YEAR 10

CHEMISTRY- THE INSIDE STORY

DEFINITIONS Atom- the smallest possible particle that can take part in a chemical reaction Molecule- the smallest particle of a substance capable of separate existence. Element a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into a smaller substance. Compound- a pure substance that can be decomposed into simpler substances. Isotopes- atoms of the same element with different mass numbers. (radioisotopes) Nuclear radiation- energy emitted by radioactive substances

RADIATION: An atom is unstable (radioactive) if the forces among the particles of an atom are unbalanced. ( if the nucleus has an excess of internal energy). Unstable atoms will continue to vibrate and contort and try to reach stability by means of ejecting protons and electrons. Alpha radiation (particles)two protons and two neutrons. - Positively charged. - (paper) - ALPHA DECAY ; when nucleus has too many protons which causes excessive repulsion. (helium nucleus emitted) Beta radiation (particles) - same size and mass of electrons - can have positive or negative charge. - Travel at 99% speed of light - Wood, plastic & aluminium - BETA DECAY ; when the neutron to proton ratio is too great and causes instability. (electron emitted) Gamma Rays - Are not particles but bursts of energy released after alpha and beta particles are emitted. - Travel at speed of light - Highly penetrating - Can only be stopped through a thick shield of lead and concrete. - GAMMA DECAY ; when nucleus is at too high and energy. (emits a high energy photon known as gamma particles)

DEFINITIONS Half life the time taken for half of all the nuclei in a sample of a radioisotope to disintegrate/ decay. Valency- of an element is equal to the number of electrons that each atom needs to gain, lose or share to fill its outer shell.

ELECTRONS Determine the chemical behaviour of all matter. Determine all the chemical reactions that an atom takes part in Determines the number of each atom in any new compound formed. Do not orbit just anywhere but on shells

IONIC COMPOUNDS An ion is an atom that has a charge after receiving or losing electrons. Form because of elements wanting to be stable. Positively charged ion- cations Negatively charged ion- anions Most ionic compounds are solid at room temperature, have high melting points, usually conduct electricity and usually dissolve in aqueous solutions.

COVALENT BONDS Atoms that need but cannot give any electrons. They share electrons and form covalent bonds.

MOLECULAR FORMULA The number and type of atoms that join to form a molecule.

CHEMICAL FORMULA The shorthand way of writing the name of an element or compound.

FORMULA OF A COMPOUND Shows the symbol of the elements that have combined to make the compound and the ratio in which the atoms have joined together.

RADIOISOTOPES Examples Phosphorus 32 (treat leukaemia) Carbon 14 (dating in artifacts) Cobalt 60 ( radiation treatment for cancer)

NUCLEAR REACTORS FUEL RODS Eg. Converting uranium into uranium dioxide then sealing them in rods. The uranium undergoes a FISSION (splitting) reaction in the reactor when neutrons are fired at the radioactive uranium, causing the nuclei to split and form two new elements. Using radioisotopes in the generation of electricity

GENES IN ACTION
DEFINITIONS DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid found in the nucleus double helix composed of sugar and phosphate pieces BASES: A (Adenine) bound to T (thymine) C(Cytosine) bound to G (guanine) Mitosis is for cell growth and repair Meiosis is for formation of gametes Diploid number is the number of chromosomes in each cell Heredity is the passing on of characteristics from one generation to another. The study of inherited characteristics involves genetics. Carrier refers to someone who carries the recessive allele for a trait. Co-dominance is when both alleles are active. Incomplete Dominance is when the alleles both blend together. A mutagen is a factor that triggers a mutation in the cell. Transgenic organisms are ones that have a foreign gene.

DNA REPLICATION RNA Ribosomes Single helix BASES: A (Adenine) bound to U (Uracil) C (Cytosine) bound to G (Guanine) A special enzyme (DNA polymerase) unzips the DNA one section at a time One step at a time to reduce mutations. Complementary bases match up along the unzipped DNA strand.

GENE INHERITENCE Genotype - genetic makeup of an individual Phenotype- physical appearance of an individual

DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES Two dominant = eg. BB (Homozygous Dominant) Two recessive = eg. Bb (Homozygous Recessive)

One dominant, one recessive = eg. Bb (Heterozygous)

SELECTIVE BREEDING Practised in things such as agriculture, horticulture, dog and horse breeding. Selecting desirable traits and the crossing them to increase the chance of a offspring having that trait.

A Plant is a hybrid if it has parents with both alternatives, such as tallness and shortness for characteristics.

SEX LINKAGE ?

MUTATIONS Alterations to the bases in the genes (to the structure of the chromosomes) MINOR Effects: - Minor mutations may have no or little effect. - The bodys immune system usually recognises the changed cell and destroys them quite readily. SEVERE Effects - Interfere with the functioning of the organism and in some cases can even cause death.

Some mutations are a benefit while so do not have any effect until their environment changes. Certain mutations can result in uncontrollable cell division, resulting in cancerous tumours. Chromosome mutation can result from too few or too many chromosomes, or when a piece of one chromosome is attached to another.

Karyotyping can indicate some kinds of chromosomal mutations resulting in disorders. Extra chromosome 21 = down syndrome

INVISIBLE WAVES
DEFINITIONS Wavelength is the distance between two corresponding points on neighbouring waves. Amplitude is the distance the particles move from its resting position. Frequency is the number of complete vibrations per one second Hertz is the unit used to measure frequency Medium is the material through which the waves travel. Rarefaction occurs when air particles are pushed together. Decibels is the unit to measure sound. Acoustics is the study of how sound is absorbed, transmitted and reflected. Reverberation is the reflected sound energy. A CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO) can be used to see wavelength that sounds produce.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. UV Rays X-Rays Microwaves Radio waves Infra Red Visible Light Gamma Rays All these waves travel in transverse waves All travel at the speed of light You distinguish them by their frequency

SOUND WAVES Are all longitudinal. Also known as compression waves. Move back and forwards

Sound waves are unable to travel through a vacuum because there are no particles to push closer together or spread out. Echolocation is the determination of a distance based on the time taken for a high frequency to travel from the original source and back again. (eg. Sonar = sound navigation and ranging) THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY, THE SHORTER THE WAVE LENGTH. The speed of a wave (v) can be measured by the formula WAVE SPEED = FREQUENCY x WAVELENGTH

ULTRASOUND Used with echolocation is used in medicine to produce images of unborn babies in the womb during pregnancy, Can be also used to remove some cancers , treat eye conditions , shatter kidney stones and gallstones (through shock therapy), mix paint, homogenise milk and cut into glass and steel.

ELECTRICITY AT WORK
DEFINITIONS Magnetic Field is the region in which a magnetic force exists. An electromagnet is a temporary magnet consisting of a solenoid and an armature. Solenoid is the coil of wire.

WHERE THERE IS AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT, THERE IS ALSO AN ELECTROMAGNET AND VICE VERSA.

STEP DOWN. Primary coil = more turns Secondary coil = less turns

STEP UP. Primary coil = less turns Secondary coil = more turns