PROGRESS AND TRENDS I N ATR INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION RESEARCH

10th AIVC conference, D i p o l i , Finland 2 5 - 2 8 S e p t e m b e r 1989.

Poster 1 2

BUOYANCY-DRIVEN MODEL:

AIR FLOW IN A CLOSED HALF-SCALE

STAIRWELL

VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE I~EXXJREMENTS

A.S.

ZOHRABIAN, B S c , MSc

P h D R e s e a r c h Student

M.R.MOKHTARZADEH-DEHGHAN,

BSC, MSC, D I C , P h D , MASME, AMIMechE Lecturer,

A . J . REYNOLDS, B A S c , P h D , D I C , C E n g , F I M e c h E , MASCE, FRSA P r o f e s s o r and H e a d of D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g .

D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , B r u n e l U n i v e r s i t y , U x b r i d g e , M i d d l e s e x , UB8 3PH, E n g l a n d .

SUMMARY
This paper d e s c r i b e s an experimental s t u d y of t h e buoyancy-driven flow and t h e a s s o c i a t e d energy t r a n s f e r w i t h i n a c l o s e d , h a l f s c a l e s t a i r w e l l model. I t provides new d a t a on t h e v e l o c i t y , temperature, volume and mass flow r a t e s o f t h e a i r c i r c u l a t i n g between t h e upper and lower s t o r e y s . The r e s u l t s a r e presented f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t r a t e s from t h e h e a t e r , l o c a t e d i n t h e lower f l o o r . For most of t h e d a t a presented, h e a t t r a n s f e r t o t h e surrounding atmosphere t a k e s p l a c e through t h e s i d e w a l l s . However, t h e c a s e of i n s u l a t e d s i d e w a l l s i s a l s o included and t h e e f f e c t s on t h e parameters of i n t e r e s t a r e discussed. The v e l o c i t i e s were measured using hot-wire anemometers o f a temperat u r e compensated t y p e , and t h e temperatures were measured using platinum r e s i s t a n c e thermometers. These measurements were supported by flow v i s u a l i s a t i o n using smoke. The paper a l s o provides d a t a on t h e r a t e of leakage through t h e s t a i r w e l l j o i n t s , measured using a c o n c e n t r a t i o n decay method.

LIST O S M O S F Y BL
A
CI c

Throat a r e a (0.462 m 2 ) Concentration i n s i d e and o u t s i d e s t a i r w e l l (ppm). -1 -1 S p e c i f i c h e a t a t c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e (J kg K 1.

7

D T g h k

D i f f e r e n t i a l temperature (TH - TC) , G r a v i t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n (m s - ~ )

(C deg .)

One h a l f t h e h e i g h t of t h e s t a i r w e l l model ( m ) . Heat c o n d u c t i v i t y (J

I

-1

K-l)

md

Upflow and downflow mass flow r a t e s (kg s-I) Leakage r a t e (kg sell

.
s-l) .
0

Rate of supply of h e a t t o t h e s t a i r w e l l (W).

6s
Tav
T ~ T~ '

Volume flow r a t e through leakage (m3

Average temperature within t h e s t a i r w e l l ( C ) . Mean temperatures of warm upwards-flowing a i r and 0 c o l d downwards-flowing a i r , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( C)

'maxu

Maximum v e l o c i t of t h e flow moving up t h e s t a i r w e l l (m s 1 .

'maxd

Maximum v e l o c i t y of t h e flow moving down t h e s t a i r w e l l (m s - ~ ) . 3 S t a i r w e l l volume (m )

vs
m '

Arithmetic average of t h e volume flow r a t e s , of t h e upf low and downf low (m3 s-') , Gm = (<+Gd) /2. Upflow and downlow volume flow r a t e s S t a i r w e l l width (m)

GI cd
w
z
GREEK S M O S Y BL

(m3 s-I) .

Direction along t h e t h r o a t a r e a ( s e e Figure 1).

B
P

C o e f f i c i e n t of thermal expansion (K Fluid d e n s i t y (kg m Kinematic v i s c o s i t y

-1)

-3

v
1-1

(m2 s-l) -1 s-l) Dynamic v i s c o s i t y (kg m

DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS Fr

Froude n u m b e r

A (gh?

Gr

Grashof number

DT A h

u2
P r P r a n d t l number

" P

Ra

R a y l e i g h number

G r Pr

Re

Reynolds number

vm
A

St

S t a n t o n number

P C
P
T

5 !
av
A(gA)'

DEFINITIONS

T h r o a t area :

The area s h o w n by DD' i n Figure 1.

Side w a l l

A r e a defined by ACDEFDHIA i n F i g u r e 1.

INTRODUCTION

Obtaining a b e t t e r understanding of t h e mechanism and characteri s t i c s of a i r movement within s t a i r w e l l s , i n p r i v a t e dwellings, h o t e l s and public buildings such a s h o s p i t a l s and underground s t a t i o n s , i s important i n r e l a t i o n t o wide ranging problems such a s f i r e s a f e t y , energy saving and movement of micro-organisms and contaminants. Improvements i n t h e b a s i c understanding can be obtained by carrying o u t simple t e s t s on small-scale models, s e t t i n g up simple a n a l y t i c a l models o r using high-level computat i o n a l models. F i r e s account annually f o r thousands of deaths and m i l l i o n s of have c a r r i e d o u t pounds i n l o s s of property. Moodie e t al!') experiments on a one-third s c a l e model of an e s c a l a t o r t o i n v e s t i gate t h e f i r e which occurred i n King's Cross underground s t a t i o n i n 1987. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t , following t h e i g n i t i o n , t h e flame was soon e s t a b l i s h e d a c r o s s t h e f u l l width of t h e e s c a l a t o r channel. The flame f r o n t then remained low i n t h e e s c a l a t o r channel a s t h e f i r e developed and then progressed i n t h e e s c a l a t o r . Zohrabian e t a1. ( 2 ) have shown t h a t sloping t h e s t a i r w e l l c e i l i n g speeds up t h e migration of smoke from t h e lower t o t h e upper compartment, hence helps i n t h e spread of f i r e . Most rooms i n h o s p i t a l s a r e connected by c o r r i d o r s and s t a i r w e l l s . The importance of movements of micro-organisms i n a h o s p i t a l s t a i r s h a f t has been shown by s e v e r a l workers i n recent years. The measurements by Miinch e t a1. ( 3 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t r a n s p o r t of microorganisms depends on t h e temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l within t h e s t a i r w e l l . The experimental measurements of Zohrabian e t a l . ( 2 ) on a h a l f - s c a l e s t a i r w e l l model showed t h a t t h e volume flow r a t e of t h e a i r flow from the lower f l o o r t o t h e upper was increased by increasing t h e heating load o r changing t h e s t a i r w e l l geometry. Hence micro-organisms, a s well a s t o x i c agents o r contaminants which can cause wound i n f e c t i o n , can be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e upper f l o o r s by way of t h e s t a i r w e l l . Therefore, s p e c i a l arrangements o r appropriate s t a i r w e l l design i s needed within h o s p i t a l buildings, i n order t o minimize the flow of unwanted germs o r contaminants t o the higher f l o o r s .
A number of o t h e r useful experimental s t u d i e s a r e reported by ) Brown and ~ o l v a s o n ( 4, haw(^) , Shaw and Whyte ( 6 ), Feustel e t a ~ ( ~ ) Marshall (819) , Mahajan(l0) , R i f f a t e t a l . ( l l ) and R i f f a t and ~ i d ( l ~ ) . Analytical modellin of r e l e v a n t flows a r e reported by Reynolds and rq t Reynolds e t a l . (13 4 ) , Nevrala and ~ r o b e r(15), ~ i d d a r n e n t ( l ~ ) Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics t o flows r e l e v a n t t o buildings have increased i n recent years. But, t o t h e b e s t of t h e present authors' knowledge, t h e only a p l i c a t i o n s t o s t a i r w e l l and Simcox and schomberg(18). flows have been by Zohrabian e t a l . The l a t t e r authors used H R E LF O 3 code t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e A W L - L WD King's Cross f i r e .

(177

The present work extends t h e previous study by Zohrabian e t a l . ( 2 ) by providing new d a t a on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of buoyancy-driven flows i n a half-scale s t a i r w e l l model.

2.

EXPERIMENTAL R I G AND INSTRUMENTATION

A schematic diagram of t h e h a l f - s c a l e s t a i r w e l l model i s shown i n

Figure 1. The d e t a i l s of instrumentation can be found i n Ref. 121. Therefore, only a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o t h e instrumentation and t h e improvements of t h e o r i g i n a l model i s made here. The v e l o c i t i e s were measured using h o t wires of temperature compensated t y p e having a time c o n s t a n t of about Is and accuracy of l e s s than 10 p e r c e n t f o r t h e range of v e l o c i t i e s measured w i t h i n t h e s t a i r w e l l . The temperatures were measured using platinum r e s i s t a n c e thermometers having a time c o n s t a n t of 3 min and accuracy o f 5 0 . 2 5 ~ ~ . The probes were f i x e d t o t h e w a l l s by s p e c i a l l y designed clamps. The s i g n a l s from t h e s e probes were t r a n s f e r r e d t o an Apple computer f o r processing, v i a s i g n a l conditioning e l e c t r o n i c s and Analogue-to-Digital c o n v e r t e r s . The modifications t o t h e r i g described i n r e f e r e n c e [2] were:
(i)

The l i g h t bulbs used a s h e a t source were replaced by an e l e c t r i c r a d i a t o r with s u r f a c e a r e a of 0.57 m x 0.659 m and with a loading power of 1 k . W Both s i d e w a l l s were made of Perspex of 10 mm t h i c k n e s s ( o r i g i n a l l y one of t h e w a l l s was made of Perspex of 12.5 mm t h i c k n e s s and t h e o t h e r made of wood of 18 mm t h i c k n e s s ) . This ensured b e t t e r thermal symmetry i n t h e s t a i r w e l l .

(ii)

3. 3.1.

RESULTS Flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A two-dimensional view of t h e flow p a t t e r n i s shown i n Figure 2 .

The main r e c i r c u l a t i n g flow, r e c i r c u l a t i o n zones, and upward and downward flows i n t h e stairway can be seen. Comparison with previous work [.2] showed t h a t , although some changes had been introduced i n t o t h e design of t h e r i g and completely d i f f e r e n t type of h e a t source was used ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 ) , t h e o v e r a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e flow d i d n o t change s i g n i f i c a n t l y . For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s e e r e f e r e n c e [2]. 3.2. Velocity and temperature p r o f i l e s i n t h e t h r o a t a r e a Figures 3 and 4 show, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e v e l o c i t y and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s from t h e s i d e wall and f o r various h e a t i n p u t r a t e s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e two d i s t i n c t regions: one a s s o c i a t e d with t h e warm upflow; i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e t h r o a t a r e a , and one with t h e c o l d downflow, i n t h e lower p a r t . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e an i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y t o a maximum very c l o s e t o t h e c e i l i n g , a f t e r which it drops t o zero a t t h e c e i l i n g . The maximum v e l o c i t y v a r i e s from about 0.24 m / s a t 100 W t o about 0.54 m / s a t 900 W h e a t i n p u t r a t e . Figure 4 shows t h a t t h e temperature v a r i e s approximately l i n e a r l y from i t s lowest value near t h e s t a i r s t o a maximum very near t o t h e c e i l i n g of t h e t h r o a t a r e a . The same behaviour can be seen f o r o t h e r h e a t i n p u t rates. A s expected, t h e i n c r e a s e i n h e a t i n p u t r a t e has r e s u l t e d i n an i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y and temperature of t h e r e c i r c u l a t i n g flow. The temperature d a t a a l s o show t h a t t h e maximum temperature v a r i e s from approximately 31c a t 100 W t o about 56O a t 900 W h e a t

input r a t e . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n some i d e a of t h e three-dimensional behaviour of t h e flow, t h e above r e s u l t s a r e a l s o presented i n an a l t e r n a t i v e way. Figures 5 and 6 show, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e v e l o c i t y and temperature p r o f i l e s a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s from t h e s i d e w a l l . Figure 5 shows t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s can be considered uniform over about two-thirds of t h e width of t h e s t a i r w e l l . Therefore, t h e o v e r a l l f l u i d flow may be considered a s twodimensional. Figure 6 shows higher temperatures f o r higher h e a t i n p u t r a t e s . Also, t h e temperature p r o f i l e s show h i g h e r degree of uniformity, a c r o s s t h e s t a i r w e l l , f o r higher i n p u t r a t e s . This uniformity i s even more pronounced i n t h e upper region of t h e t h r o a t a r e a . However, it i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t , although, a s expected, t h e lowest temperatures were measured a t p o s i t i o n w/6, t h e h i g h e s t temperatures were n o t recorded a t t h e mid-width of t h e s t a i r w e l l (except f o r t h e 100 W h e a t i n p u t r a t e ) , b u t a t w/3. This i n d i c a t e s complex flow behaviour near t h e s t a i r s . 3.3. Leakage Measurement Figure 7 shows t h e r e s u l t s heat input r a t e . I t shows t r a t i o n a g a i n s t time. The t h e a i r change r a t e , given of t h e tracer-decay t e s t f o r a 100 W v a r i a t i o n s of C 0 2 t r a c e r g a s concennegative s l o p e of t h e l i n e i s equal t o by

bS/vs

A i r change r a t e

where V i s t h e s t a i r w e l l volume, and S through leakage.

bs

i s t h e volume flow r a t e

However, f o r t h e a c t u a l volumetric a i r flow r a t e , o r a i r leakage r a t e i n t h i s c a s e , t h e s t a i r w e l l volume was m u l t i p l i e d by t h e a i r change r a t e . Table 1 g i v e s t h e a i r leakage r a t e s through t h e s t a i r w e l l j o i n t s , f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t r a t e s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e leakage r a t e i n c r e a s e s with h e a t i n p u t r a t e . I t should be noted t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of leakage mass flow r a t e was based on t h e a r i t h m e t i c average T and room temperature. The c a l c u l a t i o n of leakage h e a t flow ?gte was based on t h e d i f f e r e n c e between T a n d - t h e room temperature. av 3.4. Maximum v e l o c i t i e s , mean temperatures and flow r a t e s Table 2 shows t h e maximum v e l o c i t i e s and mean temperatures i n t h e upflow and downflow streams a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s from t h e s i d e w a l l and f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t r a t e s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e maximum a i r v e l o c i t y v a r i e s s l i g h t l y a c r o s s t h e width of t h e t h r o a t a r e a . I t should be noted t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e mean temperatures were based on t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e temperatures measured i n t h e warm upflow and c o l d downflow. Table 3 shows t h e volume and mass flow r a t e s f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i h p u t rates. The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e volume and mass flow r a t e s i n c r e a s e a s t h e h e a t inpu; r a t e i n c r e a s e s . The v a r i a t i o n of t h e can be average volume flow r a t e V , with t h e h e a t i n p u t r a t e w r i t t e n i n t h e following a s suggested by Reynolds(13).

Grm,

6,

It was found that n=0.22. This is in agreement with the previous results [2] and also is generally consistent with the model described by Reynolds (13), in which the value of 0.25 was suggested. Assuming that the inflow and the outflow through cracks take place in the lower and upper compartment, respectively, one expects that $ = & + 6%. The results of table 3 show that the two sides I of above refationship differ by less than 5 per cent. The possible reasons for this discrepancy are given in section 4.3. 3.5. Rate of heat loss through the stairwell Table 4 gives the rate of heat loss from the stairwell for various heat input rates. The results show that the heat losses through the several stairwell boundaries vary approximately linearly with the heat input rate. The results also indicate that over 50 per cent of the heat is lost through the stairwell side walls (for further discussion see section 4.4).
3.6.

Effect of insulated side walls on the results Table 5 shows the rate of heat loss from the stairwell with insulated side walls. The results show a substantial increase in the rate of heat transfer through the other walls. For example, the rate of heat transfer through the upper compartment ceiling has tripled. The results (not given here) also showed that higher velocities and temperatures resulted, both in the upflow and in the downflow streams.

4.

DISCUSSION

4.1. Characteristic dimensionless numbers The characteristic dimensionless numbers relevant to the natural convection in stairwell flows are Froude, Stanton, Reynolds and Grashof numbers. Table'6 gives values of the dimensionless numbers for the half-scale stairwell geometry. Full discussion of their range for the half-scale model is given by Reynolds et a1 (I4). The corresponding values for full-scale stairwells can be found using the scaling principles set out by Reynolds(13). These are based effectively on Froude scaling. For example, for a . Froude number about 1 4 times the prototype value, requires that the ratio of the energy input of the model to the prototype be 0.24. With this Froude scaling, the magnitudes of the temperatures and velocities become identical in full and model scales. Using this scaling for various heat input rates, the dimensionless numbers at the throat area were in the ranges :

on the half scale and

on t h e e q u i v a l e n t f u l l s c a l e .
I t should be noted t h a t :

(i)

The f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s were evaluated a t t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e 45 temperature readings d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n t h e upper and lower compartments.

(ii) The volume flow r a t e s used f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of Reynolds and Froude numbers were based on t h e average of t h e upflow and downflow volume flow r a t e s .

The flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e lower compartment may be understood by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Rayleigh number. One of t h e most common, and s i m p l e s t n a t u r a l convection problems occurs when a v e r t i c a l heated f l a t p l a t e t r a n s f e r s h e a t t o a s t i l l , c o l d e r surrounding f l u i d . This i s approximately t h e c a s e c l o s e t o t h e h e a t e r , where, depending upon f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s and t h e thermal g r a d i e n t , t r a n g i t i o n t o t u r b u l e n t flow occurs when Rayleigh number i s about 10 The Rayleigh number, based on t h e h e a t e r h e i g h t , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s u r f a c e temperature of t h e h e a t e r and t h a t o f t h e surrounding f l u i d , and t h e f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s evaluated a t t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e temperatures measured i n t h e lower compartment, was found t o be w i t h i n t h e range 4.361 x lo8 t o 1.763 x 10' , f o r 100 W t o 900 W h e a t i n p u t r a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

4.2.

The v e l o c i t y and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e t h r o a t a r e a The flow was symmetrical with r e s p e c t t o t h e mid-plane of t h e s t a i r w e l l . This was examined by measuring temperatures and v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e t h r o a t a r e a a t w/2, w/3 and w/6 d i s t a n c e s from both s i d e w a l l s of t h e s t a i r w e l l . There was a discrepancy of l e s s than 2 p e r c e n t between t h e temperatures and l e s s than 3 p e r c e n t between t h e v e l o c i t i e s measured from t h e two s i d e s . Therefore, a symmetrical c o n d i t i o n was assumed with r e s p e c t t o t h e mid-plane of t h e t h r o a t a r e a , and t h e measurements were c a r r i e d o u t i n only one h a l f of t h e s t a i r w e l l .

4.3.

Volume and mass flow r a t e s and f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e i r accuracy Table 3 g i v e s t h e flow r a t e s i n t h e upflow and downflow a t t h e t h r o a t a r e a f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t r a t e s . A s mentioned i n s e c t i o n 3.4, t h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e a discrepancy of l e s s than 5 p e r c e n t between t h e upflow and downflow ( i n c l u d i n g leakage) r a t e s . This discrepancy can be a t t r i b u t e d mainly t o experimental e r r o r s and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n procedure using Simpson's r u l e . Moreover, t h e zero v e l o c i t y d i d n o t u s u a l l y coincide with t h e mid-height of t h e t h r o a t a r e a . However, t h i s was assumed f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of volume flow r a t e s , a s determination of t h e a c t u a l p o s i t i o n , which v a r i e d with time, was d i f f i c u l t . F i n a l l y , t h e n e a r e s t p o i n t a t which t h e v e l o c i t y could be measured was 10 mm from t h e w a l l . Therefore, f o r l o c a t i o n s c l o s e r t o t h e w a l l t h e v e l o c i t i e s were measured using a l e s s a c c u r a t e a i r v e l o c i t y meter,

4.4.

Heat t r a n s f e r r a t e s through t h e s t a i r w e l l w a l l s and j o i n t s The h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e s through t h e s t a i r w e l l a r e given i n Table 4. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t more than h a l f of t h e h e a t i n p u t t o t o t h e s t a i r w e l l i s l o s t through t h e s i d e w a l l s . The r e s u l t s a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e of l e s s than 3 p e r c e n t between t h e measured h e a t i n p u t r a t e t o t h e s t a i r w e l l and t h e r a t e of measured h e a t l o s s from t h e s t a i r w e l l . This e r r o r i n t h e h e a t balance can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e following f a c t s :

( i ) The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e h e a t l o s s was based on t h e s u r f a c e temperatures measured a t t h e mid-plane of t h e s t a i r w e l l , and were assumed uniform a c r o s s i t s width. However, l i m i t e d measurements showed t h a t f o r a h e a t i n p u t of 600 W , t h e s u r f a c e temperature v a r i e d by 0.4C deg.
(ii)The h e a t i n p u t r a t e t o t h e r a d i a t o r was determined from recordings of v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t . The accuracy of t h e h e a t i n p u t r a t e was about 2 p e r c e n t .

I n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t of t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e through t h e s i d e w a l l s on t h e v e l o c i t y and temperature p r o f i l e s a t t h e t h r o a t a r e a , t h e s i d e w a l l s of t h e s t a i r w e l l were i n s u l a t e d . Table 5 g i v e s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e s f o r t h i s case. The r e s u l t s ( n o t shown h e r e ) i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s u l a t i o n of t h e s i d e w a l l s r e s u l t e d i n an i n c r e a s e i n temperatures i n t h e t h r o a t a r e a of approximately 3 deg. f o r 300 W and between 5 deg. t o 8 deg. C C C f o r 600 W h e a t i n p u t r a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Also, t h e v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e t h r o a t a r e a i n c r e a s e d by up t o 13 p e r c e n t i n t h e upflow and up t o 15 p e r c e n t i n t h e downflow, f o r 300 W and 600 W h e a t i n p u t r a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e s u l t s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s u l a t i o n of t h e s i d e w a l l s r e s u l t e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e of h e a t t r a n s f e r through t h e o t h e r w a l l s . For example, t h e r a t e of h e a t t r a n s f e r through t h e upper-compartment c e i l i n g i n c r e a s e d by about 60 p e r c e n t f o r both 300 W and 600 W heat input rates. Furthermore, t h e Reynolds number i n c r e a s e d by 20 p e r c e n t , and t h e Grashof number by about 6 p e r c e n t . 5.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

This paper h a s addressed a number of q u e s t i o n s l e f t open i n t h e a u t h o r s ' e a r l i e r s t u d i e s of s t a i r w e l l flows. The symmetry of t h e flow, and i n f l u e n c e s which give r i s e t o d e p a r t u r e s from i t , have been i n v e s t i g a t e d . Tracer-gas determinations of t h e leakage r a t e from t h e nominally s e a l e d t e s t r i g have been c a r r i e d o u t , and t h e r e s u l t s have been used t o analyse d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n o t h e r measurements. The i n f l u e n c e of thermal boundary c o n d i t i o n s has been s t u d i e d , and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of h e a t outflows through t h e boundaries of t h e s t a i r w e l l system has been c l a r i f i e d . Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e a d d i t i o n a l measurements provide a more comprehensive and convincing p i c t u r e o f t h e processes involved i n t h i s family of buoyancy-driven flows,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T h e authors w o u l d l i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e the helpful i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h they received f r o m t h e A i r I n f i l t r a t i o n and V e n t i l a t i o n C e n t r e ( A I V C ) , and F i r e R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n ( F R S ) . T h e y also w i s h t o thank t h e Science and E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l f o r f i n a n c i a l support given as part of t h e ' E n e r g y i n B u i l d i n g s ' Specially P r o m o t e d P r o g r a m m e . REFERENCES

1.

MOODIE, K . , JAGGER, S.F., B E T T I S , R . J . and B E C m T T , H. " F i r e a t K i n g ' s C r o s s U n d e r g r o u n d S t a t i o n - Scale m o d e l f i r e g r o w t h tests". H e a l t h and S a f e t y E x e c u t i v e , R e s e a r c h and L a b . Services. H a r p u r H i l l , B u x t o n , D e r b y s h i r e , S K 1 7 9 J N , 1988. ZOHRABIAN, A . S . , MOKHTARZADEH-DEHGHAN, M.R., REYNOLDS, A . J . MARRIOTT, B . S . T . " A n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y of buoyancy-driven f l o w i n a h a l f ; scale s t a i r w e l l m o d e l " . B u i l d i n g E n v i r o n m e n t , V o l . 2 4 , N o . 2 , pp. 141-148, 1989. MUNCH, W, , &DEN, H . , SCHKALLE, Y.D. and T H I E L E , F. " F l o w of m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s i n a h o s p i t a l s t a i r s h a f t - F u l l scale m e a s u r e m e n t s and m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l " . E n e r g y and B u i l d i n g s , -, pp. 2 5 3 - 2 6 2 , 1986. 9 BROWN, W .G. and SOLVASON, K.R. " N a t u r a l convection through rectangular openings i n partitions - V e r t i c a l Partitions". I n t . J. H e a t M a s s T r a n s f e r , V o 1 . 5 , pp. 859-868, 1962. SHAW, B.H. " H e a t and m a s s t r a n s f e r by n a t u r a l convection and combined n a t u r a l and forced a i r f l o w through large rectangular

2.

3.

4.

5.

openings i n a v e r t i c a l p a r t i t i o n " . I n s t n . M e c h . E n g s . , ~ 1 1 7 / 7 1 , pp.31-39,

6.

1971.

SHAW, B.H. and WHYTE, W. " A i r m o v e m e n t through d o o r w a y s - t h e i n f l u e n c e of t e m p e r a t u r e and i t s c o n t r o l by forced a i r f l o w " . B S E . D e c . 1 9 7 4 , V o l . 4 2 , pp. 2 1 0 - 2 1 8 , 1974. F E U S T E L , H . , ZUERCHER, C . H . , DIAMOND, R . , DICKINSON, B., GRIMSRUD, D . , and L I P S C H U T Z , R . " T e m p e r a t u r e and w i n d - i n d u c e d a i r f l o w p a t t e r n s i n a staircase: C o m p u t e r m o d e l l i n g and e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n " . E n e r g y and B u i l d i n g s , -, pp. 1 0 5 - 1 2 2 , 1985. 8 MARSHALL, N.R. " T h e behaviour of h o t gases f l o w i n g w i t h i n a staircase". F i r e S a f e t y J o u r n a l , -, pp. 2 4 5 - 2 5 5 , 1985. 9

7.

8.

MARSHALL, N.R. " A i r e n t r a i n m e n t i n t o s m o k e and h o t gases i n open s h a f t s " . F i r e S a f e t y J o u r n a l , - pp. 3 7 - 4 6 , 1986. lo, MAHAJAN, BAL M. " M e a s u r e m e n t of i n t e r z o n a l heat and m a s s t r a n s f e r by n a t u r a l

convection".
Solar E n e r g y , V o l .

38, N o . 6 ,

- pp

437-446,

1987.

R I F F A T , S . B . , WALKER, J . and L I T T L E R , J. " Z o n e t o zone tracer gas m e a s u r e m e n t : Laboratory calibration and values of a i r f l o w s up and d o w n stairs i n houses". 9 t h A I V C C o n f e r e n c e " E F F E C T I V E VENTILATION" 12-15 September 1988. N o v o t e l , G e n t . , B e l g i u m . R I F F A T , S . B . and E I D , M. " M e a s u r e m e n t of a i r f l o w b e t w e e n t h e f l o o r s of houses using a portable SF6 s y s t e m " . E n e r g y and B u i l d i n g s , - pp. 67-75, 1988. 12, RJIYNOLDS, A . J . " T h e s c a l i n g of f l o w s of energy and m a s s through s t a i r w e l l s " . B u i l d . and E n v i r . , V o l . 2 1 , P a r t 3/4, pp. 149-153, 1986. REYNOLDS, A . J . , MOKHTARZADEH-DEHGHAN, M.R. and ZOHRABIAN, A . S . " T h e m o d e l l i n g of s t a i r w e l l f l o w s " . B u i l d . and E n v i r . , V o l . 23, N o . 1 , pp. 63-66, 1988. NEVRALA, D . J . and PROBERT, S.D. " M o d e l l i n g of a i r m o v e m e n t i n r o o m s " . Journal of M e c h . E n g . Science, V o l . 19, N o . 6 ,

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LIDDAMENT , M W " M o d e l l i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e of v e n t i l a t i o n strategies on d i s t r i b u t i o n and heat loss i n a singl'e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g " . Proceedings of 2 n d I n t . C o n g r e s s on B u i l d i n g E n e r g y Management. 30 M a y - 3 June 1983, I o w a , USA. M.R., REYNOLDS, A . J . ZOHRABIAN, A . S . , MOKHTARZADEH-DEHGHAN, "A n u m e r i c a l study of buoyancy-driven f l o w s of m a s s and energy i n a s t a i r w e l l " . 9 t h A I V C C o n f e r e n c e " E F F E C T I V E VENTILATION" 12-15 S e p t e m b e r 1988. N o v o t e l , G e n t . , B e l g i u m . SIMCOX, S. and SCHOMBERG, M. "Tunnel of Fire". Science and B u s i n e s s . N o v - D e c

..

I s s u e , 1988.

HEAT INPUT RATE

AIR CEIANGE RATE

LEAKAGE RATE

LEAKAGE RATE

4
(w)

is/vs p e r hour
0.0659 0.0998 0.1085 0.1575

is
(m3/s)
5.42x10-~

EXTERNAL EXTERNAL CONCENTRA. TEMP. TION (OC) 19.5 21.0 21.5 21.5
T~

(kg/s) 6.45x10-~ 9.69x10-'

me

(PPM) 150-160 150-160 180 280

100

300

8. 21x10-'
8.92x10-' 1.29x10-~

600 900 T a b l e 1:

( 1.49xl0-~ 1

1.04x10-~

Rate o f leakage through t h e stairwell j o i n t s , f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t rates.

DISTANCE F O RM SIDE W L (m) AL

sl!
(w)
100

*maxu

(m/s
0.17 0.28 0.36 0.42 0.16 0.27 0.34 0.41 0.17 0.27 0.34 0.46 0.17 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.35 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.31

'rnaxd (m/s 1 0.24 0.31 0.36 0.54 0.23 0.27 0.36 0.54 0.22 0.27 0.36 0.50 0.21 0.23 0.32 0.47
0.18 0.21 0.31 0.47

T~

T~
(OC)

(OC) 29.7 35.4 43.6 50.1 29.8 35.5 43.6 50.4 29.7 35.5 43 - 4 50.7 29.8 35 - 5 43.2 50.6 28 .O 35 .O 42.5 49.6 27.6 32.8 39.9 46 - 3

w/2

300 600 900

100

28 - 3 32.1 36.8 41.8 28 .O 31.6 37.3 41.5 27 -8 31.6 37.2 41.1 27.3 31.1 37 .O 42.5 26.8 30.2 36.2 41.4 26 - 0 28.2 34.7 37.7

5w/12

300 600 900

100

w/3

300 600 900

100

w/4

300 600 900

100

w/6

300 600 900

100

w/12

300 600 900

0.16 0.18 0.31 0.47

T a b l e 2:

Maximum v e l o c i t i e s and mean t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e upflow and downflow s t r e a m s ( a t t h e t h r o a t area) a t w/2, 5w/12, w/3, w/4, w/6, w/12 f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t rates.

Table 3:

Volume and m a s s flow r a t e s i n t h e upflow and downflow ( i n c l u d i n g l e a k a g e ) , a t t h r o a t area f o r v a r i o u s h e a t i n p u t rates.

CORRESPONDING WL AL
AC CD

100

300

600

900

(w)
15.6 4.7 3 .O 6.3 3.7 2.5 5.5 58.6 0.6 100.5

(w)
39.9 17.2 7.3 29.4 9.6 6.1 16.8 164 .O
1.1

(w)
67 - 4 41.5 18.2 58.7 18.1 12.1 33.5 350.4 1.8 601.7

(w)
95.6 45.5 23.1 83 .O 26.7 18.7 42 - 8 583.9 3 -1 922.4

D E EF
FG
GH

HI+IA SIDE W L S AL LEAKAGE TOTAL LOSS

291.4

T a b l e 4:

Rate o f h e a t l o s s from t h e s t a i r w e l l a t various h e a t i n p u t r a t e s (see Figure 1).

TOTAL LOSS Table 5:

288.4 Rate of heat loss from the stairwell, with insulated side walls (see Figure 1).

586.5

Table 6:

Basic performance characteristics of the closed-stairwell geometry.

Wall CD DE AC EF

mm
940 1285 1155 2520 0765 1136 1070

~d
FG GH

Figure 1.

Schematic diagram of, the half-scale stairwell model.

Figure 2.

A two-dimensional view of the flow pattern in the stairwell.

Figure 4

Temperature distributions at various distances from the side wall, for various heat input rates. (a) w/2, (b) 4 3 , ( c ) w/6 0 lOOW, 0 3 0 0 W , A6OOW, +3OOW.

~ $ 9
a, -4

. c
a)a)

OJJ

3 A
\
U)

a*

a E
LIU-rLD
0
'8-4
( R n \

L I
*

B
I 0

'88

o a .du

cu (Ro0 3 4
lJ..

c c