltage. Figure 2.(a) illustrates the simple control method that employs a straight line equal to or greater than the peak value of the three phase references to control shoot-through duty ratio in a traditional sinusoidal PWM for the modulation index ma = 0.8 . The Zsource inverter maintains the six active states unchanged as the traditional carrier based PWM control. For this simple boost control, the obtainable shoot-through duty ratio decreases with the increase of ma . The maximum shoot-through duty ratio of the simple boost control is limited to D0 = (1 ma ) (3) thus reaching zero at a modulation index of one. In order to produce an output voltage that requires a high voltage gain, a small modulation index (ma ) has to be used. However, small modulation indices result in greater voltage stress on the devices. When the modulation index is increased, the switching frequency of the inverter also increases and hence the switching losses.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2 Modulation using (a) Simple boost control (b) Maximum boost control for ma = 0.8
The voltage gain of the inverter with simple boost control can be written by using equations (1) and (2) as v ma G = ma * B = ac = vdc / 2 2ma 1 Then the modulation index (ma ) can be related with the voltage gain (G ) of the inverter as. G ma = 2G 1
(4)
(5)
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The voltage stress across the power switches can be, Vs = B *V0 = (2G 1)V0 (6) The voltage stress across the switches is quite high when simple boost control is used, this characteristic will restrict the obtainable voltage gain because of the limitation of device voltage rating (Shen et al., 2006). 2.2 Maximum boost control Maximum boost control turns all traditional zero states into shoot-through state, as shown in Figure 2 (b). The voltage stress across the switching devices is greatly reduced by fully utilizing the zero states. Indeed, turning all zero states into shoot-through state can minimize the voltage stress; however, doing so also causes a shoot-through duty ratio varying in a line cycle, which causes inductor current ripple (Shen et al, 2008). This will require a high inductance for low-frequency or variable-frequency applications. Maximum boost control method maintains the six active states unchanged and turns all zero states into shoot-through zero states. Thus maximum T0 and B are obtained for any given modulation index ma without distorting the output waveform. Reducing the voltage stress under a desired voltage gain now becomes important to the control of Z-source inverter. As analyzed in simple boost control method, the voltage gain is defined as ma * B , and the voltage stress across the switches is B *Vdc , therefore, to minimize the voltage stress for any given voltage gain, we have to minimize B and maximize ma , with the restriction of that their product is the desired value. On the other hand, we should maximize B for any given modulation index to achieve the maximum voltage gain. Consequently, from the above discussion, we have to make the shoot-through duty ratio as large as possible. As can be seen from Figure 2 (b), the circuit is in shoot through state when the triangular carrier wave is either greater than the maximum curve of the references (Va , Vb and Vc ) or smaller than the minimum of the references. The shoot-through duty cycle varies each cycle. The shoot-through state repeats periodically in every /3 degrees. Assume that the switching frequency is much higher than the modulation frequency; the average shoot-through duty ratio over one switching cycle in the interval , can be expressed as 6 2 T0 / 2 (2 ma sin ma sin( 2 / 3)) = d /6 T 2
2 3 3 2 Maximum shoot-through duty ratio can be written as, 1 1 = B= T 1 2 D0 1 2 0 T 2 3 3 D0 = 2 The relationship of gain and modulation index, ma ma = G= 1 2 D0 3 3ma =
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
The relationship of modulation index and Gain, G ma = 3 3G Then, 3 3G B=
(11)
(12)
The voltage stress on the switch is, 3 3G Vs = B *Vdc = Vdc = Vdc (13) 3 3G Maximum boost control method introduces a low frequency current ripple associated with the output frequency in the inductor current and the capacitor voltage (Shen et al., 2006). Maximum boost control with third harmonic injection method is shown in Figure 3 (a). This method of control produces the output voltage and current with better harmonic profile.
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2.3 Constant boost control In order to reduce the volume and cost, it is important always to keep the shoot-through duty ratio constant. At the same time, a greater voltage boost for any given modulation index is desired to reduce the voltage stress across the switches. Figure 3 (b) shows the generation of switching pulses by maximum constant boost control method, which achieves the maximum voltage gain while always keeping the shoot-through duty ratio constant.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 Modulation using (a) maximum boost control with third harmonic injection (b) constant boost control for ma = 0.8 There are five modulation curves in this control method: three reference signals, Va, Vb, and Vc, and two shoot-through envelope signals, Vp and Vn. When the carrier triangle wave is greater than the upper shoot-through envelope, Vp, or lower than the lower shoot-through envelope, Vn, the inverter is turned to a shoot-through zero state. In between, the inverter switches in the same way as in traditional carrier-based PWM control. The sketch map of maximum constant boost control is shown in Figure 3 (b). This method achieves maximum boost while keeping the shoot-through duty ratio always constant; thus it results in low line frequency current ripple through the inductors. With this method, the inverter can buck and boost the voltage from zero to any desired value smoothly within the limit of the device voltage. The shoot-through duty ratio is; 2 3ma 3ma D0 = = 1 2 2 Boost factor (B), can be found as, 1 1 B= = T0 3ma 1 1 2 T Similarly, the voltage gain can be found as; vi ma = ma * B = Vdc / 2 3ma 1 The voltage gain approaches infinity when ma decreases to Voltage gain is, G = ma * B = Then ma 3ma 1 (17)
(14)
(15)
(16)
1 3
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G
3G 1 The voltage stress across the device can be; Vs = B *Vdc = ( 3G 1)Vdc
ma =
(18)
(19)
This method is very suitable for low-frequency applications, since it minimizes the Z-source network. 2.4 Traditional SVM for Z-source inverter There are fifteen switching states of a three-phase-leg Z-source inverter. In addition to the six active and two null states associated with a conventional VSI, the Z-source inverter has seven shoot-through states representing the short-circuiting of a phase-leg (E1), two phase-legs (E2) or all three phase-legs (E3). These shoot-through states boost the dc link capacitor voltages and can partially supplement the null states within a fixed switching cycle without altering the normalized voltsec average. The continuous centered SVM state sequence of a conventional three-phase-leg VSI, where three state transitions occur (e.g., null (000) active(100) active (110) null (111) ) and the null states at the start and end of a switching cycle Ts span equal time intervals to achieve optimal harmonic performance (Loh et al., 2005). With three-state transitions, three equal-interval (either T0 T or 0 ) shoot-through states can be added immediately adjacent to the active states per switching cycle for modulating a Z 3Ts Ts source inverter where T0 is the shoot through time period in one switching cycle. The switching pattern is shown in Figure 4 (a). The shoot-through states are symmetrically placed about the original switching instant. The modulating signal for the modified SVM strategy can be derived from the following equations,
Vmax(sp) = Vmax + Voff + T

Vmax( sn) = Vmax + Voff + Vm id ( sp) = Vm id + Voff + T 3 T 3
(20) (21) (22)
Vm id ( sn) = Vm id + Voff
Vmin( sp ) = Vmin + Voff
T 3
(23) (24) (25)
T 3
Vmin( sn) = Vmin + Voff T {sp, sn} = {1, 4},{3, 6},{5, 2} T Where T = 0 shoot through duty ratio and sp and sn are switches connected in positive dc rail and negative dc rail. Ts The shoot-through duty ratio is; 3 2 3 3ma D0 = * 4 2 Boost factor (B), can be found as, 4 B= 9 3ma 2 Similarly, the voltage gain can be found as; vi 4 ma G= = Vdc / 2 9 3ma 2
(26)
(27)
(28)
The voltage stress across the device can be; 9 3G 4 Vs = Vdc 2
(29)
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2.5 Modified SVM for Z-source inverter

T With three-state transitions, three equal-interval ( 0 ) shoot-through states can be added immediately adjacent to the active 3 states per switching cycle for modulating a Zsource inverter where T0 is the shoot through time period in one switching cycle. Preferably, the shoot-through states should be inserted such that equal null intervals are again maintained at the start and end of the switching cycle to achieve the same optimal harmonic performance. The middle shoot-through state is symmetrically placed about T the original switching instant. The active states {100} and {110} are left/right shifted accordingly by ( 0 ) with their time 3 intervals kept constant, and the remaining two shoot-through states are lastly inserted within the null intervals, immediately adjacent to the left of the first state transition and to the right of the second transition. This way of sequencing inverter states also ensures a single device switching at all transitions, and allows the use of only shoot-through states E1, E2, and E3. The other shootthrough states cannot be used since they require the switching of at least two phase-legs at every transition. Modified space vector modulation allows the inverter to be operated in wide range of voltage control. DC-link voltage is boosted well than the traditional method and the output voltage of the Z-source inverter has better harmonic profile with wide controllability for the same shootthrough duty ratio, modulation index, input and load conditions (Thangaprakash et al., 2010a). The switching wave forms for six power transistors using modified space vector with proper placement of shoot through states in which both power switches in a leg are simultaneously turned on is shown in Figure 4 (b). The modulating signal for the modified SVM strategy can be derived from the following equations,
Vmax( sp ) = Vmax + Voff + T

Vmax( sn) = Vmax + Voff
(30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35)
Vm id ( sp) = Vm id + Voff Vm id ( sn) = Vm id + Voff T

Vmin( sp ) = Vmin + Voff T
Vmin( sn) = Vmin + Voff 2T {sp, sn} = {1, 4},{3, 6},{5, 2} T Where T = 0 shoot through duty ratio. 3
T In the case of traditional pulse width modulation method of Z-source inverters, all the switching functions are altered with 0 3 either added with the active time or take out from them. But in modified space vector modulation, the active states of two switches remain unaltered neither added nor reduced by the shoot-through (Tran et al., 2007). Normally the shoot-through duty ratio is defined as follows,
T D0 = min( z ) ; for = 0 2 Ts
(36)
Further D0 could be related with the modulation index ma as,

D0 = 1 ma 1 B= = 1 2 D0 3 3ma
(37) (38)
Similarly, the voltage gain can be found as; vi ma G= = Vdc / 2 3 3ma The voltage stress across the device can be;
(39)
110
3 3G Vdc
Vs =
(40)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4 Modulation using (a) traditional SVM (b) modified SVM in sector-I
3. Results and discussion
A comprehensive comparison of the above control methods for Z-source inverter systems has been performed. The comparison results are analyzed for two control variables (modulation index and boost factor) and are shown in this section. For each method, the boost factor, voltage gain, duty ratio and voltage stress across the switches are expressed and the relationships among them are analyzed in detail. Figures 5-9 show the simulation results of the Z-source inverter having the following specification: Z-source inductors, L1=L2=L=160H, Z-source capacitors, C1=C2=C=1000F, Load resistance, RL=5 ohms, Load inductance, LL=2mH, Source voltage, Vdc=250 V, Modulation index, ma=0.8 and Switching frequency, fs = 5 kHz, Shoot-through duty ratio, D0=0.3 for SBC, MBC and CBC & 0.2 for traditional and modified SVM techniques. The comparative graphs for different parameters are shown in Figures 10-11 and the harmonic profile comparison for four different cases: case I: Pure resistive load, case II: RL load, case III: Motor load, case IV: Motor load after a supply voltage sag (from 230V to 170V) are depicted in Table 1.
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0 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08 time (s) 0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1 500
cap. voltage (v)

0.07 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1
400 300 200 100
Figure 8 Simulation results of traditional SVM control
112
400
60 output current (A) 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60
output voltage (v)
200 0 -200 -400 0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
600
60
Line voltage (v)
200 0 -200 -400 -600 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Line current (A)
400
40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
500
40
30
cap. voltage (v)
400 300 200 100 0 0.065
20
10
0 0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08 time (s)
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
Figure 9 Simulation results of modified SVM control The comparative evaluations of different methods are discussed in this section. The graph between voltage gain and modulation index has been depicted in Figure 10. Comparatively, modified SVM control technique provides better voltage gain among all the control techniques. Maximum boost control method maximizes the shoot through period without effecting the active states by turning all zero states into the shoot through zero state, thus maximum output voltage can be obtained for a given modulation index. Table 1 shows the harmonic profile of different control schemes for different operating conditions. It shows modified space vector modulation provides better harmonic profile in almost all cases. Table 1 Comparison of the harmonic profile
Method Case I THDv% THDi% 85 0.6 66 3.13 71 0.5 72 2.18 56 0.43 Case III 76 1.4 39 1.9 45 0.6 48 2.1 29 0.8 Case II THDv% THDi% 67 1.2 46 3.2 52 1.1 56 2.8 34 0.6 Case IV 74 3.5 32 2.8 39 1.2 36 1.4 31 2.1
SBC MBC CBC TSVM MSVM Method SBC MBC CBC TSVM MSVM
The voltage gain is identical to the maximum control method for the same modulation index. The curve of voltage gain versus modulation index is shown in Figure 10 (a), from which we can see that the possible operation region is extended with the increase of modulation index. The relationship of voltage gain versus voltage stress is shown in Figure 10 (b). From Figure 10 (a), the two control methods have identical voltage gainmodulation index relationship. Therefore they should share the same voltage stress for any given voltage gain except that the range of voltage gain is extended in the third harmonic injection method. Figure 10 (c) shows the relation between voltage stress (Vs) and modulation index (ma) for different control methods. It is clear that, the voltage stress of the power switching devices is decreased when the modulation index is increased. The modified space vector modulation technique provides superior operation, when it is compared with all other control methods. Maximum boost control method offers high stress and traditional space vector modulation gives medium stress in the graph. Figure 10 (d) shows the graph between shoot-through duty ratio Vs boost factor. In case of variable shoot-through duty ratio (maximum boost, traditional SVM and modified SVM), high inductance is required since the inductor current has six times load frequency current ripple. In addition, there are large oscillations in both the capacitor voltage and the inverter input voltage which increases the voltage stress in the power switching. Moreover, the total harmonic distortion (THD) for these three methods is larger than other methods with fixed shoot-through duty ratio.
113
Gain Vs Modulation index

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.1 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95
Modulation index (ma) Simple Boost control Constant boost control Modified SVM Maximum boost control Traditional SVM
Voltage gain (B) Vs Voltage stress (Vs)

1000
Voltage Stress(Vs)
800 600 400 200 0 0.7 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Voltage gain (G) Simple Boost control Constant boost control Modified SVM Maximum boost control Traditional SVM
Voltage Gain (G)
(a)
(b)
Voltage stress Vs Modulation index

1200
Voltage Stress (Vs)
Shoot-through duty ratio Vs Boost factor

6
Boost Factor (B)
1000 800 600 400 200 0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Modulation index (ma) Simple Boost control Constant boost control Modified SVM Maximum boost control Traditional SVM
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Maximum boost control Traditional SVM Shoot-through duty ratio (D0) Simple Boost control Constant boost control Modified SVM
(c)
(d)
Figure 10 Comparative graphs of various factors (a) Voltage gain Vs modulation index (b) Voltage gain Vs voltage stress (c) Voltage stress Vs modulation index (d) Boost factor Vs shoot-through duty ratio In SBC, MBC and CBC methods the shoot-through current is equally distributed on the three phases of the inverter bridge which limit the current stress on the switch. But, in traditional and modified SVM methods, the shoot-through current for each phase is twice the inductor current, which increase the current stress on the switch. Also, in high power range the PWM strategy with six shoot-through state insertions in one switching cycle (traditional SVM and modified SVM) brings more losses than its counterpart of two shoot-through state (SBC, MBC and CBC) insertions in one switching cycle and higher switching frequency makes the efficiency gap become larger. On the other hand, in low output power range, the PWM strategy with six shoot-through state insertions is superior. Maximum boost control method introduces a low frequency current ripple associated with the output frequency in the inductor current and the capacitor voltage. This will cause a higher requirement of the passive components when the output frequency becomes very low. Hence the maximum boost control is suitable for applications that have a fixed or relatively high output frequency. Constant boost control method is very suitable for minimizing the Z-source network, especially in low-frequency or variable-speed-drive applications (Peng et al., 2005b). Space vector modulation methods are suitable for variable
114
speed drives supplied by fuel cell stack or photovoltaic system (which has fluctuating power supply or voltage sag). In case of bidirectional or high performance Z-source inverter, the deriving signal of S7 (which is connected in series to the dc battery) is complement with the shoot-through signal, which is six times the average switching frequency of the inverter in space vector PWM methods which increase the switching losses of the inverter and lower its efficiency (Ding et al., 2007 and Tang et al., 2009). From the FFT analysis up to 100 kHz, the total harmonic distortion of the output current of the constant boost method is lower than all PWM control methods in all topologies.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, five major types of pulse width modulation control methods for Z-source inverter have been reviewed and compared. By comparing them, proper control method can be selected according to the requirement of different loads and demands. The simulations have been developed in Matlab/Simulink environment for Z-source inverter with three phase RL load. The comparison results show, the modified space vector modulation provides better operation with effective dc boost and lowest harmonics. Based on the comparative evaluation, the suitability of the control methods for different applications is also outlined. The future work may be extended for the comparison of these pulse width modulation techniques for multi level Z-source inverters with specific operating conditions.
Nomenclature
Z D0 T0 Ts SBC MBC CBC SVM & MSVM PWM THD B G ma vac

vdc sp & sn Tz C1 & C2 L1 & L2 RL & L L fs
Impedance Shoot-through duty ratio Shoot-through period in one switching cycle Switching cycle time period Simple boost control Maximum boost control Constant boost control Space vector modulation & Modified space vector modulation Pulse width modulation Total harmonic distortion Z-source capacitor voltage boost factor Voltage gain of the inverter Modulation index Average output voltage Input dc voltage Switches connected in positive dc rail and negative dc rail Traditional zero vector time period Z-source diagonal capacitors (split capacitors) Z-source inductors (split inductors) Load resistance & Load inductance Switching frequency
References
Ding X., Qian Z., Yang S., Cui B. and Peng F. Z., 2007. A new adjustable speed drives (ASD) system based on high- performance Z-source inverter, Proceedings of Industry Applications Conference (IEEE-IAS 2007), pp. 2327-2332. Loh P. C., Vilathgamuwa M. V., Lai Y. S., Chua G. T. and Li Y. W., 2005. Pulse width modulation of Z-source inverters, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 1346-1355. Loh P. C., Vilathgamuwa D. M., Gajanayake C. J., Lim Y. R. and Teo C. W., 2007. Transient modeling and analysis of pulse width modulated Z-source inverter, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 498-507. Peng F. Z., 2003. Z-source inverter, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 504-510. Peng F. Z., Shen M. and Qian Z., 2005a. Maximum boost control of the Z-source inverter, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 833-838. Peng F. Z., Yuvan X., Fang X. and Qian Z., 2005b. Z-source inverter for motor drives, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 857-863. Shen M. and Peng F. Z., 2008. Operation modes and characteristics of the Z-source inverter with small inductance or low
115
power factor, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 89-96. Shen M., Wang J., Joseph A. and Peng F. Z., 2006. Constant boost control of the Z-source inverter to minimize current ripple and voltage stress, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 770-778. Tang Y., Xie S., Zhang C. and Xu Z., 2009. Improved Z-source inverter with reduced Z-source capacitor voltage stress and soft -start capability, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 409-415. Thangaprakash S. and Krishnan A., 2010a. Integrated control algorithm for an effective control of Z-source inverter using modified voltage space vector, Australian Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-12. Thangaprakash S. and Krishnan A., 2010b. Modified space vector modulated Z-source inverter with effective DC boost and lowest switching stress, The Journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 70-77. Tran Q. V., Chun T. W., Ahn J. R. and Lee H. H., 2007. Algorithms for controlling both the DC boost and AC output voltage of Z-source inverter, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 54, No. 5, pp. 2745-2750. Woo J. and Keyhani A., 2007. Control of a fuel cell based Z-source converter, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 467-476.
Biographical notes
S. Thangaprakash received Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Kongu Engineering College and Master of Engineering in Power Electronics and Drives from Government College of Technology, Tamilnadu, India in 2002 and 2004 respectively. He is affiliated with the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India. From 2004 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, K.S.R. College of Engineering, Tiruchengode, Tamilnadu, India. Currently he is working towards his PhD degree at Anna University, Chennai, India. His research interests include power electronics circuits, renewable power conversion systems and solid state control of electrical drives. He has authored more than 10 publications in international journals and conferences. He is a life member of ISTE. A. Krishnan received Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering and Master of Engineering in Control Systems from Madras University, India in 1966 and 1974, respectively. Then, he received his PhD degree in Electrical Engineering (Control & Computers group) from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur in 1979. He has been in the field of technical teaching and research for more than four decades at Government College of Technology and Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Tamilnadu, India. From 1994 to 1997, he was an Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering at University Pertanian Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia. Currently he is a Dean with K.S.R. College of Engineering, Tamil Nadu, India. His research interests include control systems, power electronics and electrical machines. He has published more than 180 papers in international journals and conferences. Dr. Krishnan is a senior member of IEEE, Life fellow Institution of Engineers (India), IETE (India) and Computer Society of India.
MultiCraft
Effects of irregularity and anisotropy on the propagation of shear waves

A. Chattopadhyay*, S. Gupta, V. K. Sharma and Pato Kumari
Department of Applied Mathematics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad- 826004, Jharkhand, INDIA * Corresponding Author (e-mail: amares.c@gmail.com, A. Chattopadhyay)
Abstract The propagation of shear waves differs between geo-media due to layers structure and irregularity present in different layers. This paper studies the propagation of shear waves in a monoclinic layer with irregularity lying between two isotropic semiinfinite elastic medium. The displacement in the monoclinic layer is obtained by using perturbation technique. Then the dispersion relation is found in the assumed medium and is verified with the standard known results. Finally, effects of wave number and irregularity are studied numerically and the graphs are plotted for all cases. The dispersion curves for different size of irregularity are calculated and compared. Keywords: Shear waves, intermediate monoclinic layer, irregular boundary, perturbation technique 1. Introduction The study of earthquake is an important branch of seismology. It has revealed a great deal of information about how fracturing occurs in the earth and about strains and short-term deformation processes. The study of seismic waves allows us to make inferences about certain properties of the parts of the earth through which the waves have travelled as well as the source of waves. Many problems in seismology can be solved by representing the Earth as a layered medium that is, formed by layers of certain thickness and mechanical properties. For certain problems we can use a flat approximation of parallel horizontal layers and they are reduced to two dimensions. Layer of constant properties may be considered as an approximation for media whose elastic coefficients vary in a continuous form with depth. Shear waves (SH waves) are the waves that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation are contained in a horizontal plane. Love waves, named after the British seismologist A. E. H. Love, who first predicted their existence in 1911, are characterized by horizontal motion normal to the direction of travel, with no vertical motion. In effect a Love wave is a polarized shear waves. Many authors have studied the propagation of Love waves, and different authors assumed different forms of irregularities at the interface. Chattopadhyay (1975) studied the effect of irregularities and non-homogeneities in the crustal layer on the propagation of Love waves. Bhattacharya (1962) considered the irregularity in the thickness of the transversely isotropic crustal layer. Mal (1962) derived the dispersion relation for Love waves due to abrupt thickening of the crustal layer. Ghosh (1961) discussed the propagation of Love waves across the oceanbed. Chattopadhyay and De (1983) studied the dispersion relation for Love waves in a non-dissipative liquid filled with porous solid underlain by an isotropic and homogeneous half-space. They derived the dispersion relation by applying the perturbation method and the phase velocity curve has been obtained for different irregularities by using the parameters of the porous medium, which were suggested by Biot (1961). Sinha (1967) studied the propagation of Love waves in a non-homogeneous stratum of finite depth sandwiched between two semi-infinite isotropic media. Sezawa (1935) discussed the propagation of Love waves generated from a buried source. Recently, Chattopadhyay et al. (2008) have studied SH waves propagation in a monoclinic layer over a semi-infinite elastic medium with irregularity. They have derived the dispersion relation for SH waves and shown the effect of irregularity in monoclinic medium. The extension of earth is made up of solids, liquids and occluded gases. The solids are commonly called rocks and when minerals occur with definite geometrical outlines, they are called crystals. Crystals are solids bounded by natural plane surfaces or faces. A variety of crystal forms are possible and monoclinic form is one of them. The monoclinic system is the largest symmetry system with almost a third of all minerals belonging to one of its three classes. The motivation of the present problem is that the
117
Chattopadhyay et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp. 116-126
valuable materials, e.g., Lithium tantalate, Lithium niobate etc., which exhibits monoclinic symmetry are buried beneath the earth surface. These materials can be modeled as monoclinic materials. Xue (2000) studied the dielectric properties of Lithium tantalate and Lithium niobate. It is well known in the literature that the earth medium is not at all isotropic and homogeneous throughout, but it is anisotropic and inhomogeneous. Moreover, the discontinuities separating the different layers of the earth are not perfectly plane. Keeping these things in mind, we have considered the propagation of SH waves in a layered monoclinic medium lying between two elastic half-spaces. The irregularity has been taken in the monoclinic layer in the form of a rectangle. To solve the problem we have used the perturbation technique as indicated by Eringen and Samuels (1959). It is shown that the phase velocity of Love waves depends not only on the wave number and depth of the irregularity but layer structure also.
Figure 1: Geometry of the problem 2. Formulation of the problem We choose the y -axis vertically downwards and z -axis along the interface between the lower semi-infinite medium and the monoclinic layer (Figure 1). We assume the irregularity in the form of a rectangle with length s and depth H/. The origin is placed at the middle point of the interface irregularity. H is the thickness of the layer. Source of the disturbance is placed on positive y axis at a distance
d ( > H / ) from the origin.
The interface between the layer and lower half-space is given by
y = h( z )
(1)
0 where h( z ) = f ( z)
=
s s for z , z 2 2 , s s for z 2 2
irregularity with f ( z ) = s , but the results obtained can be utilized for other shape of irregularity as well. Let us take r , r , ur (r = 1, 2, 3) as the rigidities, densities and displacements components of the upper medium, monoclinic layer and lower media respectively. 3. Equations of motion and boundary conditions For waves propagating in the z-direction and causing displacement in the x-direction only, we assume that u = u ( y, z , t ), v = 0, w = 0 . The equation of motion in the intermediate monoclinic layer is
H' << 1 . The function f ( z ) describes the shape of the irregularity. For present paper we have taken the rectangular S
118
C 2u2 C55 2u2 2u2 1 2u + 2 56 + = 2 22 . y 2 C66 yz C66 z 2 2 t where C55 , C56 , C66 are elastic coefficients for monoclinic crystalline medium under the given geometry.
Similarly the equations of motion for upper and lower semi-infinite mediums are
(2)
2u1 2u1 1 2u + 2 = 2 21 , y 2 z 1 t 2u3 2u3 1 2u + 2 = 2 23 y 2 z 3 t

where (3)
1 =
3 C66 1 , 2 = , 3 = 1 2 3
u2 = u3 at y = h( z ) u u2 u ii) 1 1 = C56 + C66 2 at y = H , y z y u u u2 u C66 C56 h / + C56 C55 h / 2 = 3 3 h / 3 at y = h( z ) , z y z y dh( z ) / where h = . dz

4. Solution of the problem Let us consider the time-dependent displacements u j ( y, z , t ) = U j ( y, z )e frequency, then the Eqs. (2) and (3) become
i t
The boundary conditions are as follows: i) u1 = u2 at y = H ,
(4a) (4b) (4c)
(4d)
( j = 1, 2, 3; i = 1) , where is the angular

(5)
2U1 2U1 2 + 2 + 2 U1 = 0 1 y 2 z C 2U 2 C55 2U 2 2 2U 2 U2 = 0 + 2 56 + + C66 yz C66 z 2 22 y 2 2U 3 2U 3 2 U3 = 0 . + + y 2 z 2 32
(6)
(7)
Taking the Fourier transform U r ( y , ) of U r ( y , z ) (vide Appendix-A [Eq. (A1]) of Eqs. (5), (6), and (7), we obtain the reduced system of equations as
d 2U1 p12U1 = 0 , 2 dy
(8)
d 2U 2 dU 2 +a + p 2U 2 = 0 , 2 dy dy d 2U 3 2 p3 U 3 = 0 , dy 2 where p1 , p, p3 , and a are defined in the Appendix-A, [Eq. (A2)].

Appropriate solution of Eqs. (8), (9), and (10) are
(9)
(10)
U1 ( y, ) = De p1 y ,
y H
(11)
119
U 2 ( y , ) = e
a y 2
( A cos p2 y + B sin p2 y ) ,
U 3 ( y, ) = Ce where p2 is defined in the Appendix-A [Eq. (A3)].

p3 y
H y h( z ) y h( z )
(12) (13)
The displacements in the three media are
U1 ( y , z ) =
1 2
1 U 2 ( y, z ) = 2
and U 3 ( y , z ) =
De e

p1 y i z
d ,
(14)
a y 2
( A cos p2 y + B sin p2 y )e i z d ,
p3 y
(15)
2 p3 y p3d i z e e )e d (16) p3 where the second term in the integrand of U 3 is introduced due to the source in the lower medium (Sezawa, 1935). We use the perturbation method given by Eringen and Samuels (1959), to set the following approximations due to small value of A A0 + A1 , B B0 + B1 , C C0 + C1 , D D0 + D1 , e v h 1 v h (17) where v = a 2 . Since the boundary is not uniform the terms A, B, C, and D in Eq. (17) are also functions of . Expanding these terms in ascending powers of and keeping in view that is small and so retaining the terms up to the first order of , A, B, C,
1 2
(Ce
and D can be approximated as in Eq. (17). In physical situations, when the depth H/ of the irregular boundary is too small with respect to the length of the boundary s, the above assumptions are justified. Defining the Fourier transform
h ( ) of h( z ) as
(18)
i z
h ( ) =
and so,
h( z )e
i z
dz ,
h( z ) =
1 2
h ( )e

d .
i z
Therefore
h/ ( z) =
i 2
h ( )e
aH
d .
Using boundary conditions (4a) to (4d) along with Eqs. (14) to (17), we obtain the following eight equations (after equating the coefficient of and the absolute term):
e 2
e 2
1
aH
cos( p2 H ) A0 + e 2
1
sin( p2 H ) B0 + e p1H D0 = 0,
(19) (20)
cos( p2 H ) A1 + e 2 sin( p2 H ) B1 + e p1H D1 = 0, a ikC56 cos p2 H + C66 cos p2 H p2C66 sin p2 H A0 2

H a ikC56 sin p2 H + C66 ( sin p2 H + p2 cos p2 H ) B0 + D0u1 p1e p1H e 2 = 0, 2 a ikC56 cos p2 H + C66 cos p2 H p2C66 sin p2 H A1 2 a H a ikC56 sin p2 H + C66 ( sin p2 H + p2 cos p2 H ) B1 + D1u1 p1e p1H e 2 = 0, 2 2 p3d A0 C0 e =0, p3 a
aH
aH
(21)
(22) (23)
120
A1 C1 = R1 (k ) , a (C66 + ikC56 ) A0 p2C66 B0 3 p3C0 = 23e p3d , 2 a (C66 + ikC56 ) A1 p2C66 B1 3 p3C1 = R2 (k ) 2 where R1 ( k ) and R2 ( k ) are given in the Appendix-A [Eqs. (A4) and (A5)].
Solving the above eight equations, we obtain the values of [Eq. (A6)]. The displacement in the monoclinic layer will be
(24) (25) (26)
A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 , A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 which are given in the Appendix-A
U2 =
1 2
E (k ) cos( p H ) [4
2
+ ( 3 p3 R1 R2 )e p3d ]
{(2 cos( p2 y ) sin( p2 H ) 1 p1 + 2i cos( p2 y )C56 k sin( p2 H ) + cos( p2 y )C66 a sin( p2 H ) + 2 cos( p2 y ) cos( p2 H )C66 p2 + 2sin( p2 y ) cos( p2 H ) 1 p1 + 2i sin( p2 y )C56 k cos( p2 H ) +
1 -(p3d+ ay) 2
sin(p2 y )C66 acos(p2 H)-2sin(p2 y )C66sin(p2 H)p 2 )e

Now from Eqs. (1) and (18), we have
}e ikz dk .
(27)
h ( ) =
2s
sin
s
2 s
(28)
Using Eqs. (A4) and (A5) defined in Appendix-A, we get
3 p3 R1 R2 =
where ( k ) is given in Appendix-A [Eq. (A7)]. Using asymptotic formula of Willis (1948), Tranter (1966) and neglecting the terms containing 2/s and higher powers of 2/s for large s, we have
[ (k ) + (k + )] sin
1
s
2
(29)
[ (k ) + (k + )] sin
H/
s
2
d =
2 (k ) = (k ) .
(30)
Using Eqs. (29) and (30), we obtain
3 p3 R1 R2 = s (k ) =
U2 = 1 2
(k ) .
Therefore the displacement in the monoclinic layer is
E(k ) cos p H [1 H (k )e
/ 2
83
p3d
{(2cos( p2 y )sin( p2 H )1 p1 + 2i cos( p2 y )C56 k sin( p2 H ) + cos( p2 y )C66 a sin( p2 H ) + 2cos( p2 y) cos( p2 H )C66 p2 + 2sin( p2 y) cos( p2 H ) 1 p1 + 2i sin( p2 y)C56 k cos( p2 H ) + sin( p2 y)C66 a cos( p2 H ) 2sin( p2 y)C66 sin( p2 H ) p2 )e(2 p3d +ay ) 2 }eikz dk . (k ) where ( k ) = 4 3
(31)
The value of this integral will depend entirely on the contribution of the poles of the integrand. The poles are located at the roots of equation
E (k ) cos p2 H [1 H / (k )e p3d ] = 0 .
This equation was examined in the study of shear waves (cf. Achenbach, 1976, p - 293).
(32)
121
5. Dispersion relation If c is the common wave velocity of the wave propagating along the surface, then writing p1 = kP , p2 = kP2 , a = 2ik C56 C66 and p3 = kP3 in Eq. (32) 1 (where
= ck
and replacing
is the angular frequency and
P , P2 , P3 are defined in Appendix-B [Eq. (B1)].), and solving Eq. (32) we get 1
c2 C C 2 kH ( 7 + i 8 ) + 9 + i10 55 + 56 tan = 2 2 2 C 66 C 66 2 11 + i12 where symbols on right hand side are defined in Appendix-B [Eq. (B2)]. Equating both the real and imaginary part we get c2 C C 2 kH ( 7 + 13 ) 11 + ( 8 + 14 ) 12 55 + 56 tan = 2 2 2 C 66 C 66 2 112 + 12 2
and
(33)
(8 + 14 ) 11 (7 + 13 ) 12
112 + 12 2 where 11 and 12 are given in Appendix-B [Eq. (B2)].

We consider the real part i.e. Eq. (33) which gives the dispersion relation of Love wave in a monoclinic layer with rectangular irregularity between two isotropic half spaces If we put C55 = C66 = 2 , C56 = 0 , in Eq. (33) and equating the real part, we have
=0
c2 kH S1/ (cf. Chattopadhyay (1975)) (34) 1 tan = 2 2 2 T1 / / / where S1 and T1 are given in Appendix-B [Eq. (B3)]. Eq. (34) gives the dispersion relation of Love wave in an isotropic layer with rectangular irregularity between two isotropic half spaces / If we further take H = 0 (i.e. no irregularity), then Eq. (34) becomes c2 c2 c2 1 1 1 2 + 3 1 2 2 22 1 3 . c2 (35) 1 kH = tan 2 2 2 22 c c c 22 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 Equation (35) is the standard dispersion relation of SH waves in three isotropic media. The roots of this dispersion relation are real if either 2 < c < 1 3 or 2 < c < 3 1 , which is also the necessary condition for Love type waves to exist.
6. Numerical calculations and discussions From Eq. (31) we find the displacement in the intermediate monoclinic layer. Both the Eqs. (33) and (34) give the resulting dispersion relation for three-layer problem under two different conditions. For graphical representation of phase velocity in a monoclinic layer between two isotropic media, we take the following data: (i) The density and rigidity for upper isotropic homogeneous medium are (Gubbins, 1990)
1 = 3293 Kg / m3 , 1 = 7.45 1010 N / m 2

(ii) The material constants for Lithium tantalate which exhibit monoclinic symmetry are (Tiersten, 1969)
C55 = 0.94 1011 N / m 2 , C56 = 0.111011 N / m 2 , C66 = 0.93 1011 N / m 2 , 2 = 7450 kg / m3 .

(iii) The density and rigidity for lower isotropic homogeneous medium are (Gubbins, 1990)
3 = 3535 kg / m3 , 3 = 7.84 1010 N / m 2 .
122
We have shown in Figure 2, the variation in dimensionless phase velocity
2 against dimensionless wave number kH for a

/
layered monoclinic medium lying between two isotropic half-space for different values of H H (i.e. ratio of irregularity depth to layer width). For graphical representation of phase velocity in a layered isotropic medium lying between two isotropic half-space, we have considered the following data: (i) Upper isotropic homogeneous medium (Gubbins, 1990)
1 = 3293 kg / m3 , 1 = 7.45 1010 N / m 2 .

(ii) Intermediate isotropic layer (Gubbins, 1990)
2 = 3364 kg / m3 , 2 = 6.34 1010 N / m2 .

(iii) Lower isotropic homogeneous medium (Gubbins, 1990)
3 = 3535 kg / m3 , 3 = 7.84 1010 N / m 2 .

Figure 3 shows the variation in dimensionless phase velocity
2 against dimensionless wave number kH .

/
It is clear from both Figures (2) and (3) that phase velocity decreases with increase in wave number. Also increase in ratio H H results in lower phase velocity corresponding to a fixed value of wave number. It is interesting to note that
c c 2 H / =0 2 H / 0 in
H H
both the cases. It is also found that the impact of
H / H on phase velocity becomes
negligible for higher values of
H / H in monoclinic layer, but for isotropic layer this impact is more visible with higher value of
H/ H .
Dimensionless phase velocity (c/2) ---->
1.3 1.25 1.2 1.15 1.1 1.05 H//H=0.15 H//H=0.30 H//H=0
10 15 20 25 30 35 Dimensionless wave number (kH) ---->
40
45
Figure 2: Variation of of H
/
H ( = 0, 0.15, 0.30 ) .
2 against kH
in a monoclinic layer lying between two isotropic semi-infinite media for different value
123
1.09 1.08 Dimensionless phase velocity (c/2) ----> 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 H//H==0.30 1.02 1.01 1 H//H=0
H//H==0.15
10 15 20 25 30 Dimensionless wave number (kH) ---->
35
40
Figure 3: Variation of of H
/
H ( = 0, 0.15, 0.30 ) .
2 against kH
in an isotropic layer lying between two isotropic semi-infinite media for different value
7. Conclusions Propagation of shear waves in a monoclinic layer with irregular boundary sandwiched between two semi-infinite isotropic half spaces has been studied. The Eringens perturbation method is applied to find the displacement field in the layer. The result obtained is used to get the dispersion relation in an irregular monoclinic layer. The dispersion relation for the isotropic layer with and without irregularity, between semi-infinite isotropic half spaces has been derived as a special case of the present problem. The effect of dimensionless wave number on dispersion curve is found numerically and shown graphically for both the monoclinic and for isotropic layer. Variation of phase velocity for different ratio of irregularity depth to layer width is studied and shown graphically. From above discussion we conclude that: 1. In general the phase velocity of Shear waves in a monoclinic or isotropic layer with irregularity, between semi-infinite isotropic half spaces decreases with increase in wave number. 2. Impact of ratio of irregularity depth to layer width is different for monoclinic and isotropic layer. 3. Phase velocity is a function of wave number as well as layer width and depth of irregularity. 4. Increase in depth of the irregularity decrease the magnitude of phase velocity. Thus it can be concluded that the phase velocity in a layer with irregularity between two half spaces is affected by not only the shape of irregularity but also by wave number, the ratio of the depth of the irregularity to layer width and layer structure. Acknowledgement Authors are grateful to the reviewer for suggesting enormous improvements in the paper. The authors also convey their sincere thanks to Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad and DST, New Delhi for providing financial support through Project No. SR/S4/MS: 436/07, Project title: Wave propagation in anisotropic media. Appendix A The Fourier transform
U r ( y, ) =
U ( y , z )e
r
i z
dz .
(A1)
124
1 and so U r ( y , z ) = 2 p12 = 2 p2 =
U ( y, )e
r
i z
d .
. (A2)
C 2 2 C 2 2 , a = 2i 56 , p 2 = 2 55 2 , p3 = 2 2 12 2 C66 3 C66
1 2
C2 a 2 2 C55 2 p2 + 2 56 = 2 2 4 2 C66 C66 1 2 1 2
(A3)
R1 (k ) = R2 (k ) =
2i 1 3 ke p3d + 3 kC0i C56 A0 a ikC55 A0 }i + 2 p3 ik 2 2 { A0 p2 C66 3C0 p3 23 p3e p3d ikC56 B0 p2 + C56 A0 a + 2 1 + C66 a 2 A0 ) C66 aB0 p2 }] = k h ( )d . 4
[2 A [{C
B0 p2 C0 p3 + 2e p3d ] = k h ( )d , B0 p2 +
(A4)
56
(A5)
83 (21 p1 tan( p2 H ) + 2iC56 k tan( p2 H ) + C66 a tan( p2 H ) + 2C66 p2 ) , e p3d E (k ) 8 (21 p1 + 2iC56 k + C66 a 2C66 tan( p2 H ) p2 ) B0 = 3 , e p3d E (k ) A0 =
2 (21 p1 + 2 + 3 ) 16C66 3 p2 e C0 = , D0 = , p3e p3d E (k ) cos( p2 H ) E (k ) 1 = 41tan(p 2 H)3p3 +21tan(p 2 H)C66a+4i1tan(p 2 H)kC56 41C66 p 2 , 1 ( p1 H - p3 d + aH )
2 2 = 2C66a 2 tan(p 2 H) 8iC56 ktan(p 2 H)3p3 4C66 atan(p 2 H)3 p3 8C66 p 2 3 p3 , 2 2 2 3 = 8C56 k 2 tan 2 (p 2 H) 8iC56 ktan(p 2 H)C66a 8C66 tan(p 2 H)p 2 , 2(2sin(p2 H )1p1 +2ikC56sin(p2 H )+C66asin(p2 H )+2C66 cos( p2 H ) p2 )(3p3R1 R 2 )
, cos( p2 H ) E (k ) 2(2cos(p2 H )1p1 +2ikC56 cos(p2 H )+C66 acos(p2 H ) 2C66sin(p2 H )p2 )(3 p3 R1 R 2 ) B1 = , cos( p2 H ) E (k ) ( 4 +5 + 6 ) 4C66 p 2 (3 p3 R1 -R 2 )e H(a+2p1 ) 2 , D1 = , E (k ) cos( p2 H ) E (k )
A1 =
C1 =
4 = 4sin(p2 H )1p1R 2 +4i1p1R 1sin(p2 H )kC56 +2p1R11sin(p2 H )C66 a,

2 5 = 41p1R1cos(p2 H )C66 p 2 +R1C66 a 2sin(p2 H ) 4iC56 ksin(p2 H )R 2 2C66 asin(p2 H )R 2 , 2 2 2 6 = 4C66cos(p2 H )p 2 R 2 +4iR1C56 ksin(p2 H )C66 a 4R1C56 k 2sin(p2 H )+4R1C56sin(p2 H )p 2 ), E (k ) = ((4i1tan(p2 H )kC56 41tan(p2 H )3 p3 -41C66 p 2 +21tan(p2 H )C66 a)p1 2 4C56 k 2 tan(p2 H )+4iC56 ktan(p2 H )C66 a 2C66 atan(p 2 H)3 p3
(A6)
4iC56 ktan(p 2 H)3p3 -4C66 p 2 3p3 +4C tan(p 2 H)p +C a tan(p 2 H)).
2 66 2 2 2 2 66
125
(k ) = ( A2 + A3 )
A2 = p33 p2 B0 + p33aA0 2 + 43e- p3d p3 + A0 p2 C66 + B0 aC66 p2 , 2 A a 2C66 ikC56 aA0 i C56 aA0 23 k A3 = ip2 kC56 B0 0 + + 3 kC0 kC55 A0 + i p2C56 B0 . p3e p3d 4 2 2
1 1 1
(A7)
Appendix B
c2 C C2 2 c2 2 c2 2 P = 1 2 P2 = 2 55 + 56 , P3 = 1 2 . 1 2 1 2 C66 C66 3 7 = C66 ( P 1 H1kP2 2C66 + P2 2C66 2 + P3 3 H1kP2 2C66 P 1 P3 3 + P 1 H1kP32 3 P2 2C66 2 H1kP3 ) , 1 1 1
(B1)
8 = P 1 P3 3kH1C56 + H1kC66 2 P2 2C56 , 1
9 = ( k 2 H12 P2 2C66 2 + k 2 H12 P32C66 2 2kH1 P3C66 2 + C66 2 k 2 H12C56 2 ) 10 = 2kC66 H1C56 ( 32 P32 + P2 2C66 2 )( P2 2C66 2 + 12 P 2 ) ( 1 + kH1 P3 ) , 1
12 = kH1C56C66 P2 ( 1 P + 3 P3 ) 1
(P
32 + P2 2C66 2 )( P2 2C66 2 + P 2 12 ) 1
11 = C66 P2 ( C66 kH1 P32 3 + C66 2 kH1 P2 2 P3 3C66 P P3 13 kH1 P 1C66 + C66 kH1 P P3 1 ) 1 1 1
13 = 9 + 9 + 10
2
/ 1
((
) 2)
12
, 14 = 10
( 2 ( +
9
9 + 10
2
)) ,
1 2
(B2)
2 T1/ = P2 {kH / P32 2 3 + kH / P22 2 P3 2 3 P 1kH / 3 P3 P 12 +kH / 12 P P3 } 1 1 1
2 2 kH / P P22 12 + P22 2 + kH / P22 2 3 P3 P 13 P3 + P 1kH / P32 3 kH / P22 2 P3 1 1 1 S = 1/2 2 2 + ( P22 2 + P 2 12 )( k 2 H / 2 P22 2 kH / P3 + k 2 H / 2 P32 + 1)( P22 2 + P32 32 ) 1
(B3)
References Achenbach J. D., 1976. Wave propagation in Elastic solids, North Holland Pub. Comp., New York. Bhattacharya J., 1962. On the dispersion curve for Love waves due to irregularity in the thickness of the transversely isotropic crustal layer. Beitr. Geophys., Vol. 71, pp. 324-333. Biot M. A., 1961. Mechanics of incremental deformation, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. Chattopadhyay A., 1975. On the dispersion equation for Love wave due to irregularity in the thickness of the non-homogeneous crustal layer, Acta Geophys. Pol., Vol. 23, pp. 307-317. Chattopadhyay A. and De R. K., 1983. Love wave in a porous layer with irregular interface, Int. J. Engg. Sci., Vol. 11, pp. 11951203. Chattopadhyay A. and Pal A. K., 1983. Dispersion curves of SH waves caused by irregularity in the prestressed internal stratum, Acta Geophys. Pol., Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 37-49. Chattopadhyay A., Gupta S., Sharma V.K., and Pato Kumari, 2008. Propagation of SH waves in an irregular monoclinic crustal layer, Arch. Appl. Mech., Vol. 78, pp. 989-999. Eringen A. C., and Samuels C. J., 1959. Impact and moving loads on slightly curved elastic half-space, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 26, pp. 491-498. Ghosh M. L., 1961. On passage of Love waves in low period range across the ocean, Beitr. Geophys., Vol. 70, pp. 319-342. Gubbins D., 1990. Seismology and plate tectonics, Cambridge University press, Cambridge, New York, p-170. Mal A. K., 1962. On the frequency equation for Love waves due to abrupt thickening of the crustal layer, Geofis. Pure and Appl. Vol. 52, pp. 59-68. Sezawa K., 1935. Love waves generated from a source of a certain depth, Bull. Earthqu. Res Inst., Vol. 13, pp. 1-17.
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Sinha N., 1967. Propagation of Love waves in a non-homogeneous stratum of finite depth sandwiched between two semi-infinite isotropic media, Pure and Appl. Geophys., Vol. 67, pp. 65-70. Tiersten H. F., 1969. Linear piezoelectric plate vibrations, Plenum Press, New York. Tranter C. J., 1966. Integral Transform in Mathematical Physics, Methuen and Co. Ltd., pp. 63-67. Willis H. F., 1948. A formula for expanding an integral as a series, Phil. Mag., Vol. 39, pp. 455-459. Xue D., Betzler K. and Hesse H., 2000. Dielectric properties of lithium niobate-tantalate crystals, Solid State Communications, Vol.115, pp. 581-585.
Biographical notes Professor Amares Chattopadhyay is working in Indian School of Mines since 1976. He was Awarded Atomic Energy Fellowship by the Government of India during 1973-76 for Ph.D work, Post Doctoral Fellowship for research work in Pierre et Marie Curie University, Paris, France during 1982-1983, and INSA-Royal Society Fellowship in 1999 for research work in UK. He worked as a Visiting Professor in the TU, Vienna, Austria and also in the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany during 2002-2003. He received Michael Madhusudan Award in 2004 and Subarna and Sashibhusan Memorial Award, in 2005. Recently he became Fellow (FICDM) of a learned society. Dr. Shishir Gupta is an Associate professor in the Department of Applied mathematics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad. A Gold Medalist from Ranchi University, he has had a brilliant career. He has more than 21 years of teaching experience at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad. He possesses experience of guiding students of MPhil and PhD. He has published more than 45 papers in International/National journals/Proceedings. He has served as reviewer in renowned International/ National books and journals. He has also carried out several sponsored research projects. V. K. Sharma received his M.Sc. degree from V.B.University, Hazaribag, India and M.Phil. degree from Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India in 2004 and 2007 respectively both in Mathematics. He is pursuing his Ph.D. in Seismology from Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India. Currently he is working as a Scientist in ISSA Lab, DRDO, Delhi, Ministry of Defence, India. His areas of interest include blast modeling and study of Seismic wave propagation. Pato Kumari received her M.Sc. degree from Ranchi University, Ranchi, India and M.Phil. degree from Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India in 2005 and 2007 respectively both in Mathematics. She has submitted her Ph.D. thesis to Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India in 2009. Currently she is working as Associate Lecturer in Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Himachal Pradesh, India. Her areas of interest are study of Seismic wave propagation and Application of wave mechanics to Seismological problem.
Received January 2010 Accepted February 2010 Final acceptance in revised form February 2010
MultiCraft
The inverse strong non-split r-domination number of a graph

B.K. Ameenal1*, R. Selvakumar2
1
Department of Mathematics, Dhanabagiyam Krishnaswamy Mudaliar College for Women (Autonomous), Vellore 1, INDIA 2 Department of Mathematics, VIT University, Vellore 14, INDIA E-mail:(ameena_maths@rediffmail.com (B.K. Ameenal);*Corresponding author)
Abstract In this paper, we define the notions of inverse strong non-split r-dominating set and inverse strong non-split r-domination number snsr(G) of a graph G. We characterize graphs for which snsr(G) + snsr(G) = n, where snsr(G) is the strong non-split r-domination number of G. We get many bounds on snsr(G). Nordhaus-Gaddum type results are also obtained for this new parameter. Keywords: r-independent set, r-dominating set, strong non-split r-dominating set, inverse strong non-split r-dominating set, strong non-split r-domination number and inverse strong non-split r-domination number. 1. Introduction Graphs serve as mathematical models to analyse successfully many concrete real-world problems. In present time, graphs are used to solve problems in many fields. There is virtually no end to the list of problems that can be solved with graph theory. We can use this theory to a great advantage in information retrieval, physics, chemistry, genetics, psychology, architecture, linguistics, sociological structures, computer technology, economics and so on. The simple fact that graph theory serves as a mathematical model for any system involving a binary relation needs to be noted. Graphs have an intuitive and aesthetic appeal because of their diagrammatic representation. Graphs can be used to determine whether a circuit can be implemented on a planar circuit board. We can distinguish between two chemical compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, using graphs. Graphs can be used to study the structure of World Wide Web (Ameenal and Selvakumar, 2009). We can determine whether two computers are connected by a communication link using graph models of computer network. Graphs with weights assigned to their edges can be used to solve problems such as the shortest path between two cities in a transportation network. We can also use graphs to schedule examinations and assign channels to television stations. Graphs are used as models to represent the competition of different species in an ecological niche, in computing the number of different combinations of flights between two cities in an airline network, in finding the number of colours need to colour the regions of a map. Graph theory can be applied effectively to study switching networks. Switching theory came into being with the publication of Ehreniests paper in 1910, in which he suggested that Boolean algebra could be applied to the organization of telephone exchanges. In recent years, the enormous growth of switching theory has been mainly motivated by its use in the design of digital computers. One of the reasons for the recent revival of the interest in graph theory among the students of electrical engineering is the application of graph theory to the analysis and design of electrical networks, more commonly known as electrical circuits. The idea of using graph theory in electrical network is not new, as G. Kirchhoff (1847) and JC Maxwell (1892) used them. Greater strides are made in recent times due to the arrival of high speed digital computer. A milestone in graph theoretic analysis of electrical networks was achieved by W.S. Percival (Deo, 2003). Computer programmers are now available for analysis of large networks based on graph theoretic approach. It is to be noted that in electrical engineering, the term branch is used for edge, node for vertex and loop for circuit. Graph theory is a very natural and powerful tool in Combinatorial OR (COR). We have already touched upon traveling salesman problem and locating the shortest path between the two vertices in a graph. We came across three important classes of problems in COR; the transportation problems, activity network and game theory. These problems can be formulated and solved elegantly as
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Ammeenal and Selvakumar / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 127-133
graph theory problems involving, connected and weighted digraphs. From a practical point of view, all these problems are trivial if the network is small. Many real life situations however consist of huge networks and therefore it is important to look at these network problems in terms of solving them using computers. There are more than 75 models of dominating and relative types of sets in graphs, which have appeared in the research literature for the past 30 years (Haynes et al., 1998a,b). Many domination parameters are formed by combining domination with another graph theoretic property P. In an attempt to formalize the concept, Haynes et al. defined the conditional domination number (G:P) as the smallest cardinality of a dominating set DV such that the induced subgraph <D> satisfies the property P. Some of them are: <D> has no edges P1: P2: <D> has no isolated vertices P3: <D> is connected P4: <D> is independent P5: <D> has a Hamiltonian cycle and so on. Clearly (G) (G:P) for any property. Note that with the exemption of independent domination, these conditional domination parameters do not exist for all graphs. Any undefined term in this paper may be found in Haynes et al. (1998). Cockayne and Hedetniemi (1977) introduced total domination in graphs. Sampathkumar and Walikar (1979) introduced the concept of connected domination in graphs. A set D of vertices in a graph G = (V,E) is called a dominating set if every vertex in V-D is adjacent to some vertex in D. The dominating set D V is a total dominating set if the induced subgraph <D> has no isolated vertices. The dominating set D V is a connected dominating set if the induced subgraph <D> is connected. The connected domination number c(G) is the minimum cardinality of a connected dominating set. Kulli and Janakiram (1997, 2000) introduced the concept of split and non-split domination in graphs. A dominating set D V of a graph G is a split (non-split) dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is disconnected (connected). The split (non-split) domination number s(G) (ns(G)) is the minimum cardinality of a split (non-split) dominating set. Ameenal and Selvakumar (2008) introduced the concept of Inverse split and non-split domination numbers in graphs. Let D be the minimum Inverse dominating set of G w.r.to. D. Then D is called an Inverse split (non-split) dominating set of G if the induced subgraph <V-D> is disconnected (connected). The inverse split (non-split) domination number is denoted by s(G) (ns(G)) and it is the minimum cardinality taken over all the minimal inverse split (non-split) dominating sets of G. Let G = (V, E) be a finite, connected and undirected graph without loops or multiple edges. Let r be a positive integer. A non-empty subset D V is a r-dominating set if every vertex in V-D is within a distance r from atleast one vertex of D. The r-domination number r(G) is the minimum cardinality taken over all the minimal r-dominating sets of G. A r-dominating set D V is said to be non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is connected. The non-split r-domination number nsr(G) is the smallest cardinality of a non-split r-dominating set of G. A non-split r-dominating set is said to be a strong non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is r-complete. The strong non-split r-dominating number snsr(G) is the minimum cardinality of the strong non-split r-dominating set of G. Let D be the minimum r-dominating set of G. If V-D contains a r-dominating set D then D is called an Inverse r-dominating set of G. Kulli and Sigarkanti (1991) introduced inverse domination in graphs. Whenever D is a dominating set, V-D is also a dominating set. Let D be the minimum dominating set of G. If V-D contains a dominating set D then D is called an Inverse dominating set of G with respect to D. In this paper, we define the Inverse strong non-split r-dominating set and the Inverse strong non-split rdomination number of a graph. The r-dominating set D is called the Inverse strong non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is connected and r-complete. The Inverse strong non-split r-domination number (denoted by snsr(G)) is the cardinality of the smallest inverse strong non-split r-dominating set of G. In this paper, we characterize graphs for which snsr(G) + snsr(G) = n. We get many bounds on snsr(G). Nordhaus-Gaddum type results are also obtained for this new parameter. Kulli and Janakiram (2003) also introduced the concept of strong non-split domination number in graphs. A dominating set D of a Graph is a strong non-split dominating set, if the induced subgraph <V-D> is complete and connected. The strong non-split domination numger is denoted by sns(G) and it is the minimum cardinality of a strong non-split dominating set. Timothy et al. (1994) introduced the concept of distance domination. When distance domination is introduced, the elements of the complement of a dominating set need not have direct links with elements of the dominating set. Even if the elements are at some distance from the elements of a dominating set, the communication may be still possible. For example, when using radio frequencies, one can sent the communication to the recipients within the range of certain radius. The idea of r-domination demands that there should be atleast one person in the dominating set at a distance less than or equal to r from any given person in the complement. To manage situations of impossible Fault tolerance in the dominating sets, we impose conditions that the complement of the dominating set is intact. That is, the communication from one element of the complement to another may not take more time. In other words, the complement is connected and the maximum distance between any two elements is also less than or equal to r. For Graph preliminaries, we referred to Ore (1962) and Chartrand and Lesniak (1996). For the properties of complementary graphs, we referred to Chartrand and Schuster (1974).
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1.1 Note The distance between any two vertices u, v V(G) is the length of the shortest path joining them and it is denoted by d(u,v). The diameter of a graph G is the maximum distance between any two vertices in V(G) and it is denoted by diam(G). A non-empty subset D V is said to be independent if no two vertices in D are adjacent. The open r-neighbourhood Nr(v) of a vertex v in a graph is defined by Nr(v) = {u V / 0 < d(u,v) r} and its closed r-neighbourhood is Nr(v) = Nr(v) {v}. The r-degree of a vertex v in G is denoted by degr(v) and is given by Nr(v) . Let r(G) and r(G) denote the maximum and minimum r-degree among all the vertices of G respectively. Let v D. Define NrD(v) = Nr(v) D. Let r(G) = max NrD(v) and r(G) = min NrD(v) D is a r-independent set if r <D>=0 The r-independence number r(G) is the maximum cardinality of an r-independent set. 2. Results and Bounds Here we observe the exact values of snsr(G) for some standard graphs which are straightforward and prove some standard results. 2.1 Observation and Results 2.1.1 Observation (i) For any complete graph Kn with n 2 vertices snsr(Kn) = 1 for all r 1 (ii) For any complete bipartite graph Km,n 2 m n snsr(Km,n) = 0 if r 2 2.1.2 Observation For any graph G, r(G) nsr(G) snsr(G) 2.1.3 Definition (Pushpalatha, 2009) A subset D V is a r-dominating set if every vertex in V-D is within a distance r from at least one vertex of D. The minimum cardinality of a r-dominating set is called the r-domination number of G and is denoted by r(G). D V is a non-split r-dominating set of G if D is a r-dominating set and the induced subgraph <V-D> is connected. The minimum cardinality of a non-split r-dominating set of G is called a non-split r-domination number of G and is denoted by nsr(G). Two vertices u, v V(G) are said to be r-adjacent if d(u,v) r. A graph G is said to be r-complete if every vertex in V(G) is r-adjacent to every other vertex in V(G). A r-dominating set D V is said to be a strong non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is r-complete and connected. The minimum cardinality of a strong non-split r-dominating set is called a strong non-split r-domination number and is denoted by nsr(G). 2.1.4 Definition Let D be the minimum r-dominating set of G. If V-D contains a r-dominating set D then D is called an Inverse r-dominating set w.r.to D. The Inverse r-domination number of G is denoted by r(G) and it is the cardinality of the smallest inverse r-dominating set of G. The Inverse r-dominating set D is called the inverse non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V- D> is connected. D is called the Inverse strong non-split r-dominating set if the induced subgraph <V-D> is r-complete and connected. The inverse strong non-split r-domination number is denoted by snsr(G) and it is the cardinality of the smallest inverse strong non-split r-dominating set of G. 2.1.5 Note A subset D V-D is a r-dominating set if every vertex in V-D is within a distance r from at least one vertex of D. 2.1.6 Theorem For any spanning subgraph H of G, snsr(G) snsr(H) Proof: Let D be an inverse strong non-split r-dominating set of G. Then the induced subgraph <V(G)-D> is connected and r-complete. Since V(H) = V(G), the induced subgraph <V(H)-D> is also connected and r-complete. Therefore, D is also an inverse strong
130
non-split r-dominating set of H. Hence every inverse strong non-split r-dominating set of G is an inverse strong non-split rdominating set of H. Hence snsr(G) snsr(H) 2.1.7 Theorem An inverse strong non-split r-dominating set D of G is minimal if and only if for all v D, one of the following conditions holds: (i) there exists a vertex u V-D such that Nr(u) D = {v} (ii) there exists a vertex w V-D such that w is not a distance r with v. Proof: Let D be an inverse strong non-split r-dominating set of G. Assume that D is minimal. Therefore, D-{v} is not an inverse strong non-split r dominating set for any v D. Now to prove that anyone of the above two conditions is satisfied. On the contrary, if there exists a vertex u D such that u does not satisfy any of the given conditions then D = D-{u} is an inverse dominating set of G. Also the induced subgraph <V-D> is connected and r-complete. This implies that D is an inverse strong non-split rdominating set of G which contradicts the minimality of D. This proves the necessary part. Conversely, for any connected graph G, if anyone of the two given conditions is satisfied, we get the condition is sufficient. 2.1.8 Definition For any integer r 1, a graph G = (V, E) is said to be r-complete if every vertex in V(G) is r-adjacent to every other vertex in V(G). Then r-clique is denoted by r (G) and is defined by the maximum order of r-complete vertices. 2.2 Bounds on snsr(G) Here, we get bounds on snsr(G) through the following theorems. 2.2.1 Theorem For any graph G, n- r (G) snsr(G) n- r (G)+1 Proof: Let D be a snsr(G) set of G. Since the induced subgraph <V-D> is r-complete, Let S be a r-complete graph with S = r-dominating set of G. Hence snsr(G) n- r (G)+1 2.2.2 Theorem Let G be a graph with r (G) r(G) Then snsr(G) n-r(G) Proof: Suppose r (G) r(G) +1 then using theorem 2.2.1, snsr(G) n-r(G) Let r (G) = r(G). Let D be a r set of G with D = vertex in V-D. Then V-D is a r-dominating set. Hence snsr(G) V-D= n- r (G) = n-r(G) Thus snsr(G) n-r(G) 2.2.3 Note: For any tree T, r(T) = 1 Hence snsr(G) n-1
r (G).
r (G) V-D
Then for any vertex u S, (V-S) {u} is an inverse strong non-split
r (G).
Then every vertex in D is at a distance r with at least one
131
3 Characterization
snsr(G)+ snsr(G) = n
In this section, we characterize graphs for which
3.1.1 Theorem Let G be a connected graph with n 3 and r(G)= 1 Let L V be the set of all leaves (one degree vertices) and let S=N(L) (stems). Then snsr(G)+ snsr(G) = n if and only if the following two conditions hold: (i) V-S is an r-independent set (ii) For every vertex x V-(S L), every stem in N(x) is r-adjacent to at least two leaves Proof: Suppose snsr(G) + snsr(G) = n Case (i) Let V (S L) = In this case, V S = L is a r-independent set and both conditions hold Case (ii) Let V (S L) We will first show that V-S is a r-independent set. If not, let N1 = N(S) (S L) and N2 = V (N1 S L) Claim: N2 Assume N2 is empty. There is an edge uv in <N1>. Clearly S is a snsr set and N1 L {u} is a snsr set. Hence snsr(G) + snsr(G) n-1, a contradiction. Thus N2 . Let D be a snsr - set with D = S and D be a snsr set snsr(G) L + V (S L) = V-S (1) Since every inverse strong non-split r-dominating set lies outside a strong non-split r-dominating set, snsr(G) V-S (2) From (1) and (2) we get snsr(G) = V-S Therefore, we have snsr(G) + snsr(G) = n 4. Nordhaus Gaddum type results (Nordhaus and Gaddum, 1956) 4.1.1 Theorem Let G and G be connected complementary graphs with r(G) = 1. Then (i) snsr(G) + snsr( G ) 2(n-1) (ii) snsr(G) . snsr( G ) (n-1)2 Proof: By theorem 2.2.2, snsr(G) n - r(G) Here r(G) = 1 snsr(G) n-1 Similarly snsr( G ) n - r( G ) r(G) = 1 r( G ) = 1 Hence snsr( G ) n 1 Hence the result. 5. Conclusions Graph theory serves as a model for any binary relation. In domination, both dominating sets and their inverses have important roles to play. Whenever, D is a dominating set, V-D is also a dominating set. In an information retrieval system, we always have a set of primary nodes to pass on the information. In case, the system fails, we have another set of secondary nodes, to do the job in the complement. When the complement set is connected, then there will be flow of information among the members of the
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complement. Thus, the dominating sets and the elements in the inverse dominating sets can stand together to facilitate the communication process. They play very vital role in coding theory, computer science, operations research, switching circuits, electrical networks etc. Thus in this paper, we defined the Inverse strong non-split r-dominating set and the Inverse strong nonsplit r-domination number of a graph. We also characterized graphs for which snsr(G) + snsr(G) = n. We obtained many bounds on snsr(G). Nordhaus-Gaddum type results were also obtained for this new parameter. Nomenclature G V E <D> N(v) N[v] (G) (G) Km,n ns(G) ns(G) Kn nsr(G) nsr(G) snsr(G) snsr(G) r(G) r(G) (G) (G) r(G) r(G) Simple graph Vertex set Edge set Subgraph induced by a set D Open neighbourhood of v Closed neighbourhood of v Domination number Inverse domination number Bipartite graph with m+n vertices Non-split domination number Inverse non-split domination number Complete graph with n vertices non-split r-domination number Inverse non-split r-domination number Strong non-split r-domination number Inverse strong non-split r-domination number r-domination number r-clique, maximum order of r-complete vertices minimum degree among the vertices in G maximum degree among the vertices in G minimum r-degree among all the vertices in G maximum r-degree among all the vertices in G
References Ameenal B.K. and Selvakumar, R. 2008. The Inverse split and non-split domination numbers in graphs. Proc. of the International Conference on Mathematics and Computer Science, ICMCS 2008, Dept. of Mathematics, Loyola College, Chennai 600 034. July 25-26, pp. 11-16. Ameenal B.K. and Selvakumar, R. 2009. The inverse strong non-split r-domination number of a graph. Proc. of the National Conference on Industrial Applications of Mathematics, NCMA 2009, PG and Research Dept. of Mathematics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous) Tirupattur, Vellore Dist., March 12-13, pp. 58-64. Chartrand G. and Lesniak L. 1996. Graphs and Digraphs. Chapman and Hall / CRC, Boca Raton, FL. Chartrand G. and Schuster S. 1974. On the independence number of complementary graphs. Trans. of the New York Acad. of Sci. Series II, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 247-251. Cockayne, E.J. and Hedetniemi S.T. 1977. Towards a theory of domination in graphs. Networks, Vol. 7. pp. 241-267. Deo N. 2003. Graph Theory with Application to Engineering and Computer Science. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Haynes, T.W., Hedetniemi S.T. and Slater P.J. 1998a. Domination in Graphs: Advanced Topics, Marcel Dekker Inc. New York, U.S.A. Haynes, T.W., Hedetniemi S.T. and Slater P.J. 1998b. Fundamentals of domination in graphs, Marcel Dekker Inc. New York, U.S.A. Pushpalatha A.P., Suganthi S., Jothilakshmi G., Swaminathan V., 2009. Strong non split r-domination number of a graph. Electronic Notes in Discrete Mathematics, Vol. 33, pp. 51-57. Kulli, V.R. and Janakiram B. 1997. The split domination number of a graph. Graph Theory notes of New York. New York Academy of Sciences, XXXII. pp. 16-19. Kulli, V.R. and Janakiram B. 2000. The non-split domination number of a graph. The Journal of Pure and Applied Math. Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 545-550. Kulli, V.R. and Janakiram B. 2003. The strong non-split domination number of a graph. International Journal of Management and Systems. Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 145-156.
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Kulli, V.R and Sigarkanti.S.C. 1991. Inverse domination in graphs. National Academy Science Letters, Vol. 14, No. 12, pp. 473475. Nordhaus, E.A. and Gaddum J.W. 1956. On complementary graphs. Amer.Math.Monthly, Vol. 63. pp. 175-177. Ore, O. 1962. Theory of Graphs. American Mathematical Society Colloq. Publ., Providence, RI, 38. Sampathkumar, E. and Walikar H.B. 1979. The connected domination number of a graph. J.Math.Phy.Sci., Vol. 13. pp. 607-613. Timothy, J.B, Henning, M.A and Swart, H.C. 1994. On the integrity of distance domination in graphs. Australian Journal of Combinatorics, Vol. 10. pp. 29-43.
Biographical notes Prof. B.K. Ameenal is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Dhanabagiyam Krishnaswamy Mudaliar College for women (Autonomous), Vellore, Tamilnadu state, India. She has been teaching since 1984 and submitted her Ph.D. Thesis at Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) University in December, 2009. Her field of specialization is Domination on Discrete structures in Graph Theory. She has published several papers in various national, international conferences and journals. She has guided 30 students for their M.Phil work. Dr. R. Selvakumar is Professor and Leader of Applied Algebra Division, VIT University, Vellore, Tamilnadu state, India. He is engaged in teaching and research activities for the last 20 years. His field of specialization is Algebraic Coding Theory and Theoretical Computer Science. He has published several papers in various national, international conferences and journals. He has guided 2 students for their Ph.D work.
MultiCraft
Application of an organic halophytic manure on yield characteristics of Arachis hypogaea Linn.

Veluchamy Balakrishnan1, Krishnamoorthy Venkatesan2, Kolundu Sanjiviraja3, Anbazhagan Indrajith3 and Konganapuram Chellappan Ravindran3, *
Department of Biotechnology,K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology,Tiruchengode-637 215, Tamilnadu, INDIA 2 Regional Research Institute of Unani Medicine, Royapuram, Chennai - 600 013, Tamilnadu, INDIA Department of Botany, Faculty of Science,Annamalai University,Annamalainagar-608 002, Tamilnadu, INDIA E-mails:(palanivbalu@rediffmail.com (V.Balakrishnan), drkc_ravi@rediffmail.com (K.C.Ravindran*), *Corresponding Author)
3 1
Abstract As an alternative to chemical fertilizer, biocompost has been identified to increase the yield characteristics of Arachis hypogaea Linn. for sustainable agriculture. The objective of this field study was to evaluate the effect of three different types of halophytic composts in combination with farmyard manure (FYM) and phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus megaterium) on yield characteristics such as number of pods per plant, fresh pod weight, dry pod weight , pod yield, haulm yield, shelling percentage and hundred kernel weight. From the results it was is observed that among nine treatments given, the application of Suaeda compost in combination with FYM and phosphate solubilising bacteria (T9) significantly increased the yield characteristics in Arachis hypogaea cultivated in coastal saline soil. The resulting halophytic compost improves the quality and fertility of the saline soil. Keywords: Arachis hypogaea,compost,dry weight, haulm yield, phosphate solubilising bactetria 1. Introduction Shashidhar (1986) reported higher grain yield in finger millet by using horse gram and cowpea as green manuring. Sesbania rostrata , a green manure plant, increased the grain and straw yields in ratoon rice (Kumaresan and Rangasamy, 1997) while Muneshwar et al. (2001) have shown that combined application of farmyard manure and green manure increased yield content in wheat. Recently, Prasad et al. (2002) reported that application of green manures in groundnut increased pod yield by 40% and haulm yield 8.5% and shelling percentage. The beneficial effect of farmyard manure on sunflower seed yield was reported by Mathers and Stewart (1982). Farmyard manure not only supplied nutrients but also improved soil conditions to produce higher yields (Jagdev and Singh, 2000). Narayanamma et al. (1982) and Suryanarayana Reddy (1991) have reported application FYM increased the 10% shelling percentage, 100 kernel weight 32 %, numbers of pods and pod yield per plant in groundnut crop. Many research studies have shown that combined inoculation with Rhizobium and phosphate solubilising micro-organisms increased the yield as well as nitrogen fixing capacity of pulses (Tyagi et al., 2002). Gopalaswamy et al. (1997) reported that biofertilizer inoculation promoted early tillering and reproductive growth of rice and significantly increased grain-filling percentage and grain weight per plant. Balasubramanian and Palaniappan (1994) reported that use of microbial inoculants in combination with FYM favoured groundnut production. Application of biofertilizer increased the flower weight, number of flowers and yield per plant in China aster when compared with control (Kumar et al., 2003). Singh and Pareek (2003) also reported that application of biofertilizer increased the number of pods, number of seeds and Stover yield in mungbean. The objective of this investigation was to determine the application of the different halophytic compost in combination with FYM and phosphobacteria on the yield characteristics of Arachis hypogaea Linn cultivated along the coastal agriculture area of Cuddalore district, South India.
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Balakrishnan et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp.134-143
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Experimental site. The experiment was carried at the Thandavaraya Sozhaganpettai village near Pichavaram mangrove forest, 12 km away from Annamalai University. The experimental field is situated at 11 21' N latitude and 79 50' E longitude at an altitude of 5.25 m mean sea level. The experimental outline was an entirely randomized block design, with three replications. 2.2. Compost preparation. After a detailed survey, three fast growing and dominant halophytes such as Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort., Sesuvium portulacastrum L. and Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sweet were identified for making compost. Well - decomposed FYM was mixed with the halophytic compost. Phosphobacteria (Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum) were obtained from the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, India. Three months growth of healthy halophytes were harvested from the nursery and used for compost preparation. The plant materials as well as rice straw were chopped well. The fungus Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer was added to the compost heap to enhance decomposition. The amount of activator used was usually 1% of the total weight of the substrates (Cuevas, 1997). By the end of the third month the compost was ready for use. The soil nutrients nitrogen (Subbaiah and Asija, 1959), phosphorus (Olsen et al., 1954) and potassium (Jackson, 1973) were analyzed before starting the experiment.. Nutrients status of composts is given in Table 1. 2.3. Treatment of composts The different halophytic compost treatments used in present study are given in Table 1 Table 1. Nutrient contents of different halophytic compost at maturity period (90 days)
Treatments T1- Ipomoea compost 6.25 t ha-1 T2- Sesuvium compost 6.25 t ha-1 T3- Suaeda compost 6.25 t ha-1 T4- Ipomoea compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 T5- Sesuvium compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 T6- Suaeda compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 T7- Ipomoea compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 + phosphobacteria 2 kg ha-1 T8- Sesuvium compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 + phosphobacteria 2 kg ha-1 T9- Suaeda compost 3.13 t ha-1 + farmyard manure 3.13 t ha-1 + phosphobacteria 2 kg ha-1 pH C (%) 54.00 50.20 47.35 46.62 45.59 43.62 N (%) 1.80 1.84 1.92 2.70 2.74 2.82 C:N ratio 30.00 27.28 24.66 17.26 16.64 15.47 P (%) 0.68 0.71 0.74 1.28 1.31 1.34 K (%) 1.46 1.52 1.61 1.96 2.02 2.11 Ca (ppm) 1760 1820 1958 3260 3320 3458 Mg (ppm) 1340 1426 1554 2640 2726 2854 Zn (ppm) 8.02 8.28 8.59 10.49 10.75 11.06 Fe (ppm) 10176 10194 10296 10598 10616 10718 Mn
(ppm)
Cu (ppm) 160 174 193 370 403 580
mg/g fr. wt. Before After composting composting Na Cl Na Cl 24 22 20 18.0 16.5 15.0 10 9.0 7.5 4.5 3.8 2.9 9.0 8.0 6.6 4.2 3.5 2.6
Percentage of reduction Na 41.7 40.9 37.5 Cl 50.0 48.5 44.0 -
7.1 7.3 7.2 7.0 6.9 6.9
31.69 31.76 32.62 34.80 34.90 35.73
6.6
40.72
2.71
15.02
1.29
1.98
3274
2646
11.52
10610
35.20
384
1.6
1.4
6.7
40.61
2.80
14.50
1.32
2.05
3336
2736
11.78
10627
35.30
426
1.1
0.9
6.5
40.15
2.83
14.18
1.35
2.14
3474
2865
12.09
10733
35.80
595
0.8
0.5
2.4. Field preparation The physico chemical characteristics of the experimental soil are given in table 2.The field was ploughed with tractor drawn disc plough followed by a thorough harrowing to break the clods. The field was properly leveled and each plot (5 4 m size) was earmarked with raised bunds all around to minimize the movement of nutrient. Discrete channels were laid to facilitate individual irrigation to plots . VRI-2 groundnut variety was used as experimental plant. The groundnut seeds were sown by dibbling two to three seeds per hill at a depth of 3 to 5 cm and spacing of 30 10 cm. Plant samples were harvested for experimental purpose at intervals of 20, 40, 60, 80 days and harvest stage. Fully expanded second and third leaves of the plants were used for experiments. The matured crop was harvested by leaving the border rows by hand pulling.
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Balakrishnan et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp.134-143 Table 2. Physico-chemical properties of the experimental soil Properties Value A. Physical properties Coarse sand (%) 48.86 Fine sand (%) 34.25 Silt (%) 5.58 Clay (%) 10.26 Textural class Sandy B. Chemical analysis Available N (kg ha-1) 144.8 Available P2O5 (kg ha-1) 4.85 Available K (kg ha-1) 156.7 Organic carbon (%) 0.32 Organic matter (%) 0.55 Soil reaction (pH) 7.89 Electrical conductivity (dS m-1) 1.36
2.5. Yield analysis Yield characteristics such as the number of pods, fresh pod weight, dry pod weight, pod yield, haulm yield, shelling percentage and hundred kernel weights were estimated immediately after removing the plants from the experimental plots. The dry pod weight was determined after they had been dried at 80 C for 24 hour. 2.6.Economic analysis Return ha-1 was calculated by subtracting the cost of cultivation from the gross return. The return per rupee invested was calculated as follows in Table 3. Gross return (Rs. ha -1) Return per rupee invested (Benefit cost ratio) = Cost of cultivation (Rs. ha -1) 2.7. Statistical analysis The results were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the group means were compared by Duncans Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1957). Values are considered statistically significant when p < 0.05. 3. Results All the halophytic compost treated plants showed a significant increase in number of pods per plant. The number of pods per plant was increased by 6 %, fresh pod weight by 7 %, dry pod weight by 2.59 %, pod yield by 8.76 %, haulm yield by 1.42 %, the shelling percentage was increased to 2.54 %, a marked increase in hundred kernel weight of 10 % were observed in Suaeda compost alone treated soil (T3). The number of pods per plant was increased 14 % , fresh pod weight by 18 %, the dry pod weight by 7.20 %, pod yield by 24.08 %, the haulm yield by 5.12 %, shelling percentage by 5.22 % and hundred kernel weight by 23 % in Suaeda compost plus FYM treated soil (T6). The number of pods per plant was increased by 25 %, fresh pod weight 35 %, dry pod weight by 15.40 %, pod yield by 44.52 %, haulm yield was significantly increased by 9.91 %, shelling percentage increased by 11.20 % and hundred kernel weight by 40 % in Suaeda compost + FYM and phosphobacteria treated soil (T9) when compared to other compost treated soil and control (Figures 1 to 7). Details of the cost of cultivation and net return per rupee invested are furnished in Table 3. Combined application of halophytic compost, FYM and phosphobacteria resulted in higher net returns. The maximum net returns of Rs. 22,615 ha-1 over unsubstituted control was obtained from T 9 treatment which was followed by T8 (Rs. 19,293 ha-1) and T7 (Rs. 17,090 ha-1).
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Balakrishnan et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp.134-143 Table 3. Application of halophytic compost on groundnut Economics of cultivation Haulm Return per Gross Cost of Pod yield Net income yield rupee invested Treatments income (Rs. cultivation -1 -1 (kg ha ) (Rs. ha ) (kg ha-1) (B:C ratio) ha-1) (Rs. ha-1) Control 1370 3767 21,717 15,000 6,717 1.44 T1 1395 3778 25,328 17,000 8,328 1.48 T2 1435 3796 26,196 17,000 9,196 1.54 T3 1490 3820 27,420 17,000 10,420 1.61 T4 1530 3866 30,341 18,200 12,141 1.67 T5 1600 3880 31,755 18,200 13,555 1.74 T6 1700 3960 33,935 18,200 15,735 1.86 T7 1760 4040 35,490 18,400 17,090 1.93 T8 1850 4083 37,693 18,400 19,293 2.05 T9 1980 4140 41,015 18,400 22,615 2.21
Figure 1.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on number of pods per plant in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
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Figure 2.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on fresh weight of pod in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
Figure 3.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on dry weight of pod in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
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Figure 4.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on pod yield in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
Figure 5.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on haulm yield in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
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Figure 6.
Effect of different halophytic compost application on shelling percentage in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p< 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
Figure 7. Effect of different halophytic compost application on 100 kernel weight in Arachis hypogaea. Values shown are mean S.E. for three replicate experiments. Different letters above bars indicates a significant difference at p < 0.05 according to Duncans multiple range test.
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4. Discussion Present study, application of halophytic compost has increased yield characteristics in Arachis hypogaea when compared to its control. Among 9 halophytic compost treatments T9 compost (Suaeda compost + FYM + phosphobacteria) increased the overall yield when compared to other treatments and control. These observations are in agreement with earlier findings that consider the application of organic manures increased the yield parameters to 21 per cent in number of pods, 10.5 per cent in shelling percentage and 37% in hundred kernel weight in groundnut with farmyard manure (Narayanamma et al., 1982; Suryanarayana Reddy, 1991; Balakrishnan et al., 2009) or 40% in pod yield and 8.5% per cent in haulm yield in groundnut with green manure (Prasad et al., 2002). Application of green manure also stimulated the grain yield in finger millet (Shashidhar, 1986), in rice (Kumaresan and Rangasamy, 1997) in rice with coirpith and FYM (Parasuraman and Mani, 2003), wheat with FYM (Muneshwar et al., 2001), rice and wheat with crop residue (Das et al., 2003), number of pods in mungbean with biofertilizer (Singh and Pareek, 2003), in Vicia sativa with organic manure (Gomaa et al., 2002), fenugreek with organic manure (Khiriya and Singh, 2003) fresh and dry weight of pod in groundnut with FYM (Suryanarana Reddy, 1991), seed yield in sunflower with FYM (Mathers and Stewart, 1982) and senna with FYM (Ramamoorthy et al., 2003). Anburani et al. (2003) stated that readily available nitrogen from the application of FYM and biofertilizer may be the prime factor for the increased fruit weight, length and girth in brinjal. The residual effect of FYM was also found significant on the grain yield of mungbean in wheat-mungbean crop sequence by Sharma (1981). Increasing yield parameters in Sorghum due to application organics was attributed to the supply of essential nutrients by continuous mineralization of organic manures, enhanced inherent nutrient supplying capacity of the soil and its favorable effect on the soil physical and biological properties of soil (Hati et al., 2001). Enhancement of yield parameters due to soil application of certain organic manures (enriched bio-digested slurry) and biofertilizer (phosphobacteria) might result from the phosphobacteria which are capable of mobilizing insoluble phosphorus and making it available to crops (Marimuthu et al., 2003). Rao and Shaktawat (2002) suggested that FYM and poultry manure increase yield attributes in groundnut due to improvement in rhizosphere environment. From an agricultural point of view, a cost/benefit analysis of halophytic (Suaeda compost + FYM with phosphobacteria (T9)) compost application should also be conducted. T9 compost application considerably increased the gross return over unsubstituted control. The higher increase in gross return was mainly due to the combined effects of increased uptake of nutrients in plants, available nutrients, microbial population and soil enzymatic activities which leads to higher pod, haulm and hundred kernel weight yields. In the present study, the halophytic composts increased the yield characters significantly in Arachis hypogaea. This may be due to the accelerated mobility of photosynthates from the source to sink as influenced by the growth hormone synthesized due to the organic sources. 5. Conclusion When compared to control, yield parameters such as number of pods, pod yield, shelling percentage, haulm yield, hundred kernel weight, fresh and dry weight were increased in compost treated field, especially with T9 treatment. Increased yield parameters in the present study may be associated with the supply of essential nutrients by continuous mineralization of organic manures, enhanced inherent nutrient supplying capacity of the soil and its favorable effect on soil physical and biological properties. Acknowledgement We thank Chidambaram Bharathur Mr. M.Kolundu and family members, Agriculturalist, field assistance during the study period. We thank Dr.V.Prasath, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University. Dr. R. PaneerSelvam, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar is highly acknowledged. References Anburani, A., Manivannan K., Shakila, A., 2003. Integrated nutrient and weed management on yield, and yield parameters in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) cv. Annamalai. Plant Archives, Vol.3, No.1, pp.85-88. Balakrishnan , V., Ravindran,K.C., Snajiviraja,K.,Venkateasan,K.,2009.Halophtic compost for sustainable agriculture. Science, Vol.5, No.3, pp. 56-59. Balasubramanian, P., Palaniappan,S.P., 1994. Effect of combined application of bacterial inoculation along with farmyard manure on irrigated groundnut. Indian J. Agron., Vol.39, No.1, pp. 131-133. Cuevas, V.C., 1997. Rapid composting technology in the Philippines: Its role in producing good-quality organic fertilizers. Food Fert. Tech. Center Extn. Bull., Vol.444, No.4, pp. 1-13. Das, K., Medhi ,D.N., Guha, B., 2003. Application of crop residues in combination with chemical fertilizers for sustainable productivity in rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) system. Indian J. Agron., Vol.48, No.1, pp. 8-11.
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Duncan, B.D., 1957. Multiple range tests for correlated and heteroscedastic means. Biometrics, Vol.13, No.2, pp.359-364. Gomaa, A.M., Bahr, A.A., El-Karamany, M.F., El-Kholy, M.A., 2002. The bio-organic farming and its effect on nodulation, growth and yield parameters of Vetch (Vicia sativa L.). 17th WCSS, 14-21 August, Thailand. Gopalaswamy, G., Anthoni Raj, S., Ranganathan ,T.B., 1997. Biofertilizer application strategy to rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron., Vol.42, No.1, pp. 68-73. Hati, K.M., Mandal ,K.G., Misra, A.K., Ghosh P.K., Acharya, C.L., 2001. Effect of irrigation regimes and nutrient management on soil water dynamics, evapotranspiration and yield of wheat in vertisols. Indian J. Agrl. Sci., Vol.71, No.9, pp. 581-587. Jackson, M.L., 1973. Soil chemical analysis, Asia Publication House, Bombay, India. Jagdev, S., Singh, K.P., 2000. Effect of Azotobacter, FYM and fertility levels on yield, nitrogen recovery and use efficiency in spring sunflower. Haryana J. Agron., Vol.16, No.1-2, pp. 57-60. Khiriya, K.D. , Singh, B.P., 2003. Effect of phosphorus and farmyard manure on yield, yield attributes and nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium uptake of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Indian J. Agron., Vol.48, No.1, pp.62-65. Kumar, P., Raghava, S.P.S., Misra, R.L., 2003. Effect of biofertilizers on growth and yield of China aster. J. Ornamental Hort., Vol.6, No.2, pp. 85-88. Kumaresan, M., Rangasamy,A., 1997. Residual effect of green manure and growth regulators on the yield of ratoon rice. Madras Agric. J., Vol.84, No.11-12, pp. 653-655. Marimuthu, R., Babu, S., Vairavan,K., 2003. Response of bioorganic fertilizers with mussoorie rock phosphate on the yield of greengram on red lateritic soils. Legume Res., Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 66-68. Mathers, A.C., Stewart, B.A., 1982. Sunflower nutrient uptake, growth and yield as affected by nitrogen or manure and plant population. Agron. J., Vol.74, No.4, pp. 911-915. Muneshwar, S., Singh, V.P., Sammi Reddy, K., 2001. Effect of integrated use of fertilizer nitrogen and farmyard manure on green manure on transformation of N, K and S and productivity of rice-wheat system on a vertisol. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., Vol.49 , No.3,pp. 430-435. Narayanamma, M.S., Rani, R., Ramakrishna Reddy, M.G., 1982. Soil amendments for increasing the productivity of groundnut in black soils. The Andhra Agric. J., Vol.29, No.2-3,pp. 239-240. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S. , Dean ,D.A., 1954. Estimation of available phosphorous in soil by the extraction with sodium bicarbonate, USDA, Circular No. 939. Parasuraman, P., Mani, A.K., Suresh, M., 2003. Impact of coirpith on rice-rice crop sequence. Madras Agric. J., Vol.90, No.1, pp.232-235. Prasad, P.V.V., Satyanarayana ,V., Murthy, V.R.K. , Boote, K.J., 2002. Maximizing yields in rice-groundnut cropping sequence through integrated nutrient management. Field Crops Res., Vol.75, No.3,pp.9-21. Ramamoorthy, K., Krishnaveni, K. , Aruna ,N., 2003. Effect of manure, fertilizer and spacing on herbage and seed yield in senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl.). Plant Archives, Vol.3, No.2, pp. 287-290. Rao, S.S., Shaktawat, M.S., 2002. Effect of organic manure, phosphorus and gypsum on groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) production under rainfed condition. Indian J. Agron., Vol.47, No.2, pp. 234-241. Sharma, J.P., 1981. Role of FYM in economizing the use of fertilizers in a cropping sequence (wheat-mungbean). Indian J. Agron., Vol.26, No. 3, pp.171-174. Shashidhar, G.B., 1986. Legume effect on the succeeding crop in a sequential cropping system. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Univ. of Agrl. Sci., Bangalore, India. Singh, B., Pareek ,R.G., 2003. Effect of phosphorus and biofertilizers on growth and yield of mungbean. Indian J. Pulses Res., Vol.16, No.1,pp.31-33. Subbaiah, B.V., Asija, G.L., 1959. A rapid procedure for the determination of available nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci., Vol.25, No.3,pp. 259-260. Suryanarayana Reddy, R., 1991. Effect of soil amendments on the hardening of red sandy loams (Chalka soils) of Andhra Pradesh. Ann. Agric. Res., Vol.12, No.2, pp. 174-176. Tyagi, M.K., Singh, C.P., Sharma, N.L., 2002. Interactive effect of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms on the solubilization of insoluble phosphate. Agric. Sci. Digest, Vol.22, No.2, pp. 71-74.
Biographical notes
Dr. Veluchamy Balakrishnan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biotechnology, K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, Tamilnadu State, India. His research area interest is Environmental conservation of natural ecosystem, Conservation of Mangroves. He is presently supervising six Ph.D Research Scholars in Anna University-Coimbatore and Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu State. He has produced 18 M.Phil, Research Scholars in the disciplines of Botany, Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Environmental science. He has published five National Journals and 34 International Journals and attended more than 18 conferences. He is awarded 12 honours, fellowship and rank in the academic including Young Scientist Fellowship Award from Tamilnadu State Council for Science and Technology. Dr. Krishnamoorthy Venkatesan is working as a senior scientific assistant in Botany, Regional Research Institute of Unani Medicine, Royapuram, Chennai, and Tamilnadu, India.
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Kolundu Sanjiviraja is working as a Ph.D Research Scholar in Annamalai University, Annamalainagr, India. Anbazhagan Indrajith is working as a Ph.D Research Scholar in Annamalai University, Annamalainagr,India. Prof. Konganapuram Chellappan Ravindran is working as a Reader in Botany, Faculty of Science, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu, India.He got his Doctoral degree from Maduarai Kamaraj University , Maduari under the Supervision of Dr.G.Kulandaivelu. He has produced three Ph.D.Research Scholars and presently supervising two Ph.D Research Scholars in the area of saline Soil reclamation in Tsunami affected soils. His area of Specialization is Light intensities in spices plants, UV-B radiation on Leguminous plants. He has produced 14 M.Phil research Scholars in the field of Botany.
Received November 2009 Accepted November 2009 Final acceptance in revised form February 2010
MultiCraft
An enhanced genetic algorithm with simulated annealing for job-shop scheduling

A. Tamilarasi and T. Anantha kumar*
Department of Computer Applications, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode 638052, Tamil Nadu, INDIA * Corresponding Author (e-mail: anandmecse@gmail.com, T. Anantha kumar)
Abstract The Job-Shop Scheduling Problem (JSSP) is one of the most difficult problems, as it is classified as NP-Hard problem. The main objective of the JSSP is to find a schedule of operations that can minimize the maximum completion time (called makespan) that is the completed time of carrying total operations out in the schedule for n jobs and m machines. In many cases, the combination of goals and resources exponentially increases the search space, and thus the generation of consistently good scheduling is particularly difficult, because we have a very large combinatorial search space and precedence constraints between operations. Exact methods such as the branch and bound method and dynamic programming take considerable computing time to obtain the optimum solution. In order to overcome this difficulty, it is more sensible to obtain a good solution near the optimal one. Stochastic search techniques such as evolutionary algorithms can be used to find a good solution. In this paper we proposed a new method for solving job-shop scheduling problem using hybrid Genetic Algorithm (GA) with Simulated Annealing (SA). This method introduces a reasonable combination of local search and global search for solving JSSP. Keywords: Job-shop scheduling, genetic algorithm, simulated annealing, local search, global search 1. Introduction Several problems in various industrial environments are combinatorial. This is the case for numerous scheduling and planning problems. Generally, it is extremely difficult to solve this type of problems in their general form. Scheduling can be defined as a problem of finding an optimal sequence to execute a finite set of operations satisfying most of the constraints. The problem formulated is extremely difficult to solve, as it comprises of several concurrent goals and several resources which must be allocated to lead to our goals, which are to maximize the utilization of machines and to minimize the time required to complete the entire process being scheduled (Mesghouni et al., 2004). Therefore, the exact methods such as the branch and bound method, dynamic programming and constraint logic programming need a lot of time to find an optimal solution. So, we expect to find an optimal solution using the heuristic methods. Realistically, we are satisfied by obtaining a good solution near the optimal one. New search techniques such as genetic algorithms, simulated annealing or Tabu search are able to solve the job-shop scheduling problem. Scheduling is broadly defined as the process of assigning a set of tasks to resources over a period of time (Pinedo et al., 1999). Effective scheduling plays a very important role in todays competitive manufacturing world. Performance criteria such as machine utilization, manufacturing lead times, inventory costs, meeting due dates, customer satisfaction, and quality of products are all dependent on how efficiently the jobs are scheduled in the system. Hence, it becomes increasingly important to develop effective scheduling approaches that help in achieving the desired objectives. Several types of manufacturing shop configurations exist in real world. Based on the method of meeting customers requirements they are classified as either open or closed shops. In an open shop the products are built to order where as in a closed shop the demand is met with existing inventory. Based on the complexity of the process, the shops are classified as single-stage, singlemachine, parallel machine, multi-stage flow shop and multi-stage job shop (Lawler et al. 1993). The single-stage shop configurations require only one operation to be performed on the machines. In multi-stage flow shops, several tasks are performed
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for each job and there exists a common route for every job. In multi-stage job shops, an option of selecting alternative resource sets and routes for the given jobs is provided. Hence the job shop allows flexibility in producing a variety of parts. The processing complexity increases as we move from single stage shops to job shops. Various methods have been developed to solve the different types of scheduling problems in these different shop configurations for the different objectives. These range from conventional methods such as mathematical programming and priority rules to meta-heuristic and artificial intelligence-based methods (Holland, 1992). Job shop scheduling is one of the widely studied and most complex combinatorial optimization problems. A vast amount of research has been performed in this particular area to effectively schedule jobs for various objectives. A large number of small to medium companies still operate as job shops (Lin et al. 2009). Despite the extensive research carried out it appeared that many such companies continue to experience difficulties with their specific job shop scheduling problems. Therefore developing effective scheduling methods that can provide good schedules with less computational time is still a requirement. Most of the real world manufacturing companies aim at successfully meeting the customer needs while improving the performance efficiency. Sivanandam et al. (2008) gave an idea to use the genetic algorithm (GA) to solve JSSP in an efficient manner. This book presents a basic knowledge and use of various genetic operators in our real world problems. Lin et al. (2009) proposed a new hybrid swarm intelligence algorithm consists of particle swarm optimization, simulated annealing technique and multi-type individual enhancement scheme is presented to solve the job-shop scheduling problem. And also it described about the basics of job-shop scheduling problem. Huiyuan et al. (2009) established a dual resource (machines and moulds) constrained job shop scheduling problem model, according to the actual factors of mass injection molding processing job shop scheduling. A heuristic active algorithm combined with priority rules is employed to give the solution. Bozejko et al. (2009) developed a Job Shop Scheduling Problem using Parallel Simulated Annealing Technique. Juang (2004) proposed a hybrid of genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization for recurrent network design. In this paper the author described how the hybridization of GA with PSO overcomes each others disadvantages. This paper gives an idea to hybrid the genetic algorithm with simulated annealing to solve the JSSP. Ge et al. (2007) presented a new hybrid algorithm based on particle swarm optimization and simulated annealing for job shop scheduling problem. Beasley (1990) was developed an OR-Library and it is a collection of test data sets for a variety of Operations Research (OR) problems. The benchmark problems are taken from this OR-Library. Several researchers have addressed the importance of solving Job-shop Scheduling Problems, which will help in solve real world problems in industries and to schedule their jobs perfectly. In the presented work we hybrid the genetic algorithm with simulated annealing to solve the job-shop scheduling problems. GA has a strong ability finding the most optimistic result. SA has a strong ability of finding the local optimistic result. And it can avoid the problem of local minimum. Combining GA and SA, learning from others strong points to offset ones weaknesses each other, this is the basic idea of our proposed algorithm. GA is a computational abstraction of biological evolution that can be used to solve optimization problem. In its simplest form, a GA is an iterative process applying a series of genetic operators such as selection, crossover and mutation to a population of elements. These elements, called chromosomes or individuals represent possible solutions to the problem (Watanabe et al. 2005). Simulated annealing (SA) is a kind of global optimization technique based on annealing of metal. It can find the global minimum using stochastic searching technology from the means of probability. Simulated annealing algorithm has a strong ability to find the local optimistic result and it can avoid the problem of local minimum (Triki et al., 2005). 2. Job-shop scheduling problem Job-Shop Scheduling Problem (JSSP) is among the hardest combinational problems and it has been the subject of a significant amount of literature in the Operations Research areas. The JSSP consists of n jobs and m machines. Each job must go through m machines to complete its work. We consider one job consists of m operations. Each operation uses one of m machines to complete one jobs work for a fixed time interval. Once one operation is processed on a given machine, it cannot be interrupted before it finishes the jobs work. The sequence of operations of one job should be predefined and may be different for any job. In general, one job being processed on one machine is considered as one operation noted as Oji (means jth job being processed on ith machine, 1 j n,1 i m) (Garey et al. 1976 and Lawler et al. 1993). Each machine can process only one operation during the time interval. The objective of JSSP is to find an appropriate operation permutation for all jobs that can minimize the makespan Cmax, i.e., the maximum completion time of the final operation in the schedule of nm operations. For an nm JSSP, the problem can be modeled by a set of m machines, denoted by M={1,2,,m}, to process a set of nm operations, denoted by O = {0,1,2,,(nm)-1} (Lin et al. 2009). The notations are as follows: n m : number of jobs : number of operations for one job
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Tamilarasi and Anantha kumar / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp. 144-151 Oi ti : completed time of operation i (i=0,1,2,(nm)-1) : processing time of operation i on a given machine
Cmax : makespan The JSSP has n jobs to be processed on m machines and we assume the following: 1. No machine may process more than one job at a time; 2. No job may be processed by more than one machine at a time; 3. The sequence of machines which a job visit is completely specified and has a linear precedence structure; 4. Processing times are known; 5. All jobs must be processed in each machine only one time. 3. Genetic algorithm The genetic algorithm (GA) is a search technique based on the mechanics of natural genetics and survival of the fittest (Goldberg, 1989). GA simulates the biological processes that allow the consecutive generations in a population to adapt to their environment. The adaptation process is mainly applied through genetic inheritance from parents to children and through survival of the fittest. The genetic algorithm object determines which individuals should survive, which should reproduce, and which should die. It also records statistics and decides how long the evolution should continue. Figure 1 illustrates the simple genetic algorithm (Premalatha et al., 2009). Problem Encoding Objective Function Evolutionary operators
Problem
Fitness
Assignment
Selection
Solution
Cross Over
Mutation
Figure1: Simple genetic algorithm (Premalatha et al., 2009) To successfully apply a GA to solve a problem one needs to determine the following (Premalatha et al., 2009): 1. The representation of possible solutions, or the chromosomal encoding. 2. The fitness function which accurately represents the value of the solution. 3. Genetic operators (selection, crossover and Mutation) have to employ and the parameter values (population size, probability of applying operators, etc.), that are suitable.
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4. Simulated annealing Annealing is an operation in metal processing (Kirkpatrick et.al., 1983). Metal is heated up very strongly and then cooled slowly to get a very pure crystal structure with a minimum of energy so that the number of fractures and irregularities becomes minimal. first the high temperature accelerates the movement of the particles. During the cooling time they can find an optimal place within the crystal structure. While the temperature is lowered the particles subsequently lose the energy they were supplied with in the first stage of the process. Because of a thermodynamic, temperature-dependent random component some of them can reach a higher energy level regarding the level they were on before. These local energy fluctuations allow particles to leave local minima and reach a state of lower energy. Simulated annealing is a relatively straight forward algorithm through which includes metropolis Monte Carlo method .the metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm is well suited for simulated annealing, since only energetically feasible states will be sampled at any given temperature. The simulated annealing algorithm is therefore a metropolis Monte Carlo simulation that starts at a high temperature. The temperature is slowly reduced so that the search space becomes smaller for the metropolis simulation, and when the temperature is low enough the system will hopefully have settled into the most favorable state. Simulated Annealing can also be used to search for the optimum solution of the problems by properly determining the initial (high) and final (low) effective temperatures which are used in place of kT (where k is a Boltzmann's constant) in the acceptance checking, and deciding what constitutes a Monte Carlo step (Wang et al., 2004). The initial and final effective temperatures for a given problem can be determined from the acceptance probability. In general, if the initial Monte Carlo simulation allows an energy (E) increase of dEi with a probability of Pi, the initial effective temperature is kTi = -dEi/ln(Pi). If at the final temperature an increase in the cost of 10 should only be accepted with a probability of 0.05 (5%), the final effective temperature is kTf = -10/ln(0.05) = 3.338. Algorithm Start with the system in a known configuration, at known energy E T=temperature =hot; frozen=false; While (! frozen) { repeat { Perturb system slightly (e.g., moves a particle) Compute E, change in energy due to perturbation If(E < 0 ) Then accept this perturbation, this is the new system config Else accept maybe, with probability = exp(-E/KT) } until (the system is in thermal equilibrium at this T) If(E still decreasing over the last few temperatures) Then T=0.9T//cool the temperature; do more perturbations Else frozen=true } return (final configuration as low-energy solution) 5. Proposed system 5.1 Problem representation Consider the following 3x3 Job-Shop Scheduling Problem. The Operation times and machine ordering is shown in the following tables. Table1. 3x3 JSSP Table2. Machine Allocation Table 3. Operation Times Jobs J1 J2 J3 Operations O1 O4 O7 O2 O5 O8 O3 O6 O9 Machine Allocation M1 O1 O5 O8 M2 O3 O4 O9 M3 O2 O6 O7 Jobs J1 (O1,O2,O3) J2 (O4,O5,O6) J3 (O7,O8,O9) Operation Times 2 3 4 1 4 5 6 2 4
The feasible Schedule for the above JSSP is 1,4,7,5,2,8,3,6,9. That is the operations are performed in the machines as of in the above schedule gives the makespan as 17, which is feasible result for the give JSSP. The Gantt chart of the schedule 1, 4, 7, 5, 2, 8, 3, 6, 9 is given in Fig 2. In the proposed method we have taken the schedules as the chromosomes to solve the JSSP.
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Time Slot 1 M1 M2 M3 O1/2 O4/1 O7/4 O2/3 O6/2 2 3 4 5 O5/5 O3/4 Figure.2. Gantt chart for Feasible Schedule The searching space is created in nm dimensions space for n jobs on m machines Job-Shop Scheduling Problem. The problem solution is represented as a chromosome in Genetic Algorithm. The positions of a chromosome consists of nm dimensions and is represented with nm real numbers. In order to simulate an operation permutation sequence of JSSP, the nm real numbers are transformed into an integer series from 1 to nm. Each integer number represents one operation index (Oji,1 j n,1 i m) according to its ordering in all nm real numbers. Fig. 3 illustrates an example of a representation of Chromosome for a 32 JSSP. Chromosome Integer Series (k) (k mod 3)+1 Operation Sequence 10.2 6 1 O11 2.5 2 3 O31 7.5 5 3 O32 6.7 4 2 O21 1.3 1 2 O22 5.3 3 1 O12 6 7 8 9 10 11 O8/6 O9/4 12 13 14 15 16 17
Figure 3. Problem representation 5.2 Objective function The main objective of the JSSP is to find a schedule of operations that can minimize the maximum completion time (called makespan), that is the completed time of carrying total operations out in the schedule for n jobs and m machines. The Objective or fitness function takes the input as the number of jobs, number of Operations, Chromosome, Operation time Sequence and Machine Sequence of the corresponding operation. Each chromosome genes are assigned by an integer number (k) by ranking the genes (real numbers) in ascending order. And then perform (k mod No. of Jobs) +1 operation to each k to get the corresponding operation sequence of a chromosome. The fitness function produces the output as a makespan value for the corresponding operation sequence. 5.3 Algorithm The proposed algorithm for solving JSSP is as follows 1. Initialize temperature T to a particular value. 2. Initialize the N number of chromosomes by generating nm real numbers for each chromosome. 3. Find the Operation time sequence and Machine sequence for N chromosomes. 4. Find the makespan value for each and every chromosome using the objective function and also find the minimum makespan value (best) among N makespan values. 5. Select N/2 chromosomes using the Roulette - Wheel selection from N chromosomes 6. Crossover the selected chromosomes with the probability as 0.9 and Mutate the new chromosomes with the probability as 0.3 to get new chromosomes. 7. Find the makespan values for newly generated chromosomes using the objective function. 8. Choose the N best chromosomes which have the minimum makespan values from the newly generated and also from old chromosomes. 9. Find the minimum makespan value (best) among the N best chromosomes. 10. If best chromosome is not changed over a period of time a. Find a new chromosome using temperature. 11. Accept the new chromosome as best with probability as exp-(E/T), even though current position is worse. Here E is the difference between current best chromosomes makespan and new chromosomes makespan value. 12. Reduce T. 13. Terminate if the maximum number of iterations is reached or optimal value is obtained.
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6. Experimental results In this paper, we have used 21 instances that are taken from the OR-Library (Beasley, 1990) as benchmarks to test our new proposed algorithm. In this algorithm we have taken 200 chromosomes as the initial population and temperature T as 5000. We have used the Intel Pentium Core 2 Duo 3GHz Processor and 2 GB RAM configuration system with Windows XP as the platform to run this algorithm and achieved the following results. The CPU time is the time to find the optimal schedule for the benchmark JSSPs from using the above configuration machine. The proposed work gives the optimal solution for most of the benchmark problems in considerable amount of CPU time. Goncalves et al. (2005) gives optimal Solution for most of the benchmark problems. But our proposed algorithm gives the optimal solution within a minimum considerable amount of time. We cant compare the computation times of Goncalves et al. (2005) with our proposed work, because the system configuration is not unique. Goncalves et al. (2005) gives 907 as a makespan for the Instance LA 20, but it is not an optimal solution. But our proposed algorithm gives the optimal solution (902). S No Instance Name Instance Size (n m) Best Known Value Table.4. Experimental results Obtained Values Goncalves Obtained from the JSSP et al. Values from using Simple (2005) the Proposed Genetic Algorithm Algorithm 55 55 55 666 686 666 739 670 634 593 956 994 906 956 958 1267 1071 1188 1292 1383 1080 906 976 1021 1072 655 597 590 593 926 890 863 951 958 1222 1039 1150 1292 1207 945 784 848 842 907 655 597 590 593 926 890 863 951 958 1222 1039 1150 1292 1207 945 784 848 842 902 CPU Time (in Milliseconds) for the proposed Algorithm 72789 64887 1689748 12564254 10458265 17344 92072 3939717 102010 39050 30947 50394 155259 173347 17087 12435098 13008994 13072238 12407916 13038003 18945246 Relative Error
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
FT06 LA01 LA02 LA03 LA04 LA05 LA06 LA07 LA08 LA09 LA10 LA11 LA12 LA13 LA14 LA15 LA16 LA17 LA18 LA19 LA20
66 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 15 5 15 5 15 5 15 5 15 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
55 666 655 597 590 593 926 890 863 951 958 1222 1039 1150 1292 1207 945 784 848 842 902
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7. Conclusion and future work In this paper, the hybridization of genetic algorithm with simulated annealing is used to solve the NP-hard JSSP. This algorithm adopts the real space as the search space and the chromosome represents the permutation of all operations of all jobs. Combining
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genetic algorithm and simulated annealing can narrow the field of search and speed up the rate of convergence continually in the optimizing process. It has higher searching efficiency. It can also escape from the local minimums. In the proposed algorithm, the problem representation is simple and easy when compared with other heuristic methods. Also this algorithm reduces the computational complexity. The experiment is conducted for population of size 200 chromosomes, and the optimal solution (Best Known Solution) in the search space is obtained for the benchmark problems with the above mentioned system configuration. The proposed algorithm gives optimal result for most of the benchmark problems when compared with JSSP using simple genetic algorithm which is shown in Table 4. In the proposed algorithm, it is assumed that each operation of a job is to be completed on a single machine. The future works may be 1. To find the methods to solve multi machine environment and the dynamic Job-Shop Scheduling Problem. 2. Very high configuration machines are used to obtain the optimal solutions in the minimum time period. 3. Grid based algorithms will be found to find the makespan of the Job-Shop Scheduling Problem. It will reduce the computational complexity and increase the performance and quality of the scheduling. 4. Other hybridization heuristic methods are to be used to solve the Job-Shop Scheduling Problem. Acknowledgment This project work is supported by University Grants Commission; New Delhi under the Major Research Project Grant (F.No. 3365/2007(SR)) entitled Job Shop Scheduling using Heuristic Methods. References Beasley J.E. 1990. OR-library: Distributing test problems by electronic mail, Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol.41, No.11, pp.10691072. Bozejko W., Pempera J. and Smuntnicki C. 2009. 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Kennedy J. and Eberhart R.C. 2001. Swarm intelligence, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc., San Francisco, CA Kirkpatrick S., Gelatt C.D. and Vecci M.P. 1983. Optimization by simulated annealing, Science, New Series, Vol. 220, No. 4598, pp. 671-680. Lawler E.L., Lenstra J.K., Rinnooy Kan A.H.G. and Shmoys D.B. 1993. Sequencing and scheduling: Algorithms and complexity, Handbooks in operations research and management science, Logistics of Production and Inventory, Vol. 4, pp. 445-552. Lian Z., Gu X. and Jiao B. 2006. A dual similar particle swarm optimization algorithm for job-shop scheduling with penalty, Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, Vol. 2, pp. 73127316. Lin T.L., Horng S.J., Kao T.W., Chen Y.H., Run R.S., Chen R.J., Lai J.L. and Kuo I.H. 2009. An efficient job-shop scheduling algorithm based on particle swarm optimization, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol.37, No. 3, pp. 2629-2636. Mesghouni K., Hammadi S. and Borne P. 2004. Evolutionary algorithms for Job-Shop Scheduling, International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 91-103. Pinedo M. and Singer M. 1999. A shifting bottleneck heuristic for minimizing the total weighted tardiness in a job shop, Naval Research Logistics, Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 117.
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Premalatha K. and Natarajan A.M. 2009. Hybrid PSO and GA for global maximization. International Journal of Open Problems in Computer Science and Mathematics, Vol. 2, No. 4. pp. 597-608. Sivanandam S.N. and Deepa S.N. 2008. Introduction to Genetic Algorithms, Springer, Berlin, New York. Triki E., Collette Y. and Siarry P. 2005. A theoretical study on the behavior of simulated annealing leading to a new cooling schedule, European Journal of Operational Research,Vol.166, No.1, pp.77-92. Udomsakdigool A. and Kachitvichyanukul V. 2008. Multiple colony ant algorithm for job-shop scheduling problem, International Journal of Production Research , Vol. 46, No. 15, pp. 41554175. Wang X. and Li J. 2004. Hybrid particle swarm optimization with simulated annealing, Proceedings of Third International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics, Vol.4, pp. 2402-2405. Watanabe M., Ida M. and Gen M. 2005. A genetic algorithm with modified crossover operator and search area adaptation for the job-shop scheduling problem, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol.48, No. 4, pp. 743752. Zhou Q., Cui X., Wang Z. and Yang B. 2009. A hybrid optimization algorithm for job-shop scheduling problem, Proceedings of first ACM/SIGEVO Summit on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, pp.757-764.
Biographical notes Dr.A.Tamilarasi is a Professor and Head in the Department of Computer Applications, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. She obtained Ph.D. in 1994 from the University of Madras, Chennai. She was awarded JRF by University Grants Commission, New Delhi in the year 1986. She has the total teaching experience of 15 years. She has published about 35 papers and 7 books. Her areas of interest are semi group theory, fuzzy logic and its applications in engineering fields. She is an approved guide of Anna University, Chennai and Anna University, Coimbatore and presently she is guiding 10 Ph.D. scholars. Mr.T. Anantha kumar is a Project Fellow in the Department of Computer Applications, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India for the project entitled Job Shop Scheduling using Heuristic Methods supported by University Grants Commission, New Delhi. He completed M.E., Computer Science and Engineering in 2009 at Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai and B.E., Computer Science and Engineering in 2006 at Erode Sengunthar Engineering College, Thudupathi. His areas of interest are data mining, optimization techniques and scheduling.
Received January 2010 Accepted January 2010 Final acceptance in revised form February 2010
MultiCraft
Optimization of machining fixture layout for tolerance requirements under the influence of locating errors
S. Vishnupriyan1*, M. C. Majumder2, K. P. Ramachandran1
1
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat, OMAN 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, INDIA * Corresponding Author: vishnu@caledonian.edu.om
Abstract Dimensional accuracy of workpart under machining is strongly influenced by the layout of the fixturing elements like locators and clamps. Setup or geometrical errors in locators result in overall machining error of the feature under consideration. Therefore it is necessary to ensure that the layout is optimized for the desired machining tolerance for a given deviation in the set up or geometry of the locator. Also, the locator layout should be capable of holding the workpart in a unique position during machining thus providing deterministic location. This paper proposes a Genetic Algorithm (GA) based optimization method to arrive at a layout of error containing locators for minimum machining error satisfying the tolerance requirements and providing deterministic location. A three dimensional workpiece under the 3-2-1 locating scheme is studied. Results indicate that by optimally placing the error containing locators the geometric error component of the machining error can be substantially reduced thus enabling compliance to overall dimensional requirements. Keywords: Machining error, optimal layout, locator error, genetic algorithm 1. Introduction Fixtures form an integral part of the manufacturing process and are required to hold the workpiece in the desired position. The fixture design should aim at restraining unwanted movement of the workpiece under the action of cutting forces throughout machining. Dimensional accuracy of the machined part thus depends on the design of the locators and the layout and can contribute up to 20-60% of the overall machining error of the workpiece (Qin, 2008). The fixture should be capable of holding the workpiece in a unique position for machining. This condition is called deterministic location. Asada and Andry (1985) used the kinematic model and concluded that a full rank Jacobian matrix is the necessary condition for deterministic positioning of the workpiece. They also derived the condition for attachability and detachability of the workpiece within a fixture. Cai et al. (1997) used a variational method for achieving robust fixture configuration. A non linear programming method was used with an objective of minimizing the positional error of the workpiece resulting from source errors at the locators. This work considered the requirement for deterministic location but did not present a model for the analysis of machining error on a required feature. Choudhuri and De Meter (1999) presented a model to relate datum establishment errors to locator geometric variability. The work studied the effect of given locator errors on the variation of machining feature under a particular locating scheme. Again, deterministic location was not addressed and the effect of locator positions on the resultant machining error was not discussed. Rong et al. (2001) used three different approaches of locating and analyzed the positional variation of locating points resulting from the error of the locators and the locating features. The work however did not address the issue of deterministic location. Song and Rong (2005) discussed the criteria for the locating completeness. Some researchers optimized the clamping force (Li and Melkote,2001 a) or clamping sequence (Raghu and Melkote, 2004) to minimize the workpiece positional error. (Li and Melkote, 2001 b) optimized the fixture layout to minimize the workpiece error. Since the workpiece is evaluated by its compliance to the specified tolerance, influence of locator errors on the required machining tolerance received much attention in recent years. For example Wang (2002) studied the effect of fixel errors on the tolerance of critical dimensions. This work suggested employing a D optimality model to obtain an optimal layout. Marin and
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Ferreira (2003) discussed the effect of deterministic locator errors on profile tolerance of machined parts. Qin et al. (2006) discussed an optimization methodology to minimize the workpiece positional variation. However machining error is not discussed. The same authors (2007) presented a method for locating design based on the degrees of freedom constrained by the layout. Cases of complete, partial over and under over locations were discussed. Wang et al. (2007) analyzed the different error components of the workpiece surface. However this study did not discuss the effect of locator layout on machining error . Evolutionary techniques for solving optimization problems have been found to have a higher probability in finding the global optimum values compared to traditional techniques. GA is one such technique that finds increased use in solving optimization of locator layout problems. The task is to arrive at a particular layout of fixture elements that provides the minimum error on the workpiece (Kaya, 2005; Krishnakumar and Melkote, 2000; Padmanaban and Prabaharan, 2008). Simple two dimensional cases are studied in these three works. The way of correlating the layout optimization procedure to the tolerance on critical machining features on the workpiece is not discussed. Chen et al. (2007) optimized the locator layout to control the deformation of a workpiece. But geometric errors of locators were not considered. While the above mentioned studies have provided important and extensive concepts of fixture design they have one or more limitations such as not addressing the effect of locator geometric errors on overall machining error, condition for deterministic location and correlation of layout optimization with the critical machining feature. Most of the above works employed traditional optimization methods that may not yield the global optimum results. Since the final machining accuracy of the workpiece depends on the correctness of the locators it is essential that the locators are machined to the required accuracy and set up without any errors. However it is possible that errors are present in the form of dimension or set up of the locators which will be transferred to the workpiece thus causing deviation from the required dimension. Effect of locator error is comparable to the workpiece elastic deformation in case of low elasticity work parts. In the case of a rigid, bulky workpiece the locator error is much more predominant. Hence the locator layout is to be designed optimally so as to minimize the effect of the locator errors on the final machining accuracy of the workpiece. In this paper, a GA based optimization of locator layout is attempted considering the geometric errors of locators satisfying the conditions of tolerance requirements on the critical machining feature while ensuring deterministic location. Rest of the paper is organized as follows. The source errors are reviewed in Section 2. Section 3 gives a brief account of deterministic location and its requirements. Concepts of GA and its application to the present work are discussed in Section 4. Section 5 presents the numerical illustration of the case studied. Results are discussed in Section 6. Major conclusions drawn in the study are presented in Section 7 of the paper. 2. Source errors and resultant errors 2.1 Workpiece positional error Fixture elements (locators and clamps) are required to hold the workpiece in the desired position throughout the machining process. It goes without saying that any deviation in these elements will translate into a faulty positioning of workpiece thus resulting in machining error. Locators may deviate from the ideal condition in two ways. First is in the form of the dimension or shape of the locator which is known as geometrical error. The second is due to the wrong set up. In this case the locator is correct in shape or dimension but its placement is incorrect within the layout. Apart from these, the workpiece locating surface can also have deviations. These errors are part of the source errors and are illustrated in Figure 1. Consider a fixture workpiece system as shown in Figure 2. We define three co ordinates systems. The global co ordinate (GCS) system is fixed to the machine table, the workpiece coordinate system (WCS) is fixed to the workpiece and LCS is the locator coordinate system. At each contact point the normal vector is denoted as ni (nix, niy, niz) and the source error in all the locators is collectively written as a vector . Note that this denotes change in vector rc. As a result of these source errors the workpiece position and orientation change, denoted by X and . Now the workpiece positional error in GCS is written as p =[ X ]=[x, y, ]T p =[ X ]=[x, y, z, , , ]T Now the Jacobian matrix is defined as (Qin, 2008)
T J = J 1 J T ...J T 2 m i= 1m denote the number of locators with for 2D J i = nix , niy , niy xi nix y i
for 2 D for 3 D
(1) (2)
for 3 D Ji ix , niy , niz , niz yi niy xi , nix zi niz xi , niy xi nix yi The normal vectors ni..nm are collectively written in the form of a normal vector matrix as N=diag (n1 n2. nm ) Now the following relation can be written between source error and workpiece positional error p = J + N T s
[ = [ n
(3)
(4)
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Ideal position of locator Actual position of locator
Ideal position of workpiece Actual position of workpiece
Ideal dimension of locator Actual dimension of locator
Desired position of workpiece Actual position of workpiece
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Source errors in locating (a) Set up errors (b) Dimensional errors
{WCS}
Workpiece rw w
Workpiece {WCS}
w rp
rciw rw rci
{GCS}
ni
Contact point Locator 'i'
rw
rp r ci
r ciw
Locator 'i'
rli
{LCS}i
{GCS}
r li
{LCS} i
Figure 2. Coordinate systems and positional error 2.2 Machining error Effect of the source errors
Figure 3. Machining error
results in the workpiece positional error p as discussed earlier. If the processing datum and the
locating datum do not coincide, it is called datum error (dt). This error, combined with the workpiece positional error result in what is called the machining error m of the workpiece. Machining error denotes the relative motion of the cutting tool with respect to the processing datum. In a workpiece this machining error can be depicted as the change in rp as shown in Figure 3. Note that rp denotes the location of the processing datum in GCS. If the WCS and GCS are identically oriented and the datum related error is neglected the following relationship can be written. m=B p where B is the position matrix of the processing point and is given by z y 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 z 0 B= x 0 0 1 y x 0 (5)
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3. Deterministic location When positioned in a fixture the workpiece surface is made to contact all the locators. Deterministic location is said to be achieved if the workpiece is held in a unique position when all fixture elements are made to contact the workpiece surface. In other words deterministic location means that the workpiece cannot make an infinitesimal motion while maintaining contact with all the locators. Asada and Andry (1985) showed that for deterministic location the Jacobian matrix should have a full rank. In other words, for deterministic location, rank (J)= 3 for 2D rank (J)=6 for 3D (6) 4. GA based fixture layout optimization 4.1 Working of GA Traditional optimization techniques based on mathematical principles suffer from many limitations that include dependence of convergence on the chosen initial solution, getting stuck to a sub optimal solution, problem specific nature of the algorithms and inefficient handling of problems with discrete variables (Deb, 2005). New evolutionary techniques are found to perform better in this context compared to traditional methods. One such technique is the GA. GA is a computerized search and optimization algorithm based on the mechanics of natural genetics and selection. GA operates on a population of potential solutions applying the principles of survival of the fittest to produce better approximation solutions. At each generation, a new set of approximation is created by the process of selecting individuals according to their level of fitness in the problem domain and breeding them together using operators borrowed from the natural genetics. This process leads to the evaluation of population of individuals that they were created from just as in natural adaptation. The working of GA is as follows. a. Initialization and representation A population of solutions is created randomly. Each entry in the population is called a chromosome. The population thus generated will contain NP number of chromosomes where NP is the population size specified. NP =50 in this work. The chromosome can be represented using binary or real coding. In the present problem, real variable coding is used. Length of a chromosome depends on the number of variables used in the problem. Variables in this problem are the locator coordinates. This study considers the 3-2-1 locating scheme hence there are six locators with X,Y and Z coordinates to be determined. So the problem is of dimension 18. b. Evaluation of fitness Each chromosome is evaluated for its fitness. The fitness function F(x) is derived from the objective function f(x) of the problem. For maximization problems, fitness function is the same as the objective function. For minimization problems the fitness function is defined as
F ( x) =
1 1 + f ( x)
(7)
c. Testing for termination criteria The algorithm can be terminated by specifying different conditions like the number of generations, specific objective value, improvement of objective function in successive generations etc. The GA keeps searching the solution space for the best solution. After certain number of generations, the chromosomes become similar. Beyond a certain point in time, a condition will be reached that no better solution can be found. Hence to save time, certain number of generations be specified so as to stop the search. Otherwise the algorithm will keep running without finding any better solution. In the present work, the algorithm has been programmed to stop if the objective function value remains same for 50 consecutive generations. This is called stall generations Ns. If the condition is not satisfied a new generation is formed and the process repeats till the maximum number of generations (NG) is reached. In this work, NG=150. d. Creation of new generation GA essentially performs three operations to create a new generation. These are Reproduction, Cross over and Mutation. Reproduction: At this stage parent chromosomes are selected from the population based on their fitness and a mating pool formed. The probability of a chromosome for selection depends on its fitness Fi .The probability for selecting the ith chromosome
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Fi (8) N=P1 j where NP denotes the population size. In reproduction, good chromosomes in a population are assigned a larger number of copies to form the mating pool. In this study the rank based Roulette wheel selection method is adopted for selecting chromosomes for reproduction. Cross over: The crossover operation involves in two chromosomes exchanging certain part of their genetic information to produce new chromosomes. To retain some goodness already present in the mating pool only a certain percentage of chromosomes are involved in cross over. This is given by the value of cross over probability pc. Cross over operation for real and binary coding are done differently. In binary coding single point crossover, multipoint crossover and uniform crossover are commonly used techniques. In real value coding the methods of cross over include discrete cross over, line cross over and intermediate cross over. Discrete cross over is used in this study. Mutation: After cross over is performed, the chromosomes undergo mutation. This operator makes local changes in a chromosome to hopefully create a better chromosome. Similar to the cross over operation a random number is generated and if the number is less than the mutation probability pm (pm= 0.02 in this work) mutation is performed. Otherwise the chromosome is unchanged. In this work an Incremental operator is used for mutation. The incremental operator works as follows. An increment value is chosen depending on the problem domain and bounds. A particular variable in the chromosome is chosen randomly. Mutation operator either adds or subtracts this value from the variable to form a new chromosome Let a b c be the string before mutation. The string after mutation can be a+ b c or a- b c pi =
Flowchart shown in Figure 5 outlines the GA process. Simple Genetic Algorithm ( ) { initial Population; evaluate population; While termination criterion not reached { reproduction; perform crossover and mutation; evaluate population; } } Figure 4. Genetic algorithm 4.2 Application of GA to layout optimization As stated earlier this work considers the source error present in the locators in form of geometry and set up. When a workpiece is loaded into this fixture and machined it results in deviation of the actual dimensions from the desired ones. With the manufacturing tolerances (mtol) being specified it is mandatory that the deviations should lie below the tolerance specifications. The influence of source error of a locator on the overall machining error depends on its position in the layout. The objective is to find the location of each error containing locator so as to minimize the resultant error. In this context the problem statement can be made as follows. Arrive at a deterministic layout which, for given source errors results in the least dimensional error of the critical machining feature while complying with the tolerance requirements .In other words, Determine L x,y,z (i) so as to minimize z y 1 0 0 0 x 0 1 0 z 0 (9) x J + N T s m j = y = B j p = z 0 0 1 y x 0 j
with s = [s1 ...s i ]T subject to (x,y,z)i max (x,y,z)i (x,y,z)i min
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In execution, layouts are generated randomly (initial population) with the bounds specified for each locator. Magnitude of source error in each locator is specified by the user. Each of these locators is first checked for the condition of deterministic location discussed in Section 3. With these inputs the GA runs for the specified number of generations and arrives at the optimal layout the layout with least machining error of the feature considered. Flow chart shown in Figure 5 explains the method adopted. 5. Numerical illustration To illustrate the above mentioned procedure, a rectangular block studied by Qin et al. (2008) is presented. A through slot is to be milled on a workpiece of dimensions 220 mm 122 mm 112 mm. The critical machining feature in this case is the distance between the far edge of the workpiece and the slot, shown as 250.006 in Figure 7. Since the workpiece is located based on the 32-1 locating principle there are six locators in total. The normal vectors and the assumed errors in each locator are given in Table 1. Using equation (9) the overall machining error is computed at the three processing datum points A,B and C whose coordinates are (220,122,112), (110,122,112), (0,122,112) respectively. For each layout the maximum of errors among A, B and C are calculated and GA is used to arrive at the minimum of this maximum error. Corresponding layout is the optimal layout. In the present case GA is run for 10 times and optimal layouts are obtained. Table 2 shows the layouts and error values corresponding to each run. It can be seen that among the 10 runs, run 10 gives the least value of error (0.00227 mm). The convergence pattern of GA corresponding to this run is shown in Figure 8. Comparing the error values with the required tolerance on the critical dimension (0.006 mm) it can be seen that all the layouts are valid for the present case (maximum error being 0.003553 mm in Run 1). Table 1 Normal vectors and errors in locators Locator L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 6. Results and discussion The machining error is of the form Normal vector (0,0,1) (0,0,1) (0,0,1) (0,-1,0) (0,-1,0) (1,0,0) Source error (mm) 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.001 0.002 Positional constraints used in optimization 53 x 10, 101 y 62, z=0 190 x 125.5, 101 y 62, z=0 115 x 66, 59 y 10,z=0 90 x 20, y= 122, z=56
180 x 95, y= 122, z=56 x=0 , 102 y 30, z=56
x m j = y z j
The vector consists of machining error in the X, Y and Z directions. However in this study the machining error relates to the deviation of the distance of the slot from the top edge of the workpiece shown as 250.006. Hence the Y component of the machining error, y is of interest. For each layout generated mj is computed using Equation (5) and GA is invoked to arrive at the minimum machining error. Many GA runs are performed and the results of 10 such runs are given in Table 2. The least machining error varies from a minimum of 0.00318 mm (Run 10) to a maximum of 0.003553 mm (Run 1). Other values of machining error are near identical. Interestingly Run 2, Run 3 and Run 6 have exactly same value of machining error (0.0032 mm). This proves that the fixture optimization problems are multimodal in nature. For the same or near the same objective value (y in this case) the layouts are different. This means that given the locator error and bounds on locator positions, f different layouts are possible for the same machining error. This provides the user with the flexibility of choosing layouts without imposing too much restriction.
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The relative impact of each locator error on the resultant machining error is worth considering. For doing this, the layout with the least error, the one obtained in Run 10 is taken. First, error of locator 1 is increased in steps of 10% till the error value is doubled. with increasing error value of locator 1 is Error values of all other locators remain the same as given in Table1. Change of computed. The process is repeated for other locators while keeping same the error of all but that locator. The results are plotted in Figure 7. It can be seen that effect of locator 4 is more pronounced followed by locator 3 and locator 2. Locator 5 has little impact on the change of the machining error while the influence of locator 6 is not seen to affect the machining error. This means that locator 4 should be produced with stricter tolerance or should be set up more precisely since the impact of it is seen to be more considerable than others. As the optimization process continues, chromosomes tend to become similar. Because of this the objective function, in this case the machining error, tends to remain at a value without any further improvement. The objective function is then said to have converged. As discussed in Section 4 the optimization process is terminated based on either the number of stall generations or the maximum number of generations. Figure 8 shows the convergence of GA. Figure 8a corresponds to run 10 that returned the least error among the 10 runs. It can be seen that the machining error value steadily falls for the first 96 generations and remains unchanged thereafter. Since the stall generation value has been specified as 50, the process continues for further 50 generations and stops at generation number 146. As mentioned earlier, the least machining error obtained in the process is 0.00318 mm. To study the effect of increase in population size, GA is run with NP increased to 70 and the corresponding convergence pattern is shown in Figure 8b. The least error obtained here is 0.0331 mm after 148 iterations. Table 2 GA based optimal position of locators and corresponding machining error
G.A Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Locator 1 x 38.1 15.3 26.4 37.1 40.1 15.6 18.5 48.3 29.4 28.5 y 66.7 69.6 66.5 88.9 98.8 95.1 64.6 84.7 91.3 67.2 z 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 x 135.4 169.1 129.3 143.0 147.2 176.6 129.8 180.7 157.0 183.9 Locator 2 y 96.3 69.1 83.1 85.5 80.0 65.2 96.4 92.0 92.2 69.8 z 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 X 92.6 77.7 70.3 91.2 81.9 94.7 87.6 100.7 76.6 96.3 Locator 3 y 54.1 31.8 31.4 57.5 51.8 43.6 53.0 44.6 57.7 28.4 z 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 x 22.3 22.7 36.4 56.3 39.0 43.5 28.6 30.1 49.5 23.9 Locator 4 y 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 z 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 x 115.5 137.9 168.2 162.7 167.4 179.4 134.8 167.8 174.3 176.4 Locator 5 y 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 122.0 z 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 x 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Locator 6 y 81.1 60.6 95.3 84.1 73.3 40.2 68.1 81.9 56.9 83.0 z 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 56.0 Least error (mm) 0.003553 0.00320 0.00320 0.00322 0.00323 0.00320 0.00331 0.00318 0.00331 *0.00318
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Population of layouts Consider generation i, layout j
Jacobian matrix J No
Deterministic? Yes Find myA,myB, myC (my)j = max( myA,myB, myC) Errors of locators
j= j+1
No j=NP? Yes
(my)i = min ( my)j=1:NP

Yes
NS reached? No i= NG? No i=i+1 Genetic operators Figure 5. Flow chart of the analysis
Terminate, store results
Yes
Terminate, store results
160
250.006 A
B L5 C Z L2 L4 Y L6 L1 L3 X
Figure 6. Workpiece fixture system under study
Figure 7. Effect of increase in locator error
Figure 8a .Convergence of GA (NP=50)
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Figure 8b .Convergence of GA (NP=70) 7. Conclusions Since the locator error is an important factor contributing to the overall machining error minimization of the contribution of locator error reduces the machining error. In this work an attempt has been made for optimizing the fixture layout taking into consideration the effect locator errors. Deterministic location is ensured throughout the optimization process and minimal machining error is arrived at complying with the machining tolerance specification. This also provides the user with a flexibility in choosing the layout according to the requirements. Also, for a given machining tolerance on workpiece, if the minimum possible error can be found for a given set of locator errors, working backward, it is possible to determine the allowable tolerance on the locator. This may be advantageous in cases where a less strict tolerance on locator will be acceptable thus reducing the cost of manufacture of locators. The model presented here is generic in the sense that the same can be applied to any critical feature of the workpiece by choosing appropriate datum points. Future work will include the determination of the components of machining error caused by machining and clamping forces. The fixture layout would be optimized so as to minimize the overall machining error. In this work the locators are assumed to contain error in their normal direction. A quadratic model would help analyze the case of locators with errors along the tangential directions also. References Asada,H, Andre B. 1985. Kinematic analysis of workpart fixturing for flexible assembly with automatically reconfigurable fixtures, Journal of Robotic Automation, Vol.2, pp.86-94. Cai,W; Jack Hu, S ; Yuan, J.X .1997.A variational method of robust fixture configuration design for 3D workpieces, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol.119, pp. 593-602. Chen W., Ni L., Xue J. 2007. Deformation control through fixture layout design and clamping force optimization, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.31, pp.948-956. Choudhuri, S.A ; De Meter, E.C. 1999. Tolerance analysis of machining fixture locators, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol.121, pp.273-281. Deb K.. 2005. Optimization for engineering design-Algorithms and examples, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Kaya, N. 2005. Machining fixture locating and clamping position optimization using genetic algorithms, International Journal of Computers in Industry, Vol. 57, pp.112-120. Krishnakumar K, Melkote S.N.. 2000. Machining fixture layout optimization using the genetic algorithm, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 40,pp. 579-598. Li,B, Melkote S.N. 2001a. Fixture clamping force optimization and its impact on workpiece location accuracy, Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.17, pp.104-113. Li,B, Melkote S.N. 1999. Improved workpiece location accuracy through fixture layout optimization, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 39, pp. 871-883. Li,B, Melkote S.N. 2001b. Optimal fixture design accounting for the effect of workpiece dynamics, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.18, pp. 701-707. Marin R.A., Ferreira P.M.. 2003. Analysis of the influence of fixture locator errors on the compliance of work part features to geometric tolerance specifications, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol.125, pp. 609-616.
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Padmanaban,K.P, Prabhaharan, G. 2008. Dynamic analysis on optimal placement of fixturing elements using evolutionary techniques, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 46, pp.4177 4214. Qin, G.H, Zhang, W.H, Wan, M. 2006.A mathematical approach to analysis and optimal design of a fixture locating scheme, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.29, pp.349-359. Qin,G.H, Zhang W.; Wu Z.; Wan M.. 2007. Systematic modeling of workpiece fixture geometric default and compliance for the prediction of workpiece machining error, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 129, pp.789-801. Qin,G.H, Zhang W., Wan M. 2008. A machining-dimension based approach to locating scheme design, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering Vol.130, pp. 051010-1- 051010-7. Raghu A., Melkote S.N. 2004. Analysis of the effects of fixture clamping sequence on part location errors, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 44, pp. 373-382. Rong, Y, Hu, W, Kang Y, Zhang,Y, Yen D.W. 2001. Locating error analysis and tolerance assignment for computer aided fixture design, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 39, pp.3529-3545. Song, H ; Rong, Y .2005. Locating completeness evaluation and revision in fixture plan, Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol.2, pp.368-378. Wang, M. 2002. Tolerance analysis for fixture layout design, Assembly Automation, Vol. 22, pp. 153-162. Wang,Y; Chen, X ; Gindy, N. 2007. Surface error decomposition for fixture development, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.31, pp.948-956. Biographical notes
S. Vishnupriyan is currently serving as a Lecturer in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial engineering, Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. An M. Tech in Machine Design from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, he has around fifteen years of teaching experience and currently pursuing Ph D in the National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India. He has co authored text books on Design of machine elements and Design of Transmission systems. Dr. M C Majumder is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Member Secretary of the Senate, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India. He has a PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He has guided many Ph D scholars. His prime area of research is Tribology. Dr. K. P. Ramachandran is currently the Associate Dean (Post Graduate Studies & Research), Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. He has a experience of 25 years in engineering institutions and as a consultant for many industries. He has research interest in the vibration instrumentation & measurement, analysis and control, condition monitoring of rotating machinery. He has been conferred Sir C.V. Raman award for the best technical paper published in the journal of Vibration & Acoustics (1997). He is in the editorial board and technical reviewer for international journals and conferences. He has guided PhD students in the area of condition monitoring and maintenance management.
Received January 2010 Accepted February 2010 Final acceptance in revised form March 2010
MultiCraft
Artificial neural networks based predictive model for worker assignment into virtual cells
1*
R.V. Murali, 2 A.B. Puri and 3 G. Prabhakaran
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Caledonian College of Engineering, PB 2322, CPO Seeb 111, OMAN 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Durgapur, West Bengal, INDIA 3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Technology, Chennai, INDIA E-mails: (murali@caledonian.edu.om (R.V. Murali) *Corresponding author; abpuri2000@yahoo.co.in (A.B. Puri); g_prabha2006@yahoo.com (G. Prabhakaran))
Abstract Virtual cellular manufacturing systems (VCMS) have come into existence, replacing traditional cellular manufacturing systems (CMS), to meet highly dynamic production conditions in terms of demand, processing times, product mix and processing sequence. While cell formation phase of VCMS has been dealt quite voluminously, worker assignments phase has gained momentum recently after researchers started realizing the importance of workers role during implementation of cell-based manufacturing. In the past, worker assignments have been analyzed with development of various heuristics/mathematical models in order to achieve reduced worker costs, improved productivity and quality, effective utilization of workforce and providing adequate levels of worker flexibility. In this paper, a new approach based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) has been proposed to assign workers into virtual cells since ANNs have the ability to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find similar patterns effectively. A framework of multilayered perceptron with feed forward (MLP-FF) neural network has been formulated on worker assignment for VCMS under dual resource constrained (DRC) context and its performance under two cell configurations with different time periods is analyzed. A worker assignment model has been developed and applied with cell formation solutions available in the literature in order to generate simulated datasets that drive the training process of proposed ANN framework. Keywords: Virtual cellular manufacturing, worker assignments, artificial neural networks 1. Introduction The introduction of group technology (GT) into manufacturing environments in late 1950s has revolutionized the art of manufacturing. It has completely changed the traditional way in which operations were carried out in order to respond quickly to changes in product design and demand, resulting in reduced time to make the products, minimum flow time of parts, reduced work-in-process (WIP) inventory and improved product quality. VCMS, stemmed from traditional CMS, is a production methodology where production cells are virtually formed taking machineries and facilities across the shop floor without a necessity of considering the proximity factor. VCMS does not prompt any reconfiguration of the existing layouts in the company while enjoying the benefits associated with traditional CMS (Slomp et al., 2005-a). It is reported that research works on VCMS focused predominantly on machine related sources and issues including material handling aspects while worker related aspects are almost neglected (Slomp et al., 2005-a; Gert Nomden et al., 2006) with a few exceptions (Min and Shin, 1993; Ser, 1996; Askin, and Huang, 2001; Suresh,and Slomp, 2005). Another effort (Suresh and Gerard, 2000) has emphasized the importance of considering workers as a second constraining resource in VCMS environments. Worker assignments into virtual cells require due attention on worker skills and capacities, load distribution, and cross-training needs to sustain cellular operations with adequate levels of worker flexibility (Suresh and Slomp 2001). Among the models developed for worker assignments, heuristics and mathematical formulations take the central role while non-mathematical models such as ANNs are not attempted. ANNs, a clustering technique principally adapted from the biological nervous systems and neural networks, have a huge potential in solving more complex and nonlinear problems through learning and training. Applications of ANNs have been very
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emergent ranging from manufacturing to telecommunications to financial sectors owing to their proven goodness in approximating functions and recognizing similar patterns. In manufacturing context, cell formation has been an excellent domain for ANNs and there are a number of neural network approaches experimented for cell formation (Kaparthi and Suresh, 1992; Dagli and Huggahalli, 1993). However, application of ANN concepts on worker assignments in virtual cellular environments could prove potential and efficient since the worker assignments are done under varying, dynamic and stochastic conditions in terms of product demand, product mix and worker skill sets. Therefore, an attempt is made in this paper to formulate an ANN framework for worker assignments into virtual cells and analyze its effectiveness on workers clustering efficiency. It is found out in this study that ANN framework for solving worker assignment models is simpler, more flexible and yet effective, not computationally intensive and can be adapted to varying production conditions. A major intricacy in employing ANNs technique to any clustering tasks is the need of real training datasets to drive for ANN framework and this might be one of the reasons why ANN approaches were not used for worker assignments. In this attempt, the datasets are derived by preprocessing the information on cell formation such as number of virtual cells, number of machines, jobs and workers, available in the literature. Although this framework does not use real time data from a manufacturing industry, the data abstracted from the literature are already either taken from the real production line or the generated data which are validated and published in the literatures. Hence, authors strongly feel that this approach would also work good and yield acceptable results when a real time data is fed in. Further, this is a novel approach and similar efforts and approaches were not attempted before. Various practical implications and aspects specific to industries can also be added while enriching this model which therefore opens up new avenues for future research. The worker assignment problem addressed in this work is applicable to manufacturing industries which adopt VCMS concepts in their production line. More information on the principle, scope and applications of virtual cells based manufacturing are found (Nomden et al. 2006; Kannan and Ghosh, 1996) and the details on users with implementation experiences are outlined in Wemmerlov and Johnson (1997). In the following section, various research works carried out on worker assignment problems in cell based manufacturing environments are presented and grounds for the present study are also explained. Then, based on the ANN concepts, a framework for this study is proposed. Problem formulation and ANN training architecture/training parameters are given thereafter. Results obtained by this attempt for the datasets available in the literature are presented later which is followed by a short discussion. Finally, conclusion remarks are given with appropriate future works identified. 2. Literature review and background In all manufacturing methodology being adopted for production, worker assignment has positioned itself strongly due to a fact that work force is a major constraining resource in a manufacturing organization. However, workforce issue is handled heuristically by matching the technical skills of the workers with production requirements. Most worker assignments are made based on the experience of the personnel involved with the cells. Many times, particularly at the cell implementation level, work force decisions involve a lot of trial and error and therefore, companies do not make the best use of their worker and machine resources (Viviana and Harold, 2005). It is also indicated that in cell based manufacturing, many of the perceived advantages are derived from holding sufficient levels of worker flexibility within each cell (Slomp et al., 2005-a; Slomp et al., 2005-b). In this context, a multi-objective mathematical model was framed (Min and Shin, 1993) in an effort to perform simultaneous formation of machine and human manufacturing cells on the basis of skill match. One of the shortcomings of this approach was that the data analyzed are hypothetical and skill levels were static. The paper (Ser, 1996) proposed a two-phase hierarchical methodology in order to achieve an optimal manpower assignment. In this paper, mixed integer and integer programming formulations are proposed to generate alternative operator levels and to achieve the optimal operator and product assignment to the cells. Eventually as an extension of this work in (Ser and Ivan, 1997) mathematical models are developed to generate alternative operator levels and to obtain the optimal common operator and product assignment to the cells. This work was extended for analyzing the impact of lot-splitting in terms of setup times (Ser, 1998). Two integer programming models were developed in the paper (Askin and Huang, 1997) for assigning workers to cells and determining an appropriate training programme schedule for employees. A major assumption made in this model was that each different skill has only one level rather than multiple levels for each skill. They later extended their own work to examine not only the formation of worker teams, also the specification of cross-training plans for workers in cellular design (Askin and Huang, 2001). In this work, the worker skill level was considered to be a binary variable i.e., 1 if the worker possesses the skill; 0 otherwise. Another effort in (Bryan et al., 2002) established that the worker assignments have been traditionally based on only the technical skills of the workers, not other abilities. Subsequently, they proposed a mixed integer programming model that showed a significant improvement in cell performance when human skills were explicitly considered in the worker training plan and assignment strategies. Kannan and Jensen (2004) have demonstrated that labour resource with its dynamics in terms of operator performance in studies of manufacturing cells can change the outcome drastically. The Authors (Bopaya et al., 2005) have indicated that although cell based manufacturing results in productive benefits and forms the central theme of research for
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researchers, yet, the importance of human issues is never dealt in full and further there is a singular absence of articles in relation to human element in cellular manufacturing. It is also emphasized that the lack of understanding of the human side of cellular manufacturing could significantly reduce the benefits associated with this mode of manufacturing. Later, goal programming model was derived (Slomp et al., 2005-a) for a virtual cellular design framework to form virtual cells initially and then to assign workers to these virtual cells. This work was further developed and analyzed (Murali R V et al., 2009) considering the empirical aspects related to worker assignments such as job criticality and varied worker efficiency in VCMS environments through a binary integer programming model. Thompson and Goodale (2006) have reaffirmed that ignoring the worker as a source of variability leads to significant errors in projecting output of the company and included this aspect into their work on scheduling workforce. Fowler et al., (2008) have concluded that workforce management is done with a help of a measure called general cognitive ability (GCA) because each worker is inherently different. Recently, McDonald et al., (2009) have developed a worker assignment mathematical model for lean manufacturing cells to ensure job rotation and determine the levels of skill and training necessary to meet customer demand. The objective of this model is to minimize net present cost, which includes initial training costs, incremental training costs necessary to complete tasks and meet customer demand, inventory costs, and cost of poor quality. Another study by Davis et al., (2009) contents that workload imbalances give rise to worker flexibility and current work center capacity influences the extent to which worker flexibility can be utilized to counter the workload imbalances. It is observed in all these papers presented above that various heuristics, mathematical formulations were developed for solving worker assignment problems applicable to cell-based manufacturing environments. Although ANN clustering technique was very widely applied for cell formation problems during this period, no attempt is made to apply this technique to worker assignment phase. Further, ANN techniques require significantly less storage and processing time than conventional approaches. As the complexity of the problem increases in terms of the cell size and resources, it becomes computationally expensive if conventional approaches are employed. Authors have, therefore, attempted to handle the worker assignment task applicable to VCMS environment in the DRC context for different time periods using ANNs with simulated datasets in this approach. This paper derives a worker assignment model that determines the fitness attributes of each worker for each cell in terms of machine coverage ratio, multi-functionality and the total processing time, considering the cell formation solutions available in the literature. 3. Neural network classifier scheme ANNs strive to behave in a much similar way as the brain of human beings and they are deemed to perform tasks through gaining knowledge obtained by learning or training process. More precisely, ANNs have the ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, and provide reliable classifications and approximations of data through input-output mapping and adaptive characteristics. It consists of processing units called artificial neurons or nodes which receive an input data, processes it, and produces an output that acts as an input to other nodes in the network ie., inter-connection of simple processing elements. The connections among the nodes and various learning algorithms to alter the weight factors between the connecting nodes are ANNs strength and flexibility as well. The behavior of network can be altered by suitably selecting the appropriate transfer functions for each layer which takes the input arguments and processes them according to the transfer function selected and produces the desired output. Most common transfer functions used for the hidden layer is tansig and the output layer is pure linear. (Haykin, 1999) Supervised or unsupervised are the two major types of neural networks that find wider acceptance and use among the researchers. Supervised networks will essentially function based on the training sets i.e. valid and relevant input/output values to train the network and adjust the connection weights between the individual nodes. In recent times, unsupervised neural networks are preferred owing to a fact that they have the ability to adapt and classify the input data without needing input/output values for training. In this problem, supervised neural networks i.e., feed forward network is employed with use of simulated training datasets derived from the proposed worker assignment model. 3.1 Multi-layer perceptrons feed forward (MLP-FF) networks MLP-FF networks are one of the important types of supervised neural networks that consist of more hidden layers besides input and output layer. In this attempt, authors propose to use a MLP-FF network with one hidden layer (with tansig transfer function and 3 hidden neurons) for workers assignment. From the generalized block diagram of MLP shown in the Figure 1, the output of each layer (i) is calculated using (1):
Output = out w i 1 i 1, i i
(1)
Where outi and wi-1,i are the output of the layer i and weight factor values of the data flow from layer i-1 to layer i.
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OUTPUT LAYER (4)
w34
HIDDEN LAYER (3)
w23
HIDDEN LAYER (2)
w12
HIDDEN LAYER (1)
w01
INPUT LAYER (0) Figure 1 Generalized block diagram of MLP In the proposed work, 6 input variables (P1-P6) are fed into the input layer, which are processed by 3 neurons of the hidden layer (h1, h2 and h3) with appropriate initial weight factors. Upon processing, it will yield 3 output variables (C1,C2 and C1,2) in the output layer where they are compared with the desired target output (detailed explanation given in the problem framework phase). The error (=actual - target) is back propagated through the network where the individual weights are adjusted to bring the output closer to the target value. This process is termed as network training or learning. There are many training algorithms such as traingdm, levenberg-marquardt available for use in ANN models The choice of selecting training algorithms will be done on the basis of many aspects such as the complexity of the problem, the number of input/output variables, number of training datasets, the number of weights and biases in the network, the error values and purpose of the network (pattern recognition/function approximation). During training process, the weight factors of the network are iteratively adjusted to minimize the performance error values (mean squared error- MSE) between the actual outputs and the desired (target) outputs. This framework uses Gradient Descent with Momentum (traingdm) algorithm for training with tansig and purelin as transfer functions used for hidden and output layers. This algorithm needs two training parameters namely the learning rate (LR) and the momentum constant (MC). The LR is multiplied times the negative of the gradient to determine the changes to the weight factors. The higher the values of LR, the bigger the step size towards achieving the target. If the LR is set to a very higher value, the learning process will not be useful. On the other hand, setting very small values to LR will take more time to stabilize. MC defines the sensitivity of the network to changes and allows the network to ignore small features in the error surface. Its values range between 0 (no momentum) and close to 1 (lots of momentum). A MC value of 1 results in a network that is completely insensitive to the local gradient and, therefore, does not lead to a proper learning. The back propagation learning phase of the network updates the network weight factors in such a way that performance errors decrease most rapidly i.e. the high degree of closeness is achieved between the actual outputs and the desired (target) outputs as given by (2): i+1= i (LR. ) (2)
where i is a current input variable and is the current gradient. The architecture and training parameters of the proposed ANN framework is shown in the Figure 2. Accuracy of the ANN classifications could be enhanced if the initial network weight factors are reset to appropriate values and a fresh training can be given. Increasing the number of hidden neurons, training datasets, input vectors and finally choosing a suitable training algorithm will also result in improvements. 4. Problem formulation and parameters for the ANN framework The key difference between cellular and virtual cellular manufacturing systems is the need of reconfiguration of the machines and layouts. In cellular manufacturing, machines are brought closer to form cells while VCMS does not impose upon this. Mere dedication of identified machines across various departments in the form of logical groups will suffice for creating virtual cells. For every time period, member machines of this logical group will change based on the demand, products, product mix and production sequence. Therefore, in this paper, traditional cell formation solutions adapted from literature are treated as applicable to virtual cellular environments i.e., for each period, datasets with different production time and sequence are considered which is equivalent to working on virtual cell formation problems and data. The conceptual diagram of the proposed work (worker assignment model plus ANN framework) is illustrated in the Figure 3. Initially, from literature, cell formation solutions such as number of cells formed, parts and machines allotted to each cell,
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processing times, number of exceptional elements with production details and sequence for each part are extracted. These details are preprocessed and transformed into worker fitness attributes as discussed in the following section. Table 1 lists down various referred literature problems with sizes (for two cell configuration) to be adapted in this paper for generating training datasets and testing ANN framework as well.
Machine coverage P1 c1 P2 ANN Training Parameters Descent Gradient with Moment Training Algorithm (TRAINGDM) LR 0.3 c2 MC value for stabilizing the network Error function Max no. of epochs No of neurons 0.6 Mean Squared Error (MSE) value= 0.1 1000 6 inputs; 3 hidden; 3 outputs
Multi-functionality
P3
P4
Processing time
P5 c1, 2 P6
HIDDEN LAYER
Figure 2 ANN architecture and training parameters

Cell formation solutions from literature
Extracting cells, machines, parts in each cell, exceptional elements
Workers and skill matrix
Preprocessing into worker fitness attributes
Target vectors generation Testing Data sets Period 1 Period 2
ANN Framework
Training sets databank
Output target vectors Period 1 Period 2
Figure 3 Conceptual illustration of the proposed framework
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Dataset No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Literature Source King and Nakornchai (1982) Waghodekar and sahu (1984) Seiffodini (1989) Chandrasekaran et al. (1986)b Generated Set 1 Generated Set 2 Kusiak (1992) Sudhakara and Mahapatra (2009) Sudhakara and Mahapatra (2009) Problem Size (Machine x Parts) 5x7 5x7 5 x 18 8 x 20 6x8 5x7 6x8
4.1 Fitness attributes Authors strongly advocate that worker assignment into cells should be based on what extent a worker adds value to a particular cell in terms of fitness attributes such as machine coverage ratio, multi-functionality and total processing load. If he/she does not contribute value to a particular cell, his/her fitness for this cell would be lower and hence not preferred to be assigned into this cell. However, when values of all these fitness attributes for the virtual cells under discussion tie or match or run closer, it leads to a condition that this particular worker is fit to be allotted to both cells. 4.1.1 Machine coverage ratio In the literature (Slomp et al., 2005-a) machine coverage of machines is defined as the number of operators capable of operating each machine. In this context machine coverage ratio of operators is referred to be a ratio of the number of machines he/she is eligible to operate in a cell to the total number of machines assigned to the particular cell. Higher values of this parameter imply that he/she is qualified to process more parts in that particular cell. Therefore, it is contended when a worker attains higher values of machine coverage ratio in a virtual cell, he/she is preferred to be assigned to that virtual cell. 4.1.2 Multi-functionality Multi-functionality of a worker is defined (Slomp et al., 2005-a; 2005-b) as number of machine types that each worker can operate. In this context, authors propose to consider multi-functionality as an index referring to the total number of operations he/she is eligible to perform on different machines in a particular cell he/she is considered for assignment. This index is deemed to measure the ability of a worker to process a number of operations in a virtual cell. When a worker is able to perform more number of operations on different parts in a particular cell, then he/she will secure higher fitness values for assignment into this virtual cell. 4.1.3 Total processing time In addition to the number of machines and number of operations a worker is eligible to process in a cell, total processing time for all operations each worker is eligible to process, would also have to be accounted for exercising assignment task. Therefore, it is proposed to include this factor as one of the fitness attributes in this work. 4.2 Performance measures Worker utilization, machine utilization and cell load are some of the performance measures estimated for the assignment achieved by the proposed ANN framework. Also, Worker Flexibility Index and Cross Training Index are redefined and analyzed for the results achieved in this work. 4.2.1 Worker Flexibility Index Worker flexibility in the context of cell based manufacturing relates to the multiple skills of workers and their ability to work in teams so that greater number of tasks can be assigned to them. Workers allocation to machines shall be so carried out that the fluctuations in demand, fluctuations in worker supply, worker absenteeism are accounted for ensuring smooth production process (Bryan et al., 2002). It is outlined (Slomp et al., 2005-b) that worker flexibility could be interpreted as the probability of having workers who are fully loaded while simultaneously having underutilized workers. In this attempt, authors have defined worker flexibility as the % of total number of operations in a cell that can be undertaken by minimum of two workers or more so that worker flexibility is established. Worker flexibility index for cell, Fwi =
For testing ANN
For training ANN
adapted from Sudhakar and Mahapatra,2009;appendix of Jose and Mauricio,2004
X
1
ij
(3)
Where Xij=1, if a job j assigned to cell i can be processed by minimum of two workers belonging to cell i; 0 otherwise n=total no of jobs assigned to cell i. The range of Fwi is from 0 to 1 i.e., from no flexibility to highly flexible. 4.2.2 Cross Training Index
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Worker flexibility and cross training are complementing each other. Higher values of worker flexibility will mean that there are enough workforces available to handle extreme situations so that there cross training needs are minimized. Hence, cross training index can be given as follows: Cross Training Index, CTi = 1 - FWi (4)
The range of CTi is from 0 to 1 i.e., from minimum cross training needs to maximum cross training needs to be provided to workers on the basis of their work load and cell load values. Based on the values of fitness attributes of each worker, workers assignment is completed for totally 6 problems as indicated in Table 1 and eventually training datasets are prepared. Table 2 gives the cell formation solutions and production details for dataset 1 (King and Nakornchai, 1982). Table 2 (a) Machine Part Incidence Matrix (b) Cell formation solutions (c) Worker skill matrix
P1 M1 Machine M2 M3 M4 M5 0.00 0.82 0.91 0.00 0.53
P2 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.00
P3 0.00 0.83 0.92 0.00 0.00
Parts P4 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.56 0.00
P5 0.83
P6 0.91 0.00 0.86 0.88 0.00
P7 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.00 0.98
(a)0.00
0.00 0.00 0.51
(a)
M1 Machines in Parts in No of workers Cell 1 Cell 2(b) Cell 1 Cell 2 4 workers M2, M3, M5 M1, M4 P1, P3, P7 P2, P4, P5, P6 W1 W2 W3 W4 1 1 0 0
M2 1 0 1 1
Machine M3 M4
M5 1 0 1 1
(c)
1 1 0
0 1 0 1
(b)
(c) Table 3 lists down the sample training data for ANN framework pertaining to literature problems obtained through the proposed worker assignment model. The ANN output target nodes are denoted as 3 digit numbers which reflect the classification scheme for workers. Cell 1 and Cell 2 are indicated by {1 0 0} and {0 1 0} respectively while worker assignments to both cells are mapped to representation scheme {0 0 1}. It should be noted that this workout assumes a certain number of workers with their skills and a particular demand situation (virtual cell formation period is assumed as one month) to cope with variations in the demand mix and fluctuations in the workforce availability. The number of workers is so chosen considering the DRC contexts in which the number of workers available is less than the number of machines (Viviana and Harold, 2005; Jensen, 2000). 5. Simulation test results and discussion
The proposed ANN framework is tested with cell formation solutions taken from the literature and the results are enclosed in this section. From Table 1, it is noted that datasets for four literature problems (datasets 1-4) and two indigenously generated datasets (datasets 5-6) were used for ANN training while for testing ANN framework, three literature problems (datasets 7-9) are used as inputs for different periods of VCMS. Tables 4 and 5 show the simulation test results and performance measures calculated from the results. The summary of the results can be given as follows: 1. For the period 1, the worker assignments are deemed satisfactory since worker load distribution is uniform. However, machine M2 is overloaded because of the fact that out of 8 parts, 7 parts require processing on it. The actual utilization of machine M2 and total load for cell 2 exceed 100%. It is thus recommended to hire an additional machine M2 to ensure balanced worker loads and cell loads. On implementing this recommendation, utilization value of machine M2 has dropped to 56% and cell load has reached 60%. Workers flexibility index is low (0.27) for cell 1 while it has reached maximum value (ie., 1) for cell 2
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Murali et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.2, 2010, pp. 163-174 needing no cross training at all. Medium to high levels of cross training programmes are to be planned for cell 1 during this period for achieving higher flexibility and balanced worker load. Table 3 Sample training data for ANN framework Worker Fitness Attributes (6 input variables) Machine coverage Multi-functionality Total processing ratio of each of each worker in (hr) load in worker in Cell 1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W1 W2 W3 W4 W1 W2 W3 W4 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 0.667 0.333 1 0.667 0.5 1 0 0.5 0.667 0.333 1 0.667 0.333 0.333 0.667 0.333 0 0.333 0.667 Cell 2 0.5 1 0 0.5 0.667 0.333 1 0.667 0.5 1 0 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 Cell 1 4 3 7 4 2 3 0 1 10 5 15 10 6 9 18 6 0 9 15 Cell 2 4 7 0 3 7 4 11 7 12 24 0 12 14 16 14 16 16 14 8 Cell 1 3.38 1.37 4.75 3.38 1.53 2.03 0 0.5 5.73 2.4 8.13 5.73 2.86 5.41 8.9 2.86 0 3.49 8.27 Cell 2 2.92 4.12 0 1.2 3.54 1.31 4.85 3.54 7.64 14.93 0 7.29 9.18 8.7 7.18 7.67 8.7 8.15 4.25 Desired Target Vectors (3 output variables) 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dataset No
Workers
2.
For the period 2, worker load distribution shows signs of variations with one bottleneck worker identified (W1) because of dual cell assignment. Worker flexibility for cell 1 is low (0.15) necessitating medium to high amounts of cross training. Fairly good amount of flexibility (0.64) is seen in cell 2 needing low to medium levels of cross training. Situation prevailed in period 1 which is recurring in this period with machine M2 overloaded since 7 out of 8 parts needed it. The actual utilization of machine M2 nearing 90% and therefore total load for cell 2 exceeds 75%. It is thus recommended to hire an additional machine M2 so that the machine M2 utilization value has dropped to 37% and cell load has reached 48%. Worker flexibility index for cell 1 registers low prompting a high levels of cross training and cell 2 shows balanced condition between workers flexibility (0.46) and cross training levels (0.54) needing no remedial actions.
3.
Although, the accuracy and performance can be improved by altering the process parameters such as training algorithm, learning rate, the momentum constant and mean square error values, the major factor that dictates its performance is the validity and accuracy of the training data which plays a crucial role in applying neural network techniques. MLP-FF framework is created, designed, developed and tested in MATLAB 2007 software with Intel Pentium-4 processor with 3GHz speed. The proposed structure of a MLP-FF network uses six input variables to the input layer, 1 hidden layer with 3 neurons with tansig transfer function and 3 output variables. Figure 4 shows performance curves of the proposed MLP-FF network for different VCMS periods. The number of epochs i.e. the number of iterations the network undergoes by adjusting neuron weights to achieve the intended performance goal is shown against the MSE values in this figure. MSE, a network performance function used in this work, measures the differences between the target and the actual neural network output, squaring them and averaging over all classes and internal validation samples. Training of each ANN is stopped when the prediction error value between two successive iterations reaches MSE value. It is observed from these curves that the number of epochs is more in two periods which implies that the average training time taken by the network is larger. MLP-FF network generally takes larger training time since it involves more training parameters such as LR, MC and so on. This is a drawback of MLP-FF network as reported in the literature (James and David, 1991; Haykin, 1999).
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Murali et al. / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.2, 2010, pp. 163-174 Table 4 ANN Testing Results Time Period Dataset No WORKER FITNESS ATTRIBUTES machine coverage Multi-functionality Total processing ratio of each of each worker in (min) load in worker in Cell 1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W1 W2 W3 W4 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 0.25 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.333 0.667 0.333 0.667 0.667 Cell 2 1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0.667 0.333 0.333 0.333 0.667 0.333 0.667 0.333 0 Cell 1 2 6 4 4 4 7 3 3 4 2 4 2 4 4 Cell 2 7 0 4 3 0 5 2 3 3 11 3 9 5 0 Cell 1 1.83 5.24 3.41 3.25 3.57 3.99 1.14 1.14 2.85 1.83 3.57 1.74 3.25 3.57 Cell 2 6.71 0 3.73 2.98 0 3.79 1.57 2.22 1.99 9.88 2.67 8.2 4.35 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60% 62% 70% 65% 55% 90% 51% 67% 83% 70% 20% 71% 16% 34% Target Vectors achieved
Workers
Worker Load
Period 3
Period 2
Period 1
Table 5 Performance Measures Results PERFORMANCE MEASURES Cell Load CELL NO 1 2 TIME PERIOD PERIOD 2 PERIOD 3 51% 24% 57% 48%* M3 22% M1 35% M5 79% M4 16% M6 20% M1 43% M2 57% M4 70% 0.15 0.64 0.85 0.36 M2 M3 M5 37%* 28% 40% 0.24 0.46 0.76 0.54
1 Machine Utilization 2 Workers Flexibility Index Cross Training Needs Index 1 2 1 2
PERIOD 1 31% 60%* M1 38% M3 53% M4 15% M6 18% M2 M5 56%* 68% 0.27 1 0.73 0
* - reworked due to excessive load values
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Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Figure 4 Performance Curves of ANN - Periods 1, 2 & 3 6. Conclusions, limitations and future works A new ANN approach, a MLP-FF framework, for assigning workers into virtual cells has been proposed in this paper. This simulated ANN model has been driven by cell formation solutions of two cell configurations adapted from the literature. The results obtained through this scheme are examined, critically analyzed via performance measures, summarized and presented in this study. This attempt discovered that the predictive ANN model is able to classify workers into virtual cells successfully and further, with relevant information as input vectors, it would be able to assign workers into virtual cells for any number of time periods or every time when new cells are logically formed. However, this model, operating on data abstracted from VCMS literature, did not take the real time industrial data related to cell formation and practical implications such as job criticality and varying worker efficiencies in to consideration. Although the data collected from VCMS published literature reflect completely the real time environments, use of industry-specific data & information in terms of jobs, workers and facilities and empirical aspects applicable to local industries will help realize the full benefits of this model. Therefore, an attempt will be made in future to include the real time data collected from local industries to train ANN and apply the results for a real time manufacturing environment. On other hand, the potential improvements on proposed ANN approach are as follows: this model is currently applied to two cell configuration problems and could be extended to multi-cell configuration problems with suitable provisions for accommodating
173
the extended training and testing data. Different class of ANNs such as radial basis functions (RBF) can be applied and a comparative study on its relative performance with that of MLP-FF could be taken up for any possible improvements in the results obtained. Acknowledgements The first author would like to place his gratitude and appreciation to Executives of Caledonian College of Engineering, Oman for continual support for his research work which this present study is a part of. Also he gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Mr.D.Ragavesh, Faculty, Electronic & Computer Engineering Department, Caledonian College of Engineering, Oman, in successfully carrying out MATLAB tasks. References Askin, R. G., and Huang, Y., 2001. Forming effective worker teams for cellular manufacturing, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 39, No.11, pp. 24312451. Askin, R.G., and Huang, R. Y., 1997. Employee training and assignment for facility reconfiguration, Proc. 6th conf. on Industrial Engineering Research, Miami, FL, pp. 426-431. Bopaya Bidanda, Poonsiri Ariyawongrat, Kim LaScola Needy, Bryan A. Norman & Wipawee Tharmmaphornphilas., 2005. Human related issues in manufacturing cell design, implementation, and operation: a review and survey, Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 48, pp. 507523. Bryan, A. Norman, Wipaweetharmmaphornphilas, Kim Lascola Needy, Bopaya Bidanda and Rona Colosimo Warner., 2002. Worker assignment in cellular manufacturing considering technical and human skills, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp.1479-1492. Dagli, C. and Huggahalli, R., A neural network approach to Group Technology, in J. Wang & Y. Takefugi Ed., Neural Networks in Design and Manufacturing, (River Edge, NJ: World Scientific, 1993) 1-55. Davis, D.J., Kher, H.V. and Wagner, B.J., 2009. Influence of workload imbalances on the need for worker flexibility, Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 57, pp.319329. Fowler, J.W., Wirojanagud, P. and Gel, E.S., 2008. Heuristics for workforce planning with worker differences, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 190, pp.724740. Haykin S., Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 2nd edition, 1999. James A. Freeman and David M Skapura, Neural Networks - Algorithms, Applications and Programming Techniques, International Student Edition, Addison Wesley, 1991, ISBN: 0-201-524449. Jensen, J. B., 2000. The impact of resource flexibility and staffing decisions on cellular and departmental shop performance, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 127, pp. 279296. Jose Fernando Goncalves, and Mauricio G.C. Resende., 2004. An evolutionary algorithm for manufacturing cell formation, Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 47, pp. 247273. Kannan, V. R., & Jensen, J. B., 2004. Learning and labor assignment in a dual constrained cellular shop, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 42, No.7, pp. 14551470. Kannan, V.R. and Ghosh, S., 1996. A virtual cellular manufacturing approach to batch production, Decision Science, Vol. 27, pp. 519539. Kaparthi, S. and Suresh, N.C., 1992. Machine-component cell formation in group technology: a neural network approach, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 30, No. 6, pp. 1353-1368. MATLAB, The Language of Technical Computing, Neural Network Toolbox, The Mathworks Inc., 2007. McDonald. T., Kimberly P. Ellis., Eileen M. Van Aken., and Patrick C. Koelling, 2009. Development and application of a worker assignment model to evaluate a lean manufacturing cell, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 47, No. 9, pp. 24272447. Min, H., and Shin, D., 1993. Simultaneous formation of machine and human cells in group technology: A multiple objective approach, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 31, pp. 23072318. Murali, R.V., Prabhakaran, G., Puri, A.B. and Ragavesh, D., 2009. Worker efficiency and job criticality consideration in virtual cellular manufacturing environments, International Journal of Advanced Operations Management, Vol. 1, Nos. 2/3, pp. 203 223. Nomden, G., Slomp, J., and Suresh, N.C., 2006. Virtual manufacturing cells: a taxonomy of past research and identification of future research, International Journal of Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 17, pp.7192. Slomp, J., Chowdary, B.V. and Suresh, N.C., 2005-a. Design of virtual manufacturing cells: a mathematical programming approach, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 21, pp. 273288. Slomp. J., Jos A.C. Bokhorst, and Eric Molleman, 2005-b. Cross-training in a cellular manufacturing environment, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 48, pp. 609624.
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Sudhakara Pandian. R, and Mahapatra, S.S., 2009. Manufacturing cell formation with production data using neural networks, Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 1340-1347. Suer, G.A., 1996. Optimal operator assignment and cell loading in labor intensive manufacturing cells, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp.155158. Suer, G.A., and Ivan Snchez-Bera. 1997. Common cell size determination and cell loading in labor-intensive manufacturing cells, Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 33, No. 1-2, pp. 221-224. Suer, G.A., and Ivan Snchez-Bera., 1998. Optimal operator assignment and cell loading when lot-splitting is allowed, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol.35, No. 3-4, pp. 431-434. Suresh, N. C., and Slomp, J., 2001. A multi-objective procedure for labour assignments and grouping in capacitated cell formation problems, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 39, No. 18, pp. 4103-4131. Suresh, N.C. and Slomp, J., 2005. Performance comparison of virtual cellular manufacturing with functional and cellular layouts in DRC settings, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 945979. Thompson, G.M., and Goodale, J.C., 2006. Variable employee productivity in workforce scheduling, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 170, pp.376390. Viviana I. Cesan, and Harold J. Steude, 2005. A study of labor assignment flexibility in cellular manufacturing systems, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 48, pp. 571591. Wemmerlov, U. and Johnson, D.J., 1997. Cellular manufacturing at 46 user plants: implementation experiences and performance improvements, International Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 35, pp. 2949.
Biographical notes R. V. Murali is a Mechanical Engineering graduate working as Senior Faculty at Caledonian College of Engineering, Sultanate of Oman. He holds a master degree in Manufacturing Technology in the year 1996 from India. He is having 10 years of teaching and research experience, 2 years of software industry experience. He has 3 international journal papers, 4 international conference papers and 2 national level conference papers to his credit. He is currently pursuing his PhD programme in manufacturing engineering and his research expertise includes cellular manufacturing, virtual cellular manufacturing focusing on empirical aspects. Dr. Asit Baran Puri graduated in Mechanical Engineering in 1990 from Regional Engineering College, Durgapur, India with first class (Honours). He completed his Masters Degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1992 from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. He has obtained his Ph.D degree from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India in the year 2002. He has published 12 research papers in reputed International Journals, International and National conference proceedings as well. At present, he is Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at National Institute of Technology, Durgapur in India. Dr. G. Prabhakaran is a Senior Faculty in the Department of Mechanical Engineering & Industrial Engineering at Caledonian College of Engineering, Sultanate of Oman. He has obtained his PhD degree from Regional Engineering College, Trichy, India in the year 2002. He is having nearly 19 years of teaching/research experience and published 26 international level journal papers, 4 national level journal papers, attended 7 international level and 25 national level conferences. His research expertise includes cellular manufacturing, virtual cellular manufacturing, tolerance design and analysis in mechanical assemblies.
Received January 2010 Accepted February 2010 Final acceptance in revised form March 2010
MultiCraft
A numerical model for the design of a mixed flow cryogenic turbine

Subrata Kr. Ghosh
Department of ME & MME, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, INDIA E-mail: subratarec@yahoo.co.in
Abstract Present day cryogenic gas turbines are in more popular as they meet the growing need for low pressure cycles. This calls for improved methods of turbine wheel design. The present study is aimed at the design of the turbine wheel of mixed flow impellers with radial entry and axial discharge. In this paper, a computer code in detail has been developed for designing such turbine wheel. To determine the principal dimensions of the turbine wheel, optimum operating speed has been taken from design charts based on Similarity principles. The algorithm developed, allows any arbitrary combination of fluid properties, inlet conditions and expansion ratio, since the fluid properties are properly taken care of in the relevant equations. The computational process is illustrated with an example. The main dimensions, thermodynamic properties at different states, velocity and angles at entry and exit of the turbine wheel were worked out. The work may help the researchers for further design and development of cryogenic turboexpander depending on their operating parameters. Keywords: Cryogenic, turboexpander, mixed flow turbine, flow angle, flow velocity 1. Introduction Compressor, heat exchanger, expansion turbine, and vacuum vessel are the main components to establish any cryogenic liquid plant. To establish the set up, different companies are indigenously available in India for compressor, heat exchanger and vacuum vessel. But the turboexpander is not readily available in market. As the technology is not yet developed indigenously, we are forced to import the whole liquid plant. A simple method sufficient for the design of a high efficiency expansion turbine is outlined by Kun (1987) and Kun et al. (1985). A study was initiated in 1979 to survey operating plants and generates the cost factors relating to turbine by Kun & Sentz (1985). They are also sometimes referred to as design parameters, since the shape dictates the type of design to be selected. Corresponding approximately to the optimum efficiency a cryogenic expander may be designed with selected specific speed and specific diameter. Sixsmith et al. (1988) in collaboration with Goddard Space Flight Centre of NASA, developed miniature turbines for Brayton Cycle cryocoolers. Another programme at IIT Kharagpur developed a turboexpander unit by using aerostatic thrust and journal bearings which had a working speed up to 80,000 rpm. The detailed summary of technical features of the cryogenic turboexpander developed in various laboratories has been given in the PhD dissertation of Ghosh (2002). The detailed design parameters for a 90 inward radial flow turbine is shown in the PhD dissertation of Ghosh. Bruce (Bruce, 1998) described the aerodynamic and structural analysis for the complete design of turbo-machinery rotor. The major elements of the turboexpander are briefly discussed in the paper published by Ghosh et al. (2005). Baines (2002) has shown that mixed flow turbine concepts can achieve stage loadings that are about 20% greater than those of a conventional radial turbine, without any increase in blade speed and maintaining structural integrity. Descombes (2003) has high-lighted the variability of the local distribution of velocities and pressures within the rotor and gives a real image of energy transformation for nearly ideal zero incidence conditions at the rotor inlet. Abidat (2006) has taken care in the design of the volute essential component of a radial and mixed flow turbines and interest was focused on the influence of the volute inlet flow conditions on its performance. A method of computing blade profiles has been worked out by Hasselgruber (1958), which has been employed by Kun & Sentz (1985) and by Balje (1970, 1981). Effect of some of the turbine operating and design parameters on the flow path and its curvature have been analyzed and presented by Ghosh et al. (2009). The computational procedure developed describes the three-dimensional contours of the blades for the turbine wheel.
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Ghosh / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.1, 2010, pp. 175-191
2. Fluid parameters and layout of components The fluid specifications have been dictated by the requirements of a small refrigerator producing less than 1 KW of refrigeration. Turbine efficiency of 75% has been assumed following the experience of the workers (Beasley et al., 1965; Yang et al., 1990; Denton, 1996; Jekat, 1957). The inlet temperature has been specified rather arbitrarily, chosen in such a way that even with ideal (isentropic) expansion; the exit state should not fall in the two-phase region. The basic input parameters for the system are given in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the longitudinal section of a typical cryogenic turboexpander displaying the layout of the components within the system. The major components of the turboexpander are shown in Table 2. Table 1: Basic input parameters for the cryogenic expansion turbine system Working fluid : Nitrogen Discharge pressure : 1.5 bar Turbine inlet temperature Turbine inlet pressure : 122 K : 6.0 bar Throughput Expected efficiency : 67.5 nm3/hr : 75%
Turbine wheel Brake compressor
Table 2: Basic unit of a turboexpander assembly Nozzle Diffuser Shaft Journal bearings Thrust bearings Housing
Figure 1: Longitudinal section of the expansion turbine displaying the layout of the components 3. Design of turbine wheel The design of turbine wheel has been done following the method outlined by Balje (1981) and Kun & Sentz (1985), which are based on the well known similarity principles. The similarity laws state that for given Reynolds number, Mach number and Specific heat ratio of the working fluid, to achieve optimized geometry for maximum efficiency, two dimensionless parameters: specific speed and specific diameter uniquely determine the major dimensions of the wheel and its inlet and exit velocity triangles. Specific speed ( n s ) and specific diameter ( d s ) are defined as: Specific speed
ns =
Q3
(hin3s ) 4
D2 (hin 3s ) 4 Q3
1
(1)
Specific diameter
ds =
(2)
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In the definition of n s and d s the volumetric flow rate Q3 is that at the exit of the turbine wheel. Kun and Sentz (1985), however suggest two empirical factors k1 and k 2 for evaluating Q3 and h3s , which define n s and d s .
Q3 = k1Qex and 3 = ex / k1
hin 3s = k 2 (h0in hexs )
(3) (4) (5)
The factors k1 and k 2 account for the difference between the states 3 and ex caused by pressure recovery and consequent rise in temperature and density in the diffuser as shown in Figure 2. Following the suggestion of Kun and Sentz (1985), k 2 value is 1.03 . The factor k1 represents the ratio Q3 / Qex , which is also equal to ex / 3 . The value of Qex and ex are known at this stage, where as Q3 and 3 are unknown. By taking a guess value of k1 , the volume flow rate ( Q3 ) and the density ( 3 ) at the exit condition of the turbine wheel can be calculated from equations (3) and (4) respectively. If the guess value is correct, then Q3 and 3 should give a turbine exit velocity C3 that satisfies the velocity triangle as described in equation (13); otherwise the iteration process is repeated with a new guess value of k1 . The value of Q3 determines turbine exit velocity uniquely. The thermodynamic relations for reversible isentropic flow in the diffuser are,
h03 = h0ex , s 3 = s ex and C2 h3 = h03 3 2
Figure 2: State points of turboexpander Using the property tables, the value of 3 can be estimated from s 3 and h3 . When the difference between the calculated and initial values of 3 is within the prescribed limit, the iteration is converges. Since the change in entropy in the diffuser is small compared to the total entropy change, assumption of isentropic flow will lead to very little error. The estimation k1 does not deviate appreciably, if the expansion of fluid from in to ex is non-isentropic. With this assumption, the value of k1 is estimated to be 1.11, starting with the initial guess value of 1.02. A flow chart for determining the value of k1 is described in the Figure 9. For estimating the thermodynamic properties at different states along the flow passage, the software package ALLPROPS 4.2 available from the University of Idaho, Moscow (Lemmon et al., 1995) is used. Table 3 represents the thermodynamic states at the inlet of the nozzle and the exit of the diffuser according to input specifications. The exit state has two different columns, one is isentropic expansion and other is with isentropic efficiency of 75%. Using data from Table 3,
m tr
.
Qex =
3 =
ex ex 5.86
k1 = 1.11
23.26 10 3 = 3.97 10 3 m3/s 5.86 = 5.27 kg/m3
(6)
Q3 = k1Qex = 4.42 10 3 m3/s
178
hin3s = k 2 h0,in hex,s = 1.03 38.7 10 3 = 39861 J/kg
From Balje (1981) the peak efficiency of a radial inflow turbine corresponds to the values of:
n s = 0.54 and d s = 3.4
(7)
Substituting these values in equations (1) and (2) respectively, yields Rotational speed = 22910 rad/s = 2,18,775 r/min, Wheel diameter D2 = 16.0 mm .
& & Power produced P = m(h 0in h ex ) = m(h 0in h exs ) = 0.9 KW Tip speed U 2 = D2 / 2 = 183.28 m/s
(8)
Spouting velocity
C 0 = 2h in exs = 278.20 m/s and

U2 = 0.66 C0
(9)
Velocity ratio
in a radial inflow turbine generally remains within 0.66 and C0 0.70. The ratio of exit tip diameter to inlet diameter should be limited to a maximum value of 0.70 (Dixon, 1978; Rohlik, 1968) to avoid excessive shroud curvature. Corresponding to the peak efficiency point (Kun and Sentz, 1985):
According to Whitfield and Baines (1990), the velocity ratio U 2
= D tip D 2 = 0.676
Dtip = 10.8 mm
(10)
Pressure (bar) Temperature (K) Density (kg/m3) Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kg.K)
Table 3: Thermodynamic states at inlet and exit of prototype turbine Actual exit state (ex) Inlet isentropic exit state (ex,s) 6 1.50 1.50 122 81.72 89.93 17.78 6.55 5.86 119.14 80.44 90.11 5.339 5.339 5.452
Balje (1981) prescribes values for the hub ratio = Dhub / Dtip against n s and d s for axial flow turbines, but makes no specific recommendation for radial flow machines. In axial flow and large radial flow turbines, a small hub ratio would lead to large blade height, with associated machining difficulties and vibration problems. But in a small radial flow machine, a lower hub ratio can be adopted without any serious difficulty and with the benefit of a larger cross section and lower fluid velocity. According to Rohlik (1968), the exit hub to tip diameter ratio should maintained above a value of 0.4 to avoid excessive hub blade blockage and energy loss. Kun and Sentz (1985) have taken a hub ratio of 0.35 citing mechanical considerations.
= Dhub / Dtip = .425

Dhub = 4.6 mm
(11)
There are different approaches for choosing the number of blades, the most common method is based on the concept of slip, as applied to centrifugal compressors (Rohlik, 1968; Stewart and Glassman, 1973; Jadeja et al., 1985). Denton (1996) has given same guidance on the choice of number of blades by ensuring that the flow is not stagnant on the pressure surface. For small turbines, the hub circumference at exit and diameter of milling cutters available determine the number of blades. In this design the number of blades (Ztr) are chosen to be 10, and the thickness of the blades to be 0.6 mm throughout. From geometrical considerations:
A3 =
(D 4
tip
Dhub 2
Z tr t tr Dtip Dhub 2 sin mean
(12)
179
Z tr t tr Dtip Dhub Q3 = A3C3 = C3 Dtip 2 Dhub 2 2 sin mean 4 Z tr t tr Dtip Dhub Q3 = C 3 Dtip 2 Dhub 2 W3 4 2
(13.a) (13.b)
Direction of rotation
U2
r
W3
C2
W2
C3 U3
(a) Inlet velocity triangle in the r- plane (b) Exit velocity triangle in the -z plane. Figure 3: Inlet and exit velocity triangles of the turbine wheel From the velocity triangle in Figure 3
tan mean = C3 U 3,mean = 4C3 Dtip + Dhub
(14)
For a given value of Q3 as given by equation (6), equations (13) and (14) are solved simultaneously for exhaust velocity C 3 and mean relative velocity angle mean , giving:
U 3mean = 88.2 m / s C3 = 90.1 m / s
(15)
mean = 45.6
In summary, the major dimensions for our prototype turbine have been computed as follows: Rotational speed: N Wheel diameter: D 2 Eye tip diameter: Eye hub diameter: Number of blades: Thickness of blades
4. Design of diffuser
= 22910 rad/s = 218,775 rpm = 16.0 mm
Dtip = 10.8 mm Dhub = 4.6 mm Z tr = 10 t tr = 0.6 mm
(16)
For the purpose of design, the diffuser can be seen as an assembly of three separate sections operating in series a converging section or shroud, a short parallel section and finally the diverging section. The converging portion of the diffuser acts as a casing to the turbine. The straight portion of the diffuser helps in reducing the non-uniformity of flow, and in the diverging section, the pressure recovery takes place. The geometrical specifications of the diffuser have chosen somewhat arbitrarily. Diameter of diffuser inlet is equal to diameter of the turbine inlet. Diameter of throat of diffuser is dependent on the shroud clearance. The recommended clearance is 2% of the exit
180
radius, which is approximately 0.2 mm for wheel. The differential contraction between the wheel and the diffuser at low temperature usually acts to enhance this clearance. The profile of the convergent section has been obtained by offsetting the turbine tip profile by 0.2 mm radially. For diameter of diffuser exhaust, Balje (1981) suggested exit velocity of the diffuser should be maintained near about 20 m/s with a half cone angle of 5.50. Again by following Ino et al. (1992), the best suited diffusing diameter length is 5 to 6 degree which minimizes the loss in pressure recovery and the aspect ratio = angle = tan 1 of 2 length diameter 1.4 to 3.3. With the above recommended suggestions, the dimensions are selected as, Diameter of diffuser inlet, DinD = 16.5 mm. Diameter of throat of diffuser, DthD = 11.0 mm. Diameter of diffuser exhaust, DexD = 19.0 mm. Half cone angle = 5.00 giving: Cross sectional area at throat, AthD = 95.0 mm2 Discharge cross sectional area, AthD = 283.5 mm2 = 45.72 mm Length of the diverging section LdD
D
inD
thD
D L
exD
cD
dD
Figure 4:
Diffuser nomenclatures
In order to assess the validity of the above dimensions of the diffuser, the Figure 5 is reproduced from Balje (1981). From the figure, in the divergent section, the length to throat radius ratio of 8.31 and exit area to throat area ratio 2.98 give a stable operation of recovery factor of 0.7. This confirms the design of the diffuser.
Figure 5: Performance diagram for diffusers (reproduced from Balje (1981)) Thermodynamic state at wheel discharge (state 3)
At the exit of the diffuser,

Qex = 3.97 10 3 m 3 s
and
Aex = 0.2835 10 3 m 2
Therefore, exit velocity

C ex =
Qex 3.97 10 3 = = 14.0 m s Aex 0.2835 10 3
(17)
181
This velocity is below 20 m/s as suggested by Balje (1981). Exit stagnation enthalpy:
2
h0ex = hex +
C ex 2
= 90.11 +
14 2 2 10 3
= 90.20 kJ kg
(18)
Exit stagnation pressure:
p 0ex = p +
= 1.5 +
1 ex C 2 ex p (as velocity C ex is small) 2

1 14 2 5.86 = 1.505 bar. 2 10 5
(19)
Neglecting losses in the diffuser, the stagnation enthalpy at turbine exit,

h03 = h0ex = 90.20 kJ kg ,
(20)
From the stagnation enthalpy, h03 , and stagnation pressure p 0 ex , the entropy s 3 is estimated (Lemmon et al., 1995) as
s3 = 5.452 kJ kg.K
and static enthalpy:
C 2 90.12 h3 = h03 3 = 90.20 = 86.15 kJ kg 2 2 1000
(21)
From static enthalpy, h3 = 86.15 kJ kg and s3 = 5.452 kJ kg.K , the density 3 calculated (Lemmon et al., 1995) as 3 = 5.26 kg/m3. The choice of k 1= 1.11 is justified by comparing this density value with equations 6. Therefore, the state point 3 is now fully described which can lead to the construction of velocity triangle of the turbine. Tip circumferential velocity
U 3tip =
Dtip
2
= 22910
10.8 = 123.7 m s 2 1000
(22)
Relative velocity at eye tip
W3tip = U 3tip + C 3
Highest Mach Number
123.7 2 + 90.12 = 153.0 m s
(23)
W3tip C s3
153.0 = 0.83 < 1 184.4 C3 90.1 = tan 1 = 36.0 o W3tip 123.7
(24)
3tip = tan 1
(25)
Where C s 3 is the velocity of sound for the corresponding state point as shown in Table 4. Similar figures for the eye hub at exit is estimated as
U 3hub = 52.7 m s W3hub = 104.4 m s , and 3hub = 59.7 o .
182
The velocity triangles at the hub, the tip and the mean radius of the eye have been shown in Figure 6. It may be noted that there are two components of velocity, U 2 and W2 acting on the turbine wheel.
Table 4: Thermodynamic properties at state point 3 Stagnation value Static value Velocity (m/s) 0 90.1 Pressure (bar) 1.505 1.29 Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 90.20 86.15 Entropy (kJ/kg.K) 5.452 5.452 Temperature (K) 90.02 85.96 Density (kg/m3) 5.89 5.26 Velocity of sound (m/s) 188.87 184.4 Viscosity (Pa.s) 6.13 x 10-6 5.90 x 10-6
Thermodynamic state at wheel inlet (state 2)
For computing the thermodynamic properties at wheel inlet (state 2), the efficiency of the expansion process till state 2 is assumed. Although in high-pressure ratio ( 10) expansion, the nozzle efficiency n is clearly described by Ino et al. (1992). Sixsmith (1971) has observed that the nozzle efficiency needs to be between 0.9 and 0.95. Following Kun and Sentz (1985), nozzle efficiency n = 0.93 is assumed. Another important parameter is the ratio of inlet to exit meridional velocities
C m 2 C m3 . Balje (1970) suggests values between 1.0 to 1.25 for this parameter. Following Kun and Sentz (1985), this ratio is
assumed to be 1.0, leading to C m2 = C m3 = C 3 = 90.1 m s .
U2=183.28 26.17 C2=204.3 W2=Cm2=Cm3=C3 =90.1 U3,hub 52.7 59.7 u3,mean u3,tip 88.2 123.7 45.6 36.0 W3,tip=153.0 W3,mean=126.08 W3,hub=104.4
(26)
Figure 6: Velocity diagrams for expansion turbine (All velocities are in units of m/s) The third important assumption relates the gas angle at inlet of the rotor to the corresponding blade angle. Although a negative incidence between 10o and 20o has been recommended by authors (Whitfield et al., 1990; Rohlik et al., 1968), in our design radial blades have been adopted to ensure smooth incidence (Kun et al., 1985). Thus
W2 = C m 2 = 90.1 m / s
(27)
Then the absolute velocity at inlet:

2 C 2 = U 2 + W22 = 183.28 2 + 90.12 = 204.3 m/s
(28)
The incidence angle:

2 = tan 1 W2 90.1 = tan = 26.17 o U2 183.28
(29)
The efficiency of the nozzle along with the vaneless space is defined as
183
hin h2 hin h2 s
n =
Since h01 = h0in = hin = 119.14 kJ/kgK as input parameter, enthalpy at the exit of turbine wheel:
h2 = h01 h2 s = hin C2 2 204.3 2 = 119.14 = 98.27 kJ kg 2 2 1000
(30)
Thus
hin h2 = 96.7 kJ kg n The input parameter for entropy is expressed as: s in = s1 = s 2s = 5.339 kJ kg.K
(31)
(32)
Using property data (Lemmon et al., 1995), the corresponding pressure is calculated from h2 s and s 2 s as:
p 2 s = p 2 = 2.9 bar
From the values of
p 2 and h2 , the other properties at the point 2 is calculated (Lemmon et al., 1995) as:
T2 = 99.65 K , 2 = 10.42 kj / m 3 and s 2 = 5.352 kj / kg.K
Corresponding to these thermodynamic conditions: velocity of sound C s 2 = 196.85 m/s, specific heat C p = 1.140 kJ/kgK and viscosity 2 = 6.88 10 6 pa.s From continuity equation, the blade height at entrance to the wheel is computed as:
mtr 23.26 10 3 10 6 = mm = 0.56 mm b2 = ( 16 10 0.6) 10.42 90.1 (D2 Z tr t tr ) 2 C m 2
.
(33)
5. Design of the nozzle
An important forcing mechanism leading to fatigue of the wheel is the nozzle excitation frequency. As the wheel blades pass under the jets emanating from the stationary nozzles, there is periodic excitation of the wheel. This periodic excitation is proportional to the speed and the number of nozzle blades (Kun, 1987). The number of nozzle blades is normally dictated by mechanical design consideration, particularly to ensure that nozzle discharge does not excite natural frequency of the impeller (Kun and Sentz, 1985). The purpose of the nozzle cascade is to assure that the flow should be incident on the wheel at correct angle to avoid incidence loss. Kun and Sentz (1985) selected the nozzle cascade height somewhat smaller than the tip width in order to leave some margin for expansion in the annular space around the wheel and to accommodate axial misalignment. This recommendation, although conforming to common design practice, is too restrictive in case of small turbines. Figure 7 shows the nozzle ring bringing out the major dimensions of the passages and the vanes. The design of the blading system offered no real problem as long as the pressure ratio across the turbine is not more than critical pressure ratio and as long as the temperature drop efficiency demanded does not exceed about 80% (Von Der Nuell, 1952).
Thermodynamic state at the throat and vaneless space The proposed system uses convergent type of nozzles giving subsonic flow at nozzle exit. Referring to Figure 7 the nozzle throat circle diameter is the outer boundary of the vaneless space while the wheel diameter is the inner circle. If Dt is nozzle throat circle diameter and C mt the meridional component of the nozzle throat velocity, the mass balance equation yields,
C mt =
& m 23.26 10 3 10 6 = Dt b1 t Dt 0.5 t
(34)
184
Where b1 is the height of the passage, assumed to be 0.5 mm. The velocity at exit of the throat consists of two components, C mt and Ct . The meridional component is perpendicular to the nozzle throat circle diameter, which determines the mass flow rate whereas the Ct other component is tangential to the throat.
Wt
Dn
Dt
D2
Vaneless Space
Figure 7: Major dimensions of the nozzle and nozzle vane.
Following Kun and Sentz (1985), Dt = 1.08 D2 = 17.28 mm , leading to (35) t Similar to the presence of two velocity components at the throat circle diameter, there are two velocity components at the entry of the turbine wheel as shown in Figure 3. From conservation of angular momentum in free vortex flow over the vaneless space,
Ct = U 2 D 2 183.28 = = 169.70 m / s 1.08 Dt C 2 2 Ct 2 2 2 C mt =
856.93
(36)
Thus,
ht = h2 +
Since C t consists of two velocity components perpendicular to each other,

ht = h2 +
2 C 2 2 C mt 2 Ct 2 169.70 2 C mt 367.16 10 3 = 119.14 10 3 J kg =104.74 10 3 2 2 2 2 2 t2
(37)
The relation between ht and t given by equation (37) and the entropy conservation relation given below (Lemmon et al., 1995) uniquely determines enthalpy and density at that throat. Assuming isentropic expansion in the vaneless space, st = s1 = s 2 = 5.352 kJ / kgK Solving the above equations,
ht = 101.93 KJ / kg and t = 11.45 kg / m 3
Using Ref. (Lemmon et al., 1995), the other properties at that throat are found to be pt = 3.30 bar ; Tt = 103.5 K ; and C st = 200.58 m/s And the velocities are obtained from equations (35) and (36) as Ct = 185.47 m / s; C mt = 74.84 m / s; and Ct = 169.7 m / s , and C M t = t = 0.92 Mach number: C st This leads to subsonic operation with no loss energy on account of aerodynamic shocks.
185
Sizing of the nozzle vanes To compute the dimensions of the throat, Kun & Sentz (1985) used the conservation of momentum & continuity of flow to get the correct throat angle for finite trailing edge thickness. Aerodynamically, it is desirable to make the trailing edge as thin as mechanical design consideration will allow. Using the Continuity Equation and the density at the throat, the throat width wt and the throat angle t are calculated as follows.
For m tr = m = 23.26 10 3 kg/s and b1 = bt

mtr 23.26 10 3 10 6 Wt = = = 1.46 mm Z n bt t C t 15 0.5 11.45 185.47
.
(38)
t = tan 1 mt = 23.8 o C t
(39)
It may be noted that throat inlet angle is different from the turbine blade inlet angle and the discrepancy is due to the drifting of fluid in the vaneless space. The initial guess value of Dt is checked from the conservation of angular momentum over the vaneless space,
Dt = U 2 D2 = 17.28 mm Ct
(40)
which matches to the initial value of 17.28 mm. The blade pitch length, p n is estimated as,
p n = Dt Z n = 3.62 mm . t is the angle between the perpendicular to the throat width wt and the tangent to the throat circle diameter. From Figure 7, the diameter of the cascade discharge (the inner diameter of the nozzle ring) is calculated as,
Dn = Dt 2 + wt 2 2 wt Dt Cos t where t is angle between Dt and wt .
= 26.82 mm
(41)
Figure 8: Cascade notation
In cascade theory, blade loading and cascade solidity are defined as: Vu Ch u = = cot t cot 0 n = n C mn S u u and cot 0 = cot + From cascade notation, cot t = cot 2 2
186
The separation limit, in an approximate way, is expressed by a minimum required solidity. Its value is found from the aerodynamic load coefficient z defined as the ratio of actual tangential force to ideal tangential force, also known as Zweifel number. The optimum value for the aerodynamic load coefficient is about 0.9. Thus the chord length of nozzle can be found from the equation of solidity and expressed as
Chn = 2 s(cot t cot 0 )sin 2 t = z sin s 2 u S
2 u z 1 + cot + sin s 2
(42)
Where S = tangential vane spacing = Dn Z n = 4.95 mm.
= cascade angle or mean vector angle = cot 1

s = stagger angle = + m
cot t + cot 0 2
Following Balje (1981), 0 is taken as 78 and also gives m as a function of = ( 0 t ) for various values of , yields
m = -4, leading to: u = 2.75 , = 34.2 , s = 28.2 and Chn = 6.58 mm.
6. Conclusions
A numerical model of the cryogenic turbine wheel has been developed covering hub and tip to study the design and operating parameters on the size of the blade. In addition, the flow chart will play a significant role to find state properties and dimension of cryogenic turboexpander. By using this method the designer is able to get a better feel for the turbine wheel during the design process, he spends less time on mundane data preparation, and he has more freedom to make full use of this creativity to design a better machine. Based on this design, development and experimental work is needed to get the better design and characterize the operation of the devices at higher speeds, including stability, load capacity and heat dissipation. The paper presents an updated literature review on almost all aspects of design of cryogenic turbine, and may serve as a ready reference for future work.
Nomenclature b blade height (mm) C absolute velocity (m/s) Cn chord length of nozzle (mm) specific diameter ds D diameter (mm) h enthalpy (J / kg) M mach number
m
ns N p P Q T t U W w z
mass flow rate (Kg/s) specific speed rotational speed (rev/ min) pressure (bar) power produced (Kw) volumetric flow rate (m3 / s) temperature (K) thickness of blades (mm) circumferential velocity (m/s) relative velocity (m/s) width of flow passage (mm) number of blades
Greek symbols rotational speed (rad/s) ratio of hub diameter to tip diameter ratio of tip diameter to turbine wheel diameter isentropic efficiency (dimensionless) relative velocity angle density of gas (m3/kg) Subscripts 0 stagnation condition 1 inlet to nozzle 2 inlet to turbine wheel 3 inlet to the diffuser (exit to wheel) ex discharge from diffuser hub hub of turbine wheel tip tip of turbine wheel m meridional component s isentropic condition tr turbine wheel n nozzle t throat
187
Start
Input
T0,in ; p 0,in ; p ex ; m; T st
.
and working fluid
Compute thermodynamic properties in ; hin ; s in at the inlet and ex ; hex ; s ex ; Tex at the exit state of the turboexpander by using input data and property chart
A Assume the initial value of k1 and k 2
Compute Q3 , 3 and hin 3s from equations (6) and (4)
Compute n s and d s from Balje (1981)
Compute and Dtr from equations (1) & (2)
Compute Dtip and D hub from equations (10) & (11)
Compute
mean and C m3
from equations (13) & (14)
In summary, the major dimensions for turbine have been computed as follows in equations (16)
188
By following Balje (1981) diameters and half cone angle of diffuser are determined.
Compute velocity of working fluid at exit of diffuser C ex (equations 17) by using geometry of the diffuser
Compute thermodynamic properties h0 ex , p 0 ex (equations 18 & 19) at the exit state of the turboexpander by using C ex
Neglecting losses the stagnation thermodynamic properties at exit of turbine wheel is taking as same as the exit state of the turboexpander (equation 20).
By using C 3 compute thermodynamic properties h3 from stagnation condition (equation 21) and s 3 = s 03
By knowing s 3 and h3 compute 3 from property chart
Is this 3 and initial 3 (in equation 4) is same
No
Yes Compute static and stagnation thermodynamic properties (Table 3) at state 3 of the turboexpander and compute velocity diagram at the exit of the turbine wheel
189
Following Kun & Sentz (1985) compute C m 2 by using equations (26)
By adopting radial blades compute W2 by using equations 27
Compute U 2 , C 2 and h2 at turbine wheel by using equations (9), (28) and (30) respectively.
By taking isentropic conditions compute h2 ad and s 2 at turbine wheel by using equations (31) and (32) respectively
By using h2 ad and s 2 , compute pressure p 2 at the inlet of turbine wheel from property chart.
By using h2 and p 2 , compute thermodynamic properties at the inlet of turbine from property chart.
By using continuity equations compute blade height at the inlet of turbine wheel from equation (33).
190
Following Kun & Sentz (1985), the number of nozzle blades is 15 and thickness is 0.5 mm has been taken.
Following Kun & Sentz (1985), the throat diameter can be found out as the ratio of turbine wheel diameter.
By using continuity equations, compute C mt in terms of t from equation (35).
By using conservation of angular momentum, compute C t from equation (36).
By using conservation of energy, compute the enthalpy at the throat ht from equation (37) in terms of t
By solving the equation (37) and taking isentropic process in vaneless space, compute thermodynamic properties at the throat of the nozzle from property chart.
Compute wt , D t , D n and C n at nozzle by using equations (38), (40), (41) and (42) respectively.
E
Figure 9: Flow chart for calculation of state properties and dimension of cryogenic turboexpander References
Abidat M., Hamidou M.K., Hachemi M. and Hamel M., 2006. Design and flow analysis of radial and mixed flow turbine volutes, European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics, ECCOMAS CFD Egmond Aan Zee, The Netherlands. Baines, N. 2002. Radial and mixed flow turbine options for high boost turbochargers, 7th international conference on Turbochargers and Turbocharging, London, pp. 35-44. Balje, O. E. 1981. Turbomachines, John Wiley and Sons, London. Balje, O. E. 1970. Loss and flow path studies on centrifugal compressors, Part-II Trans ASME J Eng Power, No-70, pp. 275-299. Beasley, S. A. and Halford, P. 1965. Development of a high purity nitrogen plant using expansion turbine with gas bearing, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, V10B, pp. 27-39.
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Bruce, G. J. 1998. Computer-aided turbomachinery design system, I Mech E Conference on Turbochargers, I Mech E Publications, London, C554/026/98, pp. 3-22. Denton, J. D. 1996. The turboexpander - a design, make and test student project ASME-96-GT- 191. Descombes G., Maroteaux F., Moreno N., Jullien J. 2003. Analysis of energy conversion within a radial turbine stage, Int. J. Thermodynamics, Vol.6, No.1, pp.41-48. Dixon, S. L. 1978. Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery (3rd ed) Pergamon Press, London. Ghosh, S. K., Seshaiah, N., Sahoo. R. K., Sarangi. S. K. 2005. Design of turboexpander for cryogenic applications, Indian J. Cryogenics, Special Issue Vol-2, pp. 75-81. Ghosh, S. K., Sahoo. R. K., Sarangi. S. K. 2009. A computational approach to the design of a cryogenic turbine blade profile, International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 43-60. Ghosh, P. 2002. Analytical and Experimental Studies on Cryogenic Turboexpanders Ph.D dissertation, IIT Kharagpur Hasselgruber, H. 1958, Stromungsgerechte gestaltung der laufrader von radialkompressoren mit axialem laufradeintrict Konstruction, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 22 (in German) Ino, N., Machida, A. and Ttsugawa, K. 1992. Development of high expansion ratio He turboexpander, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, V37B, pp. 835-844. Jekat, W. K. 1957. An impulse type expansion turbine, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, V2, 250-260. Jadeja, H. T., Mitter, A. and Chakrabarty, H. D. 1985. Turboexpander application for cryoprocessing of nitrogen and related gases Proceedings of inconcryo, 85 Indian Cryogenic Council, Tata McGraw, pp. 85-101. Kun, L .C. and Sentz, R. N. 1985. High efficiency expansion turbines in air separation and liquefaction plants, International Conference on Production and Purification of Coal Gas & Separation of Air, Beijing, China, pp. 1-21 Kun, L. C. 1987. Expansion turbines and refrigeration for gas separation and liquefaction, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, V33, pp. 963-973. Lemmon, E. W., Jacobsen, R. T., Penoncello, S. G. and Beyerlein, S. W., 1995. ALLPROPS 4.2 Computer programs for calculating thermodynamic properties of fluids of engineering interest, Centre for Applied Thermodynamic Studies, University of Idaho Rohlik, Harold E. 1968. Analytical determination of radial inflow turbine geometry for maximum efficiency NASA TN D-4384. Sixsmith, H. 1971. Miniature expansion turbines, C A Bailey (Ed), Advanced Cryogenics Plenum Press, London pp. 225-243. Sixsmith, H., Valenjuela, J. and Swift, W. L. 1988, Small Turbo-Brayton cryocoolers Advances in Cryogenic Engineering , V34, 827-836 Stewart, W.L. and Glassman, A. J. 1973. Turbine Design and Application, NASA SP-290, London, Vol. 2, pp. 1-25. Von Der Nuell , W. T. 1952. Single-stage radial turbine for gaseous substances with high rotative and low specific speed, Trans ASME, V74, pp. 499-515. Whitfield, A. and Baines, N. C. 1990. Design of Radial Turbomachines, Longman Scientific & Technical, NewYork. Yang, K. J., He, H. B., Ke, G. and Li, G. Y. 1990. Application and test of miniature gas bearing turbines, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, V35, pp. 997-1003.
Biographical notes Dr. Subrata Kumar Ghosh is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering & Mining Machinery Engineering at ISM, Dhanbad, India. Before joining at ISM He was Lecturer at BIT, Mesra. His research has focused on Thermal Engineering. He is the author and coauthor of over 8 articles, which have appeared in journals such as Applied Thermal Engineering, Indian Journal of Cryogenics, and several seminars.
Received December 2009 Accepted January 2010 Final acceptance in revised form March 2010
MultiCraft
Extending the technological capability of turning operation

Tareq A. Abu Shreehah
Tafila Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, P. O. Box: 3588, Amman 11953, JORDAN E-mail: tarek_shreehah@yahoo.com
Abstract The main goal of this paper is to compensate the elastic deformations of the technological system in order to achieve maximum cross sectional accuracy and productivity of turning operation with minimum cost. This study was based on developing of mechanical adaptive system (MAS) for accuracy control by dynamic adjustment of the tool position during processing. The dynamic characteristic of components of the engine lathe technological system supplied with the proposed MAS was studied, and a mathematical model was obtained and presented as a system with one degree of freedom in the direction of Z-axis. The stable zones of operating were defined using Leonarion graphic method. The optimal cutting parameters correspond to stationary positions of equilibrium were obtained when processing heat resistant steel under the following conditions: feed rate, S, ranges from 0.07 to 0.39 mm/rev; depth of cut, t, ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 mm; and turning speed, , ranges from 0.55 to 1.45 m/sec. Experimental examination of the proposed system showed that the use of adaptive control may overcome the error appeared due to the elastic deformation of the technological system. The maximum circularity deviation of the processed, using the developed MAS, cylindrical surfaces did not exceed 40 microns, whereas 98 microns of maximum deviation was reached using usual cutter. The developed MAS can, in number of cases, replace the cylindrical external grinding processing by usual cutting on lathe machine tools, providing thus the rigid requirements on dimensional and form accuracy in cross sections. Keywords: Control systems, cross sectional accuracy, mechanical adaptive, productivity, turning 1. Introduction Metal cutting process or machining represents a general-purpose technique for machine parts and mechanisms. At present, the share of metal cutting in the engineering industries constitutes about 35 percent of all manufacturing processes and therefore, its influence is of prime importance in the rate of development of mechanical engineering (Arshinov and Alekseev, 1976, Abu Shreehah, 2002). Automation of the cutting processes is the turnpike in the direction of development in machine building technology. An introduction, on the basis of automation, of humanless technology in metal working and assembly processes especially in establishment of flexible production systems put forth the problem of automatic conforming the manufactured product quality. It is not possible to solve this problem without the presence of reliable systems of quality control which automatically permit to obtain the required accuracy parameters of processed parts. The flexible production modules, which are the foundation of flexible production systems, consist of CNC machine tool, industrial robot and a series of other systems (transport, directing or controlling, instrumental, etc.). The human exclusion from the participation in parts manufacturing calls to equip the robotic modules with automatic systems of quality control. Recently, more attention is given to turning modules as one of the first robotic modules. This may be described by the significance of extending the technological capability of the operation. It is well known that in all metal cutting processes, including turning, deviations in dimensions, surface profile and orientation of the machined parts may occur. These errors lead to low durability and reliability of the parts and articles. Moreover, these deviations bear accidental character, because they appear under the influence of various accidental factors such as tool wear, thermal and elastic deformations of technological system consisting of machine-fixture-tool-workpiece (Abu Shreehah, 2002a).
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Abu Shreehah / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 192-201
Several methods are used to decrease the effect of the different factors that generate the deviations in the turned parts and reduce the operation productivity. These methods are the processing at lower cutting conditions to reduce the cutting forces and its variation and hence the elastic and thermal deformations of the technological systems will be reduced; the turning in several passes; the stabilization of the thermal deformations of the technological systems; the storing of the workpieces in groups to decrease the effect of variation in machining allowance and parts hardness; the improving of the accuracy and rigidity of the technological system; etc. Theses methods are based on reduction the processing errors at the expense of missing the productivity and increasing the manufacturing cost. Other methods are accuracy improvement by compensating for the error through control technology. Via the methods of control technology, the inherent error in machine tools is minimized by making use of available sensing, actuation and computer control techniques. Many studies have been carried out to improve the accuracy of machining by using such methods. For instance, Zhan-Qiang (1999) used a repetitive error measurement and compensation scheme to improve the workpiece diameter accuracy for CNC turning. The scheme entailed an on-machine measurement and error compensation technology between machining processes. The workpiece diameters were measured along the workpiece length by using a fine touch sensor and then were modified in the compensation program for implementation of next pass error correction. It is obvious that the proposed scheme is not applicable when the cutting operation is consisting of one cutting pass. Analyses of works and researches (Abu Shreehah, 2002b; Balakshin, 1973; Skragan, Joukov and Kadirov, 1984) show that at the incomplete initial data on the course of cutting process, the means of adaptive control are considered a suitable method of effective management of cutting process for the purpose of achievement the maximum quality and productivity with minimum cost. Several hydraulic, electrical, optical and other systems were used as early as the beginning of the second half of the 20 century (Abu Shreehah, 2002b). An adaptive control (AC) system was described for turning on a lathe by Oren Masorya et al. (1980). In this system, a programmed cutting force was compared with the actual cutting force; the difference provides correction to the feed. It was demonstrated that the effective AC loop gain depends on both depth-of-cut and spindle speed and thereby influence system stability. The major disadvantage of such systems related to delay in processing initial data and making correction, which is necessary for realization of technological system to obtain the given requirements. Moreover, such systems require special measuring, converting, and intensifying devices, which are the reason of their low reliability. The mechanical adaptive systems (MAS) have many advantages over the hydraulic, electrical and optical systems. They are simple in manufacturing and operation with high speed. In this case the disturbing factor is used as a managing signal for adjustment that approaches the moment of reception of the information about necessity realization adjustment to the moment of its execution. Besides, the mechanical adaptive systems do not require the above-stated special additional devices, that is the reason of their high reliability. An example of MAS was proposed by the author to overcome the error appeared in the longitudinal section profile of turned parts due to the elastic deformation of the technological system (Abu Shreehah, 2002a). For extending the capability of turning operation in the area of adaptive control technology, a study was made of an innovative approach. Thus, in the present study, a new simple MAS for compensating the error in the cross section profile of processed parts due to tool deflection is proposed. The developed system has a lowered rigidity and oscillating stability, and therefore needs to be analyzed in order to find the stable cutting regions and determine the cutting parameters which ensure the non- oscillating turning. 2. Construction of the proposed system If it is necessary to form surfaces with small deviation in cross section, it is recommended to use the method of elastic adaptation of the technological system. The system of adaptive control of turning process which realized on this method, is based on the fact that the mechanical pliability is not always harmful and may be controlled. As known, the total pliability of the technological system equals to the sum of the pliability of its separated elements. If in particular process of cutting, the pliability of any element has a negative sign, then the total pliability of the system might be zero. The carriage turn or roll-down may serve as an example. On the basis of the above mentioned, it was proposed to introduce an additional mechanism in the technological system that possess a controllable pliability. The phenomenon of redistribution of the cutting force work was assumed in this system. In this case, the tangential component of cutting force Fz affects not only on the tool nose in the tangential direction, but also on the radial. The constructive adaptive system, realized on the basis of the above described method, is presented in Figure 1. This system consists of front 1 and rear 2 panels. The cutting tool 3 with the insert 4 is fixed on the front panel. The tool shank 5 used to fix the system in tool holder is situated on one side of panel 2. On the other side, the wedge 6 is situated. The upper parts of panels 1 and 2 are jointed by an elastic element in the form of flat spring 7 which serves for retaining the front and rear panels in contact. The panels keep in contact in the middle part by the rolling bearing 8 and wedge 6. With respect to the constructive execution, the bearing 8 has the capability to be displaced in both radial and tangential directions. The helical spring 9 is necessary to select the clearances between the contact components of the system. The arm 10 is used to control the motion of the panel 1 group upward, whereas, the arm 11 prevents the panel to be displaced in the axial direction. The system works as follows: at the variation of cutting parameters, for example, the machining allowance or the workpiece hardness, the cutting force will be changed. An increase in the tangential component of the cutting force displaces panel 1 with the cutting element 4 in the same direction (OZ). The panel 1 with the element 4 will over-run on wedge 6 and as a result, these
194
components will also be displaced in the radial direction, and hence, the elastic deformations of the technological system will be compensated. The proposed system of accuracy control possess rapid acting characteristic and can react on variations in cutting conditions in the limits of one revolution of the workpiece. Thus, this system permits to compensate the deviations appeared from the true circular shapes.
7 10 11 8 4 5
3 1 9 6 2
Figure 1. The developed mechanical adaptive system 3. Analysis of the vibrational motion of the technological system At the turning operation carried with the help of adaptive system, the followings arise: the necessity in analyzing the oscillating motion of the technological system, the necessity of finding the stable cutting regions, and determining the cutting parameters which ensure the non-oscillating turning. To analyze the oscillating motions of the technological system, it is necessary to define the rated mathematical model of the system and determine its parameters such as rigidity (j), natural frequency (), reduced mass (m), logarithmic decrement (), and the proportional coefficient (h) between the resistance force and the speed (Murashkin and Murashkin, 1977). 3.1. The rated mathematical model of the technological system The real technological system has a large numbers of degrees of freedom. The analysis of such systems is relatively complicated, and therefore, simplified schemes are used for practical problems. These schemes are characterized by certain numbers of degrees of freedom. According to the simplified scheme, the most light in weight elements (components) are considered to be deprived from the mass and presented in the form of deformed inertialess connections. The remaining bodies are considered as mass points (concentrated masses) or absolutely solid bodies. In connection with this, and by neglecting the gyroscopic forces and the parametric vibrations in gear and belt drives, the technological system can be presented as a mechanical with certain mass points.
195
According to what has been said, the technological system of turning operation was presented in the form of model with 12 degrees of freedom: the spindle group has 3 degrees of freedom, 3 for the tool holder, 3 for the proposed system, and 3 for the tail stock. The carriage group and the work to be machined were considered absolutely rigid. When constructing the mathematical model of the system, it is possible to neglect some degrees of freedom, if these degrees are related with squared frequencies that differ from 3 to 5 times in comparison with the limiting frequencies of the system. In connection with the considered system, it was established that the limiting frequency equaled to 126 Hz that corresponds to the natural frequency of the cutting tool (proposed adaptive system) in the direction of Z-axis. Therefore, the mathematical model may be represented by a system with one degree of freedom in Z-direction. The parameters of the oscillating contour of this system have the following values: j = 2611.6 N/m; = 0.191; m = 4.147 N; h = 200.08 Nsec/m.
The natural frequency of the proposed adaptive system was determined experimentally with the help of impulse excitation method. The measurement was carried out by an arrangement installed on the base of the engine lathe. This arrangement consists of intensifier, light-ray oscilloscope, power supply and vibro-feeler. The rigidity of the proposed system was also determined experimentally. The system was statically loaded by a resultant force of three components of the cutting force (axial Fx, radial Fy, and tangential Fz) with the help of special apparatus and dynamometer. The displacement of the system was fixed in Y and Z directions by a micro-indicator and then its rigidity was calculated. The rigidity of the remaining components of the technological systems was taken from the references. The system reduced mass was calculated with the following equation:
m=
where
j (2f ) 2
(1)
j= the rigidity of the proposed system = the circular natural frequency = the cylindrical natural frequency. The logarithmic decrement was determined by:
ln =
Ai Ai +1 n
(2)
where Ai and Ai+1 = the amplitudes of the natural frequencies that lag from each other at n period. To calculate the proportional coefficient between the resistance force and the speed, the following equation was used:
h = 2mf
(3)
3.2 Definition of the stable cutting conditions Large relative vibrations between the tool and the workpiece in metal cutting process reduce the productivity and accuracy of the manufacturing process (Boothroyd, 1975; Khraisheh et al., 1995; Wiercigroch and Krivtsov, 2001). This is particularly dangerous when a sudden and uncontrolled rise of vibration amplitude occurs. In many practical situations, the conditions in which such an instability appears can be satisfactorily explained by linear dynamics. However, more comprehensive insight can be gained only if the dynamic interactions between the machine tool and the cutting process are treated as nonlinear. An example of such behavior is self-excited oscillations, so-called chatter (Wiercigroch and Krivtsov, 2001). Primary chatter may arise from different physical causes such as friction, the tendency of the cutting forces to change with the cutting speed, and the dynamical effects of the geometry of the cutting tool on the cutting process (Khraisheh, et al. 1995; Tobias 1961). Several investigations into nonlinear dynamic have shown an existence and importance of chaotic motion occurring in machining. Studies (Tobias, 1961; Merchant, 1944) have modeled the dynamic progression, structural reasoning and stability limit of this vibration. The mathematical models developed in these studies assumed a straightforward and common behaviour. Other studies (Welbourn and Smith, 1970; Gradisek et al., 1996, Balkrishua and Shin, 1999, Gallina and Trevisani, 2003) have focused on specifying appropriate operational parameters as a means of preventing the accumulation of the expected vibrations. The fundamental principles of the vibration phenomena have established in studies (Clancy and Shin, 2002; Ema and Mauri, 2003).
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Previously, in most studies the vibration considerations were restricted solely to unpliable tool chatter. In this study the effect of the suggested system will be discussed. In order to understand how self-excited chatter occurs, the dynamic of the cutting process must be understood, and the characteristics of the dynamic response must be well described (Khraisheh et al., 1995). As well known, the movement stability of the technological system under the effect of external disturbances is determined by the system behavior near the equilibrium position. If the system, under the effect of arbitrarily small initial disturbance, removes from the equilibrium position then the system is unstable. For the systems of metal cutting machines, there are stationary and oscillatory positions of equilibrium. The cutting parameters (speed, feed, and depth of cut) are constant in the stationary type of equilibrium. If the cutting parameters periodically change then the vibrating position of equilibrium takes a place in the system. During parts processing on metal cutting machines, it will be necessary to aim for stationary position of equilibrium which obtained in most cases by eliminating the self-excited vibrating motion. The self-vibrating motion can be eliminated either by the rational selection of cutting parameters or by means of additional damping systems related with employing special amortizators of energy (dampers). The use of dampers complicates the technological system and, by far not always, it is not economically justified. The analytical and graphic methods of determination the stable motion of the technological system are used for selecting the rational cutting parameters. Finding the analytical solution of the differential equation, if it is possible, gives in most cases a great advantage. The analytical solution is obtained in algebraic form and does not require the introduction of numerical values of the process parameters or the initial conditions. Once, the solution is obtained, it is possible to set any numerical values and investigate the totality of the solutions described by the differential equation. However, it should be kept in mind that only few equations that describe the real system are enough simple and permit accurate solution. The graphic methods of analysis are one of the important methods used for investigating different phenomena related with nonlinear vibration. With the help of graphic methods, the solutions of differential equations are sought in the form of integral curves on the phase-plane. The isoclines, Lenarion and Delta methods can be referred to the graphic methods where the isoclines is the broadest. Isoclines method gives the opportunity to investigate the field of the integral curves with the help of graphics without solving the differential equation. This method is especially valuable when the accurate mode of solving the differential equation is not known. The principle demerit of isoclines method is the relatively long time required to carry it. Lenarion method is particularly convenient for investigating the self-vibrating motion, and for other cases when the regenerating elastic force is linear with respect to the movement. This method does not require the approximation of the nonlinear characteristic and this is the principle merit of this method. The experimental characteristic may be used for constructing the integral curves. The employment of isoclines and Lenarion methods for obtaining the graphic solution of the differential equation needs to fill all the phase-plane with segments of a straight lines that define the direction of the integral curves. Practically, if it is necessary to find only one integral curve, then some of these segments are used. In such cases the Delta-method is the most direct straight method for finding the required solution because it permits to get only the data directly related with the interested integral curve. In order to keep the analysis clear, we will consider the stability of the one-degree-of-freedom model of the cutting process. The use of the Lenarion method will be presented in Figures 2 and 3 for turning operation of heat resistant steel with the help of the developed mechanical adaptive system. Number 1 in Figures 2 and 3 refers to the resistant force in the system, whereas, number 2 presents the characteristic of the tangential component of the cutting force, and number 3 indicates to the distribution characteristic obtained by adding characteristics 1 and 2. Under selection the work point on the dropping section of the distribution characteristic (Figure 2), the integral curve untwists from the unstable singular point O1, and aims to the stable cluster 4. Here, a stationary self-vibrating motion, corresponding to light excitation, is established in the system. Thus, in this case, at the existence of self-vibrating motion, the cutting parameters will be changed with frequency equaled 126 Hz. If the work point is selected on the raised section close to the incident section (Figure 2), then two regimes are established in the technological system, stable and self-vibrating. Under selection the work point on the raised section with clearly expressed positive resistance (Figure 3), the integral curve 5 will be twisted to the steady singular point O3. This indicates to the absence of the self-vibrating motion. The technological system in this case has steady stationary position of equilibrium and the cutting parameters used will be not changed. By analyzing the movement of the technological system on the phase plane for all ranges of the cutting parameters, it is possible to define the steady regions and their corresponding cutting parameters. Thus, the light and stringent excitation of self-vibrating motion may be occurring in the technological system. The stationary vibrating motion, corresponding light excitation, occurs at the dropping sections when a negative resistance is prevail in the system, whereas, the stringent excitation of self-vibrating or the steady stationary position of equilibrium may occur at the raised sections of distribution characteristic.
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Figure 2. Phase portrait created by turning with the developed system at =0.6 and 2 m/sec, S=0.39 mm/rev, and t= 1.5 mm
Figure 3. Phase portrait created by turning with the developed system at = 1 m/sec, S=0.39 mm/rev, and t= 1.5 mm
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As previously mentioned, the integral curves on the phase-plane give descriptive presentation about the character of the system movement at particular values of the system parameters. For evaluating the totality of phenomena that related to variation in this or other system-parameter, it is advisable to use the analytic method. The Later needs to construct the so called bifurcation diagram. During the last two decades, many works about bifurcation theory appeared (Guckenheimer and Holmes, 1983; Hagedorn, 1988; Kuznetsov, 1995; Parker and Chusa, 1989; Seydel, 1994). However, little is known about bifurcations of cutting manufacturing systems. The use of this method will be considered in forthcoming papers. 4. Experimental testing of the developed system All experimental turning tests were carried out in a rigid Sigma 2600 engine lathe without removing the specimens. 4.1. Workpiece material Turning trials were carried on groove circular bars of heat resistant steel which chemical composition in weight percent and mechanical properties are presented in Table 1. The work materials were received in the form of smooth round bars and prepared with two portions (A and B in Figure 4) such that each specimen could be turned with traditional turning tool and the proposed system without removing it. Each specimen was turned with the same conditions (cutting speed (), feed rate (S), and depth of cut (t)) as mentioned below. The specimens were held in a chuck and supported by the tail stock center. An emulsion lubricant was used during processing. Table 1. Characteristics of the heat resistant steel to be machined C 0.35 to 0.45 Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 1150 Si 0.2 to 1.2 Chemical composition, wt (%) Mn Cr W 0.15 to 0.6 4.5 to 5.5 1.6 to 2.2 Mechanical properties Elongation Reduction of area (%) (%) 10-13 45 V 0.6 to 0.9 Hardness (HB) 345
4.2. Turning conditions and tool material The specimens were turned with feed rate (S) ranged from 0.07 to 0.39 mm/rev, depth of cut (t) ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 mm, and cutting speed () up to 3 m/sec. Cutting inserts made from white ceramics were used in the capacity of cutting tool. Ceramic is a highly efficient tool material that deprived of rare earth elements such as tungsten and cobalt, which offer the basic components of cemented carbide and high-speed steels. The ceramic tools find an application in semi-finish and finish turning of high strength and quenched cast iron, hardened steels and non-metallic materials (Abu Shreehah, 2003).
60
B 20 20 90
A 20 20
Figure 4. Workpiece geometry 5. Experimental design In order to obtain better form quality, the proper setting of turning parameters is crucial before the process takes place. Recently, a Design of Experiment (DOE) has been implemented to select manufacturing process parameters that could result in a better quality product (Yang and Chen 2001). This study was carried out using Full Factorial Design 23 which matrix is shown in Table 2.
75
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Table 2. A 23 in standard run order and the experimental results Feed rate, S No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Code X1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +1 Actual mm/rev 0.07 0.39 0.07 0.39 0.07 0.39 0.07 0.39 Turning Speed, Code X2 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1 Actual m/sec 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 code X3 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 Depth of cut, t Actual mm 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Out-of-roundness in m obtained At processing with Usual cutter 25 55 15 28 50 98 29 65 The developed system 9 21 5 11 18 40 11 24
5.1. Roundness test and results Roundness is of particular importance when designing components for fit and function. Data on deviations from the true circular shape when turning heat resistant steel are shown in Table 2. As expected, the use of the developed system has allowed forming surfaces with roundness variations in 3 times less comparatively with usual cutter. As an example, the roundness polar charts (Figures 5 and 6) traced by roundness instrument for surfaces processed at the same conditions are provided.
Figure 5. Roundness polar chart at 2000x illustrates circularity deviation created by turning with usual cutter at S = 0.07 mm/rev, t = 0.5 mm, and = 3 m/sec.
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Figure 6. Roundness polar chart at 2000x illustrates circularity deviation created by turning with the developed cutter at S = 0.07 mm/rev, t = 0.5 mm, and = 3 m/sec. 6. Conclusions The following conclusions are drawn from the study conducted: 1. An adaptive mechanical system for compensating the deviations in the cross-sections of the turned cylindrical parts has been developed and experimented. The proposed system corrects the tool setting at the moment of receiving information about the disturbing factor (the elastic deformation of the technological system). This system is simple in construction and does not require special additional devices that is the reason of its high reliability . 2. As a result of studying the dynamic characteristic of components of the engine lathe technological system, a mathematical model of the proposed adaptive system and the machine tool system was obtained and presented as a system with one degree of freedom in the direction of Z-axis. The stable zones of operating can be easily defined using Leonarion graphic method. 3. The optimal cutting parameters for the systems of metal turning machine supplied by the developed MAS correspond to stationary positions of equilibrium that obtained when processing under the following conditions: feed rate, S, ranges from 0.07 to 0.39 mm/rev; depth of cut, t, ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 mm; and turning speed, , ranges from 0.55 to 1.45 m/sec. 4. The developed system has allowed forming surfaces with roundness variations considerably lesser than that obtained with usual cutter. The maximum circularity deviation of the processed cylindrical surfaces did not exceed 40 microns. Whereas, 98 microns of maximum deviation was reached using usual cutter. 5. Full Factorial Design of experiments was used to organize the experimental investigation. 6. An extended analysis of variance of the process parameters i.e. the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut to explore their effect on machining accuracy will be considered in the subsequent steps of investigation and forthcoming paper. Nomenclature j m Ai h S Rigidity of the proposed system. Reduced mass. Circular natural frequency. Cylindrical natural frequency. Amplitude of the natural frequency. Proportional coefficient between the resistance force and the speed. Logarithmic decrement. Cutting speed. Feed rate.
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References Abu Shreehah T., 2002a. Elastic deformation compensation of cutting technological system, Proceedings of the 14th European Simulation Multiconference ESM, Darmstadt, Germany, pp. 609-612. Abu Shreehah T., 2002b. Calculation of elastic movements of the cutting technological system, Proceedings of the International Carpathian Control Conference ICCC 2002, Malenovice, Czech Republic, Pp. 113-118. Abu Shreehah T., 2003. Studying of the capability of the cermet tools during turning of steels, Proceedings of the 44th SIMS Conference, Malardalen University, Sweden, pp. 299-303. Arshinov V. and Alekseev G., 1976. Metal cutting theory and cutting tool design, Mir Publishers, Moscow. Balakshin B. C., 1973. Adaptive control of the machine, Machine-building, Moscow. Balkrishua C. R. and Shin C., 1999. A comprehensive dynamic cutting force model for chatter prediction in turning, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 39, No. 10, pp. 1631-1654. Boothroyd G., 1975. Fundamentals of metal machining and machine tools, McGraw-Hill, New York. Clancy B. C. and Shin Y. C., 2002. A comprehensive chatter prediction model for face turning operation including tool wear effect, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 42, No. 9, pp. 1035-1044. Ema S. and Mauri E., 2003. Theoritical analysis on chatter vibration in drilling and its suppression, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 138, No. 1-3, pp. 572-578. Gallina P. and Trevisani A., 2003. On the stabilizing and destablizing effects of damping in wood cutting machines, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 43, No. 9, pp. 955-964. Gradisek J., Govekar E. and Grabec I., 1996. A choatic cutting process and determining optimal cutting parameter values using neural networks, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 36, No. 10, pp. 1161-1172. Guckenheimer J. and Holmes P., 1983. Nonlinear oscillations, dynamical systems, and bifurcation of vector fields, Applied Mathematical Sciences, Springer-Verlag, Vol. 42. Hagedorn P., 1988. Nonlinear Oscillations, Oxford Engineering Science Series, 10, Oxford Science Publications, Oxford. Khraisheh M. K., Pezeshki C. A., and Bayoumi E., 1995. Times series based analysis for primary chatter in metal cutting, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 180, No. 1, pp. 67-87. Kuznetsov Y. A., 1995. Elements of applied bifurcation theory, Applied Mathematical Sciences, New York, Vol. 112. Merchant, M. E., 1944. Basic mechanics of the metal cutting process, ASME Transactions Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 168-175. Murashkin S. L. and Murashkin L. S., 1977. Applied Nonlinear Mechanics of Machine Tools, Mashinostroene, Leningrad. Oren M., Yoram K. and Roland W., 1980. Adaptive control system for turning, CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 281-284. Parker T. S. and Chusa L. O., 1989. Practical Numerical Algorithms for Choatic Systems, New York, Springer-Verlag. Seydel R., 1994. Practical bifurcation and stability analysis from equilibrium to chaos, Interdisciplinary Applied Mathematics, Vol. 5. Skragan V. A., Joukov E. L., and Kadirov J. N., 1984. Using Experience of Adaptive System for Accuracy Control of Turning Operation, LDNTP, Leningrad. Tobias, S. A., 1961. Machine Tool Vibration, Wiley, New York. Wiercigroch M. and Krivtsov A. M., 2001. Frictional chatter in orthogonal metal cutting, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. 359, Pp. 713-738. Welbourn D. B. and Smith J. D., 1970. Machine Tool Dynamics An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, London. Yang J. L. and Chen J. C., 2001. A systematic approach for identifying optimum surface roughness performance in end-milling operations, Journal of Industrial Technology, Vol. 17, pp 1-8. Zhan-Qiang L., 1999. Repetitive measurement and compensation to improve workpiece machining accuracy, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 15, pp. 8589.
Biographical notes Dr. Tareq A. Abu Shreehah is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Tafila Technical University, Jordan. He has engaged in teaching and research activities since the last 10 years. His research activities are in manufacturing engineering, including forming and machining processes. Dr Abu Shreehah has published more than 12 papers in refereed international journals and conferences.
MultiCraft
Use of zinc oxide nano particles for production of antimicrobial textiles

R. Rajendran, C. Balakumar*, Hasabo A. Mohammed Ahammed2, S. Jayakumar3, K. Vaideki3 and E.M. Rajesh
PG & Research Department of Microbiology, PSG College of Arts & Science, Coimbatore-641 014, INDIA 2 Projects Manager, Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, SUDAN 3 Thin Film Center, Department of Physics, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore-641 014, INDIA * Corresponding Author: cbalakumar@rocketmail.com (C. Balakumar)
Abstract The application of nanoscale materials and structures, usually ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm), is an emerging area of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Synthesis of noble metal nanoparticles for applications such as catalysis, electronics, textiles, environmental protection, and biotechnology is an area of constant interest. Recently, an awareness of general sanitation, contact disease transmission, and personal protection has led to the development of antimicrobial textiles. The development of antimicrobial cotton fabrics using Zinc oxide nanoparticles has been investigated in this present work. The ZnO nanoparticles were prepared by wet chemical method and were directly applied on to the 100% cotton woven fabric using pad-dry-cure method. The antibacterial activity of the finished fabrics was assessed qualitatively by agar diffusion and parallel streak method, quantitatively by percentage reduction test. The topographical analysis of the treated fabric and untreated fabric were studied and compared. The results show that the finished fabric demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against S. aureus in both qualitative and quantitative tests. The SEM analysis revealed the embedding of ZnO nanoparticles in treated fabrics. The wash durability study of the treated fabric was also carried out and found to withstand up to 25 wash cycles. Keywords: Nanoparticles, zinc oxide, antimicrobial finish, wash durability 1. Introduction Nanoscale science and technology have emerged over the past decade as the forefront of science and technologies. The intersecting fields of study that create this domain of science and engineering perfectly typify the rapid, multidisciplinary advancement of contemporary science and technology. . Inorganic materials such as metal and metal oxides have attracted lots of attention over the past decade due to their ability to withstand harsh process conditions (Fu et al., 2005; Makhluf et al., 2005). Of the inorganic materials, metal oxides such as TiO2, ZnO, MgO and CaO are of particular interest as they are not only stable under harsh process conditions but also generally regarded as safe materials to human beings and animals (Stoimenov et al., 2002; Fu et al., 2005). The use of nanoparticles of silver and zinc oxide has been seen as a viable solution to stop infectious diseases due to the antimicrobial properties of these nanoparticles. The intrinsic properties of a metal nanoparticle are mainly determined by size, shape, composition, crystallinity and morphology (Dickson and Lyon 2000). In view of the textile industry's innovative history, it is no wonder that nanotechnology has found its way into this sector so quickly. Nanotechnology is forecasted as the second industrial evolution in the world. The novel properties and low material consumption amount has attracted global interest across disciplines and industries. The textile sector is no exception. As stated by the European Technological Platform for Textiles and Fashion, the textile industry to thrive must improve and reduce the costs of the processes, offer innovative products for traditional markets, develop new products for new markets. Nanotechnology can have an important role to achieve these goals and, in effect, all over the world public and private research institutions and private enterprises are actively engaged in nanotechnology research aimed at applications in the textiles sector. The competition is growing and technological innovation is crucial to keep pace with it. Health concerns along with customer satisfaction have made functionally finished textiles a fast-paced and fast growing industry.
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With growth in world population and the spread of disease, the number of antibiotic resistant microorganisms is rising along with the occurrence of infections from these microorganisms. With this increase in health awareness, many people focused their attention on educating and protecting themselves against harmful pathogens. It soon became more important for antimicrobially finished textiles to protect the wearer from bacteria than it was to simply protect the garment from fiber degradation (Ye et al., 2006). The need for antimicrobial textiles goes hand-in-hand with the rise in resistant strains of microorganisms. Functional textiles include everything from antimicrobial finished textiles, to durable, or permanent press finished garments, to textiles with self-cleaning properties, and also textiles with nanotechnology. With the above back ground information the present study was carried out with the main objective of evolving a simple method for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, design a method to finish ZnO nanoparticles onto cotton fabrics to confer antimicrobial function and finally evaluate the finished fabrics in terms of antibacterial, wash durability and topographical function. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Nanoparticle preparation The zinc oxide nanoparticles were prepared by wet chemical method (Yadav et al., 2006) using zinc nitrate and sodium hydroxide as precursors and soluble starch as stabilizing agent. Different concentrations of soluble starch (0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0%) were dissolved in 500 ml of distilled water by using microwave oven. Zinc nitrate, 14.874 g (0.1 M) was added in the above solution. Then the solution was kept under constant stirring using magnetic stirrer to completely dissolve the zinc nitrate.. After complete dissolution of zinc nitrate, 0.2 M of sodium hydroxide solution ( 20 ml was used in our study) was added under constant stirring, drop by drop touching the walls of the vessel. The reaction was allowed to proceed for 2 Hours after complete addition of sodium hydroxide. After the completion of reaction, the solution was allowed to settle for overnight and the supernatant solution was then discarded carefully. The remaining solution was centrifuged at 10, 000 X g for 10 mins and the supernatant was discarded. Thus obtained nanoparticles were washed three times using distilled water. Washing was carried out to remove the byproducts and the excessive starch that were bound with the nanoparticles. After washing, the nanoparticles were dried at 80 degree C for overnight. During drying, complete conversion of zinc hydroxide into zinc oxide takes place. 2.2 Application onto fabrics A fine-medium weight 100% cotton woven fabric (plain weave, 75.30 g/m2; ends, 75/inch; picks, 60/inch) was used for the application purpose. ZnO nanoparticles were applied on cotton using pad-dry-cure method. The cotton fabric cut to the size of 30 30 cm was immersed in the solution containing ZnO (2%) and acrylic binder (1%) for 5 min and then it was passed through a padding mangle. A 100% wet pick-up was maintained for all of the treatments. After padding, the fabric was air-dried and then cured for 3 min at 140C. The fabric was then immersed for 5 min in 2 g/l of sodium lauryl sulfate to remove unbound nanoparticles. Then the fabric was rinsed at least 10 times to completely take out all the soap solution. The fabric thus washed was air-dried. Simultaneously, bulk-ZnO coating was carried out for comparison. 2.3 Assessment of antibacterial activity 2.3.1 Qualitative tests 2.3.1.1 Agar diffusion method (Mucha et al., 2002) Bacteriostasis agar was dispensed in sterile petriplates.24 hours broth cultures of the test organisms (E.coli and S.aureus ) were used as inoculums. Using sterile cotton swab the test organisms were swabbed over the surface of the agar plates. The test fabrics (fabrics treated ZnO nanoparticles) & Control (fabrics treated with ZnO bulk) was gently pressed in the center of the mat culture. The plates were incubated at 37C for 18-24 hours. 2.3.1.2 Parallel streak method: (AATCC Test method 147-1992) Sterile bacteriostasis agar was dispensed in petriplates. 24 hours broth cultures of the test organisms (E.coli and S.aureus ) were used as inoculums. Using 2 mm inoculation loop, 1 loop full of culture was loaded and transferred to the surface of the agar plate by making 7.5cm long parallel streaks 1cm apart in the center of the plate, without refilling the loop. The test specimen (fabrics treated ZnO nanoparticles & Control i.e. fabrics treated with ZnO bulk) was gently pressed transversely, across the five inoculums of streaks to ensure intimate contact with the agar surface. The plates were incubated at 37C for 18-24 hours. 2.3.2 Quantitative tests 2.3.2.1 Percentage reduction test (Mucha et al., 2002) Specimens of the test material were shaken in a known concentration of bacterial suspension and the reduction in bacterial activity in standard time was measured. The efficiency of the antimicrobial treatment is determined by comparing the reduction in bacterial concentration of the treated sample with that of control sample expressed as a percentage reduction in standard time. The evaluation of modified Hohenstein test was made on the basis of the percentage reduction of bacteria by the sample. Percentage reduction was calculated using the following formula.
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R = (A-B) / A Where R is percentage reduction, A is the number of bacteria in the broth inoculated with treated test fabric sample immediately after inoculation i.e., at zero contact time and B is the number of bacteria recovered from the broth inoculated with treated test fabric sample after the desired contact period (18 hours). 2.4 Topographical analysis by SEM: The topographical analysis of the test fabrics (finished with ZnO nanoparticles) and the fabrics finished with ZnO bulk were studied comparatively based on the Scanning Electron Microscopic analysis. 2.5 Wash durability of the finished fabric :(Sarkar et al., 2003) The wash durability testing of the finished fabrics was carried out using a neutral soap at 40 C (+/- 2 C) for 30 minutes, keeping the material : liquour ratio at 1: 50, followed by rinsing washing and drying. After drying the test fabrics and the control were assessed for antimicrobial activity by the methods as described earlier (Sec. 2.4.3) 3. Results and discussion The results of the qualitative antibacterial assessment by agar diffusion show that the fabric sample treated with ZnO nanoparticles showed a maximum inhibitory effect against S.aureus and is shown (Table 1). Table 1. Antibacterial assessment by agar diffusion method Zone of Inhibition (in cm) Organism Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3 Mean Fabrics treated with ZnO nanoparticles S.aureus 4.9 5.3 5.4 5.2 E.coli 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.3 Fabrics treated with ZnO Bulk S.aureus 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.5 E.coli 1.9 1.5 1.7 1.7 Fabrics without ZnO nanoparticles (Control) S.aureus 0 0 0 0 E.coli 0 0 0 0 Fabric treated
Range 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.4 0 0
It is evident that the ZnO nanoparticles treatedfabric showed higher antibacterial activity when compared with ZnO bulk treated fabrics whereas the untreated fabrics showed no antibacterial activity. In general the antibacterial activity was higher against S.aureus than E.coli in both ZnO nanoparticles and bulk treated fabrics. The comparative antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles, Zno bulk and untreated fabric (control) against S.aureus were shown in the Figure 2. The antibacterial activity of the ZnO particles were studied by Zhang et al., 2007. It seems that active oxygen species generated by ZnO particles could be a mechanism although there is no direct evidence from the results of this study. The presence of active oxygen species has been detected by Yamamoto et al., (2000). It has already been proved that both nano-sized and micron-sized ZnO suspensions are active in inhibiting the bacteria growth; the nano-sized ZnO suspension clearly has a much higher activity than the micron-sized ZnO suspension (Zhang et al., 2009). These results corresponds with the results of our study as ZnO nanoparticles treated fabrics and also the ZnO bulk treated fabrics showed antibacterial activity but the activity in the ZnO nanoparticles treated fabrics was much higher. When assessed for antimicrobial activity by parallel streak method the ZnO nanoparticles treated fabric sample showed a maximum inhibitory effect against S.aureus with a zone of inhibition of 5.8 cm followed by E.coli with a zone of inhibition of 3.7 cm and is shown in the Figure 1. The quantitative bacterial reduction was studied by percentage reduction test and the results were shown in the Table 2. The results of this percentage reduction test correspond with that of the agar diffusion and parallel streak method. The Zno nanoparticles treated fabrics showed maximum percentage of reduction with a reduction percentage of 94.16% for S.aureus followed by 86.5% for E.coli. The ZnO bulk treated fabrics expressed comparatively a lower percentage of reduction. The fabrics without any treatment (control) has negative values for the percentage reduction test because the final number of cells will be much higher than the initial number of cells as it have no bactericidal activity and the results were found to be zero. The enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nano particles was studied by Nagarajan Padmavathy et al 2008. Scientists (Jin et al.,2009) working at the US Agriculture Departments Food Safety Intervention Technologies Research Unit evaluated the antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide quantum dots (ZnO QDs), nanoparticles of purified powdered ZnO, against these pathogens and found that the ZnO nano particles have antibacterial activity. The ZnO particles produced by wet chemical method, when observed by Scanning Electron Microscope (Figure 2) revealed that the particles are more or less spherical and the size of the particles ranges from 60-75 nm. The SEM analysis of the treated fabrics showed Zinc oxide nano particles embedded on to the fabrics (Fig. 3.1 &3.2), which is absent in case of the control fabrics i.e.
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fabrics treated with ZnO bulk. ZnO of Nanosize was also produced by Professor Yong-Chien Ling and his research team and assessed its antimicrobial activity. Figure 1. Antimicrobial assessment by Parallel Streak Method (AATCC147)
6
Zone of Inhibition (cm)
S.aureus E.coli
5 4 3 2 1 0
Fabrics treated with ZnO Fabrics treated with ZnO nanoparticles Bulk Fabrics without any Treatment (Control)
Table-2: Antibacterial Assessment by Percentage Reduction Test (AATCC 100) Fabric tested Fabrics treated with ZnO nanoparticles Fabrics treated with ZnO bulk Fabrics without any treatment (control) Organism S. aureus E.coli S. aureus E.coli S. aureus E.coli Initial number of bacterial cells/ml 6x106 6x106 6x106 6x106 0 0 Final number of bacterial cells/ml 0.35 x106 0.81 x106 3.1 x106 3.5 x106 0 0 % Reduction 94.16 86.5 48.33 41.66 0 0
3.1 Wash durability Wash durability test carried out with the test fabrics showed that the significant antimicrobial activity was actively retained in the ZnO nanoparticles treated fabrics upto 10 washes (Table-3) even after repeated wash cycles. After 10 washes the % bacterial reduction was very low and there was no activity found in the fabrics after 20 washes.Whereas the ZnO bulk treated fabrics retained the antimicrobial activity only upto 5 repeated wash cycles. The untreated control fabrics were not subjected to any wash durability test as it has no antibacterial activity. Table-3. Wash durability testing Fabrics treated with ZnO nanoparticles No. of Washing cycles 1 2 5 10 15 20 25 30 % Bacterial Reduction S.aureus E.coli 94.05 86.28 93.62 85.94 89.42 81.38 74.36 69.54 40.25 34.96 12.05 9.85 0 0 0 0 Fabrics treated with ZnO bulk % Bacterial Reduction S.aureus E.coli 47.27 40.22 37.59 32.52 19.49 11.24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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There are several methods for preparing nanosized ZnO powders such as spray pyrolysis (Liu et al., 1986), precipitation (Trindade et al., 1994), thermal decomposition(Verges et al., 1992), hydrothermal synthesis (Chen et al., 2000)and electrochemical growth(Mahamuni et al., 1999). Different methods yield different particle sizes of ZnO, depending on the type of precursor, the solvent, the pH and the temperature of the reacting solution. The choice of method depends on the final application. From the above results we clearly came to know about the enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles by studying the antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoparticles treated fabrics. The enhanced bioactivity of smaller particles is attributed to the higher surface area to volume ratio. For smaller ZnO nanoparticles, more particles are needed to cover a bacterial colony (2m) which results in the generation of a larger number of active oxygen species (released from ZnO on the surface of the colony), which kill bacteria more effectively. ZnO nanoparticles were found to be more abrasive than bulk ZnO, and thus contribute to the greater mechanical damage of the cell membrane and the enhanced bactericidal effect of ZnO nanoparticles. Figure 2. Antibacterial activity of (a) ZnO nanoparticle treated fabric, (b) ZnO bulk treated fabric and (c) untreated fabric (control) against s.aureus by Disc diffusion method
b Figure 3.1. SEM images showing ZnO Nanoparticles
Figure 3.2. SEM images showing ZnO Nanoparticles embedded onto the fabrics
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4. Conclusion In conclusion, a simple method has been developed to prepare nano-ZnO and coat the same on cotton fabrics to impart functional properties. The nano-ZnO coated cotton fabric is found to have the antimicrobial property. It also clearly demonstrated that the ZnO nanoparticle treated fabrics showed increased antibacterial effect than the ZnO bulk treated fabrics in comparison with the untreated fabric.The results also demonstrated that higher antibacterial activity was observed against S.aureus than E.coli both in qualitative and quantitative tests. The wash durability can be enhanced by manipulating the particle concenteration and size. The SEM analysis of the ZnO nanoparticles treated fabric proves the entrapment of ZnO nanoparticles in the treated fabrics. Further the padding conditions and particle size of the ZnO has to be optimised for enhanced antimicrobial effect in cotton fabrics. The technology can be further extended to polyester, silk and other fabrics. Such type of antimicrobial finish can find wide application in the health and hygiene textile sector. The result of this paper raises other areas to be concentrated for further research to answer a number of questions before a concrete conclusion could be drawn. Acknowledgement The authors greatly acknowledge the financial support from DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India and the support from Principal and Secretary, PSG College of Arts & Science, Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India. References Chen D., Jiao X. and Cheng G., 2000. Hydrothermal synthesis of zinc oxide powders with different morphologies, Solid State Communication, Vol.113, pp. 363-366. Dickson R.M. and Lyon L.A., 2000. Unidirectional plasmon propagation in metallic nanowires, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 104, pp. 6095 -6098. Fu L., Liu Z., Liu Y., Han B., Hu P., Cao L. and Zhu D., 2005. Beaded Cobalt oxide nanoparticles along carbon nanotubes: towards more highly integrated electronic devices, Advanced Materials, Vol.17, pp.217-221. Liu T. Q., Sakurai O., Mizutani N. and Kato M., 1986. Preparation of spherical fine ZnO particles by the spray pyrolysis method using ultrasonic atomization techniques, Journal of Material Science, Vol. 21, pp.3698-3702. Mahamuni S., Borgohain K., Bendre B.S., Valene J.L. and Subhash H.R., 1999. Spectroscopic and structural characterization of electrochemically grown ZnO quantum dots, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 85, pp.2861. Makhluf S., Dror R., Nitzan Y., Abramovich Y., Jelnek R. and Gedanken A., 2005. Microwave-assisted synthesis of nanocrystalline MgO and its use as a bacteriocide, Advanced Functional Materials, Vol.15, pp.1708-1715. Padmavathy N. and Vijayaraghavan R., 2008. Enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles - an antimicrobial study, Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, Vol. 9, 035004 (7pp). Stoimenov P.K., Klinger R.L., Marchin G.L. and Klabunde K.J., 2002. Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents, Langmuir, Vol. 18, pp. 66796686. Trindade T., Pedrosa Jesus J. D. and OBrien P., 1994. Preparation of zinc oxide and zinc sulfide powders by controlled precipitation from aqueous solution, Journal of Materials Chemistry, Vol. 4 , pp.1611-1617. Verges M.A. and Gallego M.M., 1992. Influence of hydrothermal conditions on the morphology and particle size of zinc oxide powder, Journal of Materials Science, Vol.27, pp. 3756 3762. Yadav A., Virendra Prasad., Kathe A.A., Sheela Raj, Deepti Yadav, Sundaramoorthy and Vigneshwaran N., 2006. Functional finishing in cotton fabrics using zinc oxide nanoparticles, Bulletin of Material Science, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 641645. Yamamoto O., Sawai J. And SasamotoT., 2000. Change in antibacterial characteristics with doping amount of ZnO in MgOZnO solid solution, International Journal of Inorganic Materials, Vol. 2, pp.451454. Zhang L., Jiang Y., Ding Y., DaskalakisN., Jeuken L., Povey M., Alex J. ONeill and YorkD D.W., 2009. Mechanistic investigation into antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles against E.coli, Journal of Nanoparticle Research, DOI 10.1007/s11051-009-9711-1.
Biographical notes Dr. R. Rajendran is a post graduate in Applied Microbiology and Doctorate in Microbiology specialized in Textile Microbiology/Biotechnology. His research, teaching and Industrial consultancy experience is nearly two decades. He has completed a major research project funded by AICTE, New Delhi in the area of antimicrobial textiles. He is currently leading 3 major research projects in the area of functional and nano finishes in textiles funded by DRDE, DRDO and DBTGovernment of India. He has so far authored 31 research papers in national and international journals, 53 research papers in the proceedings of national and international conferences/seminars and co-authored four books in the area of functional and smart textiles. His current research interests includes microbial enzyme finishes and plasma treatment finishes in textiles, defence textiles, herbal nanoparticles in textile finishing and metal oxide nanoparticles in textile applications. C. Balakumar is a post graduate in Microbiology and currently working as a Junior Research Fellow in DRDE project. He is also perusing his Doctorate in Microbiology under the guidance of Dr.R.Rajedran, Associate Professor in Microbiology, PSG College of Arts & Science, Coimbatore who is the Principal
208
Investigator of the DRDE project. He has attended many national and international conferences and presented his research papers. His current research interests is mainly focused on the synthesis of nanoparticles from medicinal plant extracts for health care textiles, synthesis and characterization of antimicrobial metal oxide nanoparticles and textile applications, Green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles and its textile applications, antifugal textiles with metal oxide nanoparticles and development of natural antimicrobial textiles. Hasabo A.Mohammed Ahammed, Sudanese, born 1954, Associate Professor, Textile Engineering, Ph.D. Sudan University, M.Sc New South Wales University, Australia, Postgraduate Diploma, Leeds University, U.K. Associate of Textile Institute, Fellow, Sudanese Engineering Society. Diploma Textile Technology, College of Engineering Studies, Khartoum Polytechnic Member Union of Engineers, Sudan. Member Sudan Engineering Council, (Consultant Engineer) President and founder Textile Graduate Association, (Sudan), Member, Sudan Consumer Association, Member, Sudanese Information Technology management, Member, Total quality management group, Head, Textile Committee, Sudan Standards and Metrology Organization (SSMO), Head, Cotton and Gin Committee, Sudan Standards and Metrology Organization (SSMO), Head, Army and Police Textile Needs Committee (SSMO). Native language Arabic, Speaks fluent Engilish, knowledge of French. Taught and Supervised post graduate students at Sudan University, Gezira University, Institute of Forensic Sciences. Held a number of Management positions at University and Industry. Dr. S. Jayakumar is a Professor and Head at the Department of Physics PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore . He has rich experience in teaching and research in the area of Applied Physics, Materials Science, Thin Films and MEMS over a period of more than three decades. He has successfully completed many research projects funded by Department of Science and Technology, University Grants Commission, All India Council for Technical Education, Indian Space Research Organisation etc., and guided Ph.D students. He has published three books and more than 70 research papers in National and International Journals and Conferences. He is a Life member of India Association of Physics Teachers, Indian Society for Technical Education and Institute of Smart Structure and Systems. Dr. K Vaideki graduated with a bachelors degree in Applied Sciences from PSG College of Technology, Coimatore and earned her M.Sc Degree in Materials Science from PSG College from the same College. She has completed her M.Phil in Applied Physics under Bharathiar University, Coimbatore and PhD in the faculty of Science under Anna University, Chennai. During her tenure as a PhD scholar, she has worked on plasma surface modification of textile materials. She has also worked on vapor deposition of neem for antimicrobial applications. She has published nine research papers in National/International journals and six papers in National/International Conferences. She is the Co-Investigator for three projects funded by AICTE and DRDO under various schemes. She joined as a Lecturer in the Department of Physics, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore in the year 1999. Presently she is a Senior Lecturer in the same department. Dr. E. M. Rajesh, 29, Graduated from PEE GEE College of Arts & Science (Microbiology) 2001, did his Post Graduate (Microbiology) from Sengunthar Arts & Science College, Tiruchengode, INDIA. M. Phil and Ph. D both from the PG & Research Department of Microbiology, PSG College of Arts & Science, affiliated to Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, INDIA. He also has a Masters in Business Administration (Hospital Management). He has six years of industrial and research experience, currently working as Quality Assurance-Manager in Arujaya Food Processing industry, Dharmapuri, INDIA. He has so far authored 9 research papers in national and international journals and 13 research papers in the proceedings of national and international conferences/seminars. His research interests are mainly focused on the surface modification of textile substrate using microbial extracellular combinatorial enzymes and enhancements of antimicrobial efficacy of cotton fabrics using enzymes.

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International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology

Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010

International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST)

Call for papers

Call for Reviewers

International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST)

International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology (IJEST)

The challenge of scientific publication

Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Editorial

Where a = exp ( j 2 / 3) and a = exp( j 4 / 3) .

vnN = (1/ 3)( v A + vB + vC )

va = ( 2 / 3) v A (1/ 3)( vB + vC ) vb = ( 2 / 3) vB (1/ 3)( v A + vC ) vc = ( 2 / 3) vC (1/ 3)( vB + v A )

3. Continuous space vector PWM

4. Discontinuous space vector PWM

5. Generalised Matlab/Simulink model of SVPWM

Sa mag reference voltage generator angle Zero-Order Hold

MATLAB Function MATLAB Fcn

Low pass Filter Bank

Figure 4. Matlab/Simulink Model of SVPWM.

Figure 5. Sub-blocks of Matlab/Simulink model, a. Reference voltage generation, b. VSI, c. Filters.

Figure 6. Sector Identification logic.

Vn, RMS THD = n = 3,5,7,.... V1, RMS

0.6 Va 0.4 Phase voltages, filtered (p.u.) Vb Vc

Leg voltages,filtered (p.u.)

0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028

0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 Time (s)

0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028

0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 Time (s)

Figure 7a. Filtered branch voltages for continuous SVPWM

Figure 7b. Filtered phase voltages for continuous SV PWM

Figure 9. Relationship between input reference and output voltage.

Figure 10. Relationship between input reference and THD.

Compare machines GPT1 flags

Sym/asym waveform generator

Figure 12. PWM functional block diagram of EVA of TMS320F2812 DSP

DPWM CMPR GP ACTR EV DAC

Bioeconomic modelling of a prey predator system using differential algebraic equations

Under this assumption the final system becomes

For s = 0, the system (6) becomes

~ cr + Kpqr . The interior equilibrium E= Kpq 2

pq (cd + adpq c ) (c + apq)

cr . When these conditions Kpq

1 ay cEq ay rz ayz 2rxz z 2rx 2x + + d + r 1 + + + + 2 2 a + z (a + z ) K ( a + x ) K c pqx (a + x) K (a + z ) (a + x) 2 (a + z ) 2 y

4rxy 2ay 2 cEq(a + z z + 2ay + 2yz ) + + , K (c pqx)(a + z ) (a + x) 2

ay 1 cEq d r (1 + 2 x ) + c pqx + K (a + x) 2 2ay 2 (a + x)

(i) It follows from Lemma1 that

(ii) It can be proved using Lemma1 that

(iii) It can also be shown using Lemma1 that

Consequently from Lemma1 we have,

Consequently, we have the following theorem:

Therefore, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix J is given

x d (a + x ) s , E= and x satisfies the following equation (a + x ) pqx c

C 4 = acdK + a 2 cKr + a 2 Kqs .

From system (9) we have the following matrix

Thus, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix N at P ( x , y , E ) is given by

rx y x y 2 pq 2 x E y . K pqx c (a + x ) 3 (a + x ) 2 pq 2 E y r We find that b1 > 0 and b2 > 0 if > + . K pqx c (a + x ) 2

2 2 2 adq (ds + s ) 1 ar a d r adr + a dr aq (ds + s ) + and 2 d K (d ) cd + adpq c (d )(cd + adpq c ) K (d ) s ds E* = . cd + adpq c

Hence, the interior equilibrium point P ( x * , y * , E * ), of system (9) is asymptotically stable if

Again, it is observed that for s = s * =

dq(c + apq )(d ) 2 (adpq + c(d )) 2

Thus, the characteristic polynomial of the matrix R is given by