Valentina Feldman Advanced Physics Research Paper Due: January 14, 2011 COOL PHYSICS an Explanation of Superconductivity Physics

s is generally accepted as being an absolute science. One cannot simply ignore gravity, for example, or factor out the effects of magnetism when working with circuitry. However, every now and then an unexpected result in a physics experiment forces scientists to rethink their theories, opening a new realm of understanding and possibility. Such was the case with a game-changing discovery made by Dutch Physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 (Lertola, Joe). Onnes made a revolutionary discovery in his lab one day while he was testing a known attribute of conductors as a substance heats up, it gains electrical resistance due to the increased electron movement at the subatomic level. Naturally, physicists wanted to push this theory to its limits, and Onnes did exactly that by using liquid helium to chill a mercury sample to the super-cold temperature of 4 Kelvin. Shockingly, at this incredibly frigid temperature, the electrical resistance of the mercury abruptly vanished. Onnes had discovered superconductivity a discovery that, to this day, shows immense potential for practical advances in technology.

To begin with a simple definition, a superconductor is an element or metallic alloy which, when cooled to near absolute zero, dramatically loses all electrical resistance (How Stuff Works).

Electrical resistance in a conductor results in a loss of power, increase in temperature, and other undesirable, inefficient effects. The prospect of a substance without any electrical resistance has an immense amount of potential for energy conservation, efficient transportation, power storage, and much more. For example, heat generated through electrical resistance in copper wire accounts for nearly 20% of energy loss in high-tension power lines (Lertola, Joe). If those copper lines were replaced with superconductors, there would be no energy loss to electrical resistance at all. If superconductors were able to be harnessed for the purpose of power transportation, not a kilowatt-second of power would be wasted not through resistance, friction, or any other qualifiers that often mark the difference between theoretical and practical efficiency in physics. Coils of superconductive wire have been proven to carry an electrical current for years with no loss of energy (Woodford, Chris). In theory, superconductive wires would be able to carry large amounts of power for extended periods of time across near-infinite distances with no loss at all. To fully understand why a substance with zero electrical resistance is so special, one must first have a firm mental grasp on

what causes resistance in the first place. According to a lab report published by a group of MIT Junior Lab students, Electrical resistance in an Ohmic conductor is caused by scattering of conduction electrons by impurities of atoms from their equilibrium positions due to thermal motion. In principle, if there were no such defects, the conductivity of a metal would be infinite (MIT). However, no such perfect conductor has ever been identified, and the easiest way to decrease the electrical resistance in any substance is to lower the temperature. This eases the thermal vibrations, allowing electrons to pass through the material without knocking into things as much. However, the impurities are still present, and before the discovery of superconductivity, this caused scientists to believe that it was impossible to achieve zero resistance without discovering a perfect conductor substance. Why, then, are the electrons in a superconductor that is cooled below its critical temperature (Tc) able to bypass the impurities of the substance and take the path of no resistance? As of today, the most widely-accepted explanation of superconductivity is the BCS theory, which won the 1972 Nobel Prize for physicists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer (Lertola, Joe). Most conductive materials are made up of a crystal lattice structure, marked by the impurities that create electrical resistance by passing electrons. The vibrational modes of the positive ions in this lattice are called

phonons, and the BCS theory states that interactions between phonons and electrons at extremely low temperatures create an attraction between electrons that is actually strong enough to override the natural repulsion between like charges (MIT). According to the MIT Department of Physics, This attraction causes the formation of bound pairs of electrons with opposite momentum and spin. These Cooper pairs, named after discoverer Leon Cooper, allow electrons to join together and flow through the superconductors imperfections in an organized formation, avoiding the impurities by moving in an even, controlled stream (Woodford, Chris). The MIT report states that because Cooper pairs are Bosons, they can condense into a single quantum state, which can constitute an electric current that flows without resistance. In laymans terms, this essentially means that the Cooper pairs of electrons can blend together into one quantum wave that flows through a critically chilled superconductor without any drag (Dillow, Clay). When the temperature of the superconductor rises above Tc, the thermal movement of electrons causes the Cooper pairs to break up. This results in the quenching of the superconductivity, and the substance regains its resistance. It could therefore be said that a

superconductors critical temperature is a measure of the binding energy of an electron pair (MIT).

A columnist at explainthatstuff.com took a considerably simpler and more romantic approach to the explanation of these pairs: Think of Cooper pairing as a kind of marriage. Just as marriage can help two people sail through life's ups and downs by joining forces, so Cooper pairing allows two negative electrons to travel through a conductor together without getting bogged down in lots of troublesome little obstacles (Woodford, Chris). Regardless of the reasoning behind the electron pairing of superconductors, there is no doubt that the result is effective. However, there are complications that arise when trying to harness this discovery for practical use, which explains why superconductive technology isnt very common, despite the discovery being one hundred years old. First and foremost is the issue of temperature. Mercury, the first superconductive element to be observed, has a critical temperature of 4.15 Kelvin, or -452.2 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to cool the mercury to that temperature, Onnes had to use highly compressed liquid helium, a substance that is both rare and expensive (Lertola, Joe). Containing the liquid helium was another issue, because it quickly vaporizes away unless it is tightly sealed in a highly insulated container. Even sealing it in a container is dangerous the gas will evaporate even if insulated and sealed, and substances expand exponentially when making the phase change from liquid to gas. This

renders liquid helium as a double threat its cryogenic temperatures will cause near-instant frostbite if in contact with skin, and it will explode if not properly contained. Even if the liquid helium were properly handled, the cost and energy of cooling substances like mercury in large enough quantities to act as power lines wouldnt be worth the money and power it would conserve by creating a circuit with no electrical resistance. As such, superconductors remained a relatively unexplored branch of technology for a very long time. In the early 1980s, however, a group of scientists (including Karl Alex Muller and Johannes Georg Bednorz of IBM) stumbled across a class of metallic oxides, or ceramic compounds, that were able to function as superconductors at relatively high temperatures (Lertola, Joe). The first ceramic compound they tested, a compound of barium, lanthanum, copper and oxygen, was able to achieve the hitherto unprecedented critical temperature of 35 Kelvin. As scientists

continued to test numerous ceramic compounds for superconductive qualities, the record for the highest critical temperature of a superconductor continued to rise. Today, the record for the highest critical temperature achieved in a ceramic goes to the compound TlBaCaCuO at 125 Kelvin (How Stuff Works). Other ceramics, such as YBa2Cu3O7 (with a Tc of 90 Kelvin), are also commonly used. Although these temperatures still required the use of cryogenic coolants to achieve, scientists were able to use liquid nitrogen, which

has a boiling temperature of 77 Kelvin, instead of liquid helium. According to Joe Lertola of TIME magazine, a gallon of liquid nitrogen cost less than a gallon of milk at the time, and was safe enough for scientists to carry around in portable thermoses. This convenience and safety resulted in a renewed interest among the scientific minds of the world in superconductivity, which once again seemed plausible for an alternative technology for power lines and more. However, there was still an unanswered question about the new ceramic superconductors: why did these ceramic compounds, which arent particularly good conductors at room temperature, suddenly take on qualities of superconductivity at high-cryogenic temperatures? In fact, some of the ceramics which are used as superconductors have a dual function of acting as an insulator at room temperature, essentially serving the opposite purpose that they serve in frigid conditions. There is much speculation as to why some metallic oxides suddenly switch from being insulators to superconductors at their critical temperatures, but despite the experimentation of scientists around the world, a definitive trigger has yet to be found (MIT). However, if past research with low-temperature superconductors is to be believed, the BCS theory points towards a phase change at the quantum level that creates the resistance-free quality of the

substance. The only unanswered question is why some ceramic compounds react this way, and why some are utterly unaffected.

Although the resistance-free quality of superconductive materials is both impressive and full of potential, that isnt the only trick up a superconductors metaphorical sleeve. One of the defining

characteristics of a superconductor is the unique way it interacts with a magnetic field. In most conductive materials, magnetic fields naturally interact with a current in a perpendicular fashion, penetrating the material. However, when Meissner and Ochsenfeld experimented with magnetic fields around superconductors in 1933, they were surprised to learn that the magnetic field inside a superconductor is always zero (Lertola, Joe). This later became known as the Meissner effect, a quality that is now the most sure-fire way of identifying

superconductors. Because of the Meissner effect, superconductors can be

considered perfectly diamagnetic. Diamagnetism is a quality of an object that makes it oppose an external magnetic field. Although present in all materials, diamagnetism is a relatively weak force in most (Jones, Robert). However, superconductors are able to repel opposing magnets entirely, except for at the very surface. When a superconductor is brought into contact with a strong magnet, the magnetic flux lines curve around it because of the magnetic fields inability to penetrate the superconductor. Diamagnetism and the Meisnner effect are often demonstrated through superconductive levitation, an experiment in which a rare

earth magnet is placed over a superconductor that is chilled past its critical temperature, typically with liquid nitrogen. The Meissner effect causes the magnet to be simultaneously attracted and repelled from the superconductor, and the equal forces result in a levitation effect that lasts until the superconductor is warmed (DReego, Charles; Harris, Rachel). Although the Meissner effect is an impressive phenomenon to observe, strong magnetic fields have been known to shut down superconductors entirely. When Meissner first began conducting his experiments, he observed that as soon as enough current was flowing through the then-known superconductors (lead, tin, and mercury) to generate significant magnetic fields, the metals lost their

superconductivity (Lertola, Joe). However, in the 1950s, scientists observed that alloys such as niobium titanium and niobium tin kept their superconductivity in the presence of the strong magnetic fields. By the 1960s and 1970s, mass production of these large

superconducting magnets began. For a long time, the question of why certain materials lose their superconductivity when exposed to strong magnetic fields and why some dont befuddled scientists. Eventually, extensive experimentation revealed that superconductors were actually divided into two large groups, creatively named Type 1 and Type 2, based on how they reacted to magnets (Cho, Adrian). Both of these groups lose

superconductivity after the magnetic field theyre exposed to passes a critical level which is unique to each specific substance, similar to how each substance has a unique critical temperature, specific heat, et cetera. For a Type 1 superconductor like lead or tin, superconductivity is lost almost immediately after the magnetic field passes this critical level. Type 2 superconductors like the niobium alloys are a bit more involved, and actually have two critical levels. If the magnetic field is stronger than the first level but weaker than the second, it can penetrate the superconductive material, but only through quantum vortices that Science Magazine describes as tiny whirlpools of current (Cho, Adrian). In Type 2 superconductors, these vortices repel to form a lattice structure, unlike in Type 1 where the vortices attract and merge to form non-superconducting patches with electrical resistance. This explains why Type 1 superconductors quickly lose their superconductivity when the magnetic field passes the critical level. Once the external magnetic field passes the second critical level of a Type 2 material, superconductivity is lost, just as it would be in a Type 1 superconductor. Recent research of both metallic and ceramic superconductors has yielded even more information about the peculiar effects of magnetic fields on these enigmatic materials. In addition to the Type 1 and Type 2 superconductors previously identified, new evidence points

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towards a new form of superconductor a mix between the two, tentatively named Type 1.5 (Cho, Adrian). According to Science Magazine, whether a superconductor will act as Type 1 or Type 2 when exposed to a magnetic field depends on the energy bands within the materials atoms. Magnesium diboride, a material with two energy bands that produce superconductivity, has recently been reclassified as a Type 1.5 superconductor because one of the bands has vortices that attract (like in Type 1

superconductivity), and one of the bands vortices repel (as in Type 2). Even while theyre still trying to pinpoint the causes of the magnetic phenomena witnessed in superconductors, scientists are already brainstorming to come up with practical applications of the Meissner effect. In 1990, magnetic levitation technology received a burst of media attention with the launch of a nationally-funded MAGLEV train project in Japan. The Yamanashi Maglev Test Line was opened in April of 1997, and the MLX01 test vehicle reached a peak speed of 361 miles per hour in December of 2003 (Superconductor Uses). Although the vehicle didnt use superconductors, the electromagnets raised interest in the topic of levitating trains. If superconductors were used instead of the electromagnets, there would be no loss of power in addition to the lack of friction. Not only that, but this technology would be virtually pollution-free. In theory, the only power a superconductor

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train would need to move forward would be that necessary to overcome air resistance. Unfortunately, wide use of MAGLEV vehicles has been limited because of political and environmental issues strong magnets can create a biohazard (Superconductor Uses). Perhaps if the powerful, bulky electromagnets of MAGLEV trains were swapped with quiet, green superconductive replacements, these effects would be diminished. In addition to transportation, the Meissner effect has many other potential applications. According to Science Magazine, Because they carry current without resistance, coils of superconducting wire are ideal for generating the high magnetic fields in, say, an MRI machine (Cho, Adrian). Biomagnetism, the field of medical science that Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is classified under, is essential to saving lives because it provides doctors with a non-invasive means of determining whats going on inside the human body (Superconductor Uses). One practical application of superconductivity in the medical field is with a device called a SQUID a Superconducting QUantum Interference Device which uses the unique magnetic properties of superconductor technology to sense incredibly small magnetic fields, such as those in the human body. The SQUID devices are capable of detecting fields as small as 51018 Teslas. To put that into perspective, the average magnet on a refrigerator has a magnetic field of 10 2 Teslas

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(Superconductor

Uses).

Some

fields

of

medicine

such

as

Magnetoencephalography use SQUIDs to detect minute magnetic fields which doctors use to make deductions about neurological brain activity. The only obstacle standing in the way of widespread

superconductor technology is the stubborn issue of temperature control. If only scientists were able to synthesize a superconductive material that functions at close to room temperature, all of the beneficial implications of this technology could be utilized. Power lines wouldnt lose any energy across wide distances; transportation would be frictionless, pollution-free, and faster than ever; and the precise medical imaging applications of SQUIDs would be commonplace in every hospital. Despite the lack of very recent breakthroughs in high-

temperature superconductors, physics researchers across the world continue to feverishly search for the key that will unlock the technology. According to a Popular Science article from July of 2010, they may be getting close (Dillow, Clay). Samus Davis, a project leader at DOE, says that the key may lie in the asymmetrical structure of copper-oxide superconductors at the critical temperature. The article compares it to LCD technology: Asymmetries in liquid crystals gave scientists the tools to manipulate them, and now LCD screens are

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cheap and ubiquitous. Perhaps in the next few years, technology based on superconductivity will become just as commonplace.

Works Cited

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Cho, Adrian. "New Type of Superconductivity Spotted." Science Magazine. AAAS, 13 Mar. 2009. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2009/03/13-01.html>. Dillow, Clay. "DOE Researchers Take Major Stride Towards Creating Room-Temperature Superconductors." Popular Science. 15 July 2010. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-07/doeresearchers-find-big-piece-superconductor-puzzle>. D'Reego, Charles, and Rachel Harris. Can Magnets Float? Magnetic Levitation and the Meissner Effect. Rep. Northwest Arkansas College, 22 June 2009. Web. Jones, Robert. "The Meissner Effect." How It Works Magazine. 4 Dec. 2009. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://www.howitworksdaily.com/science/the-meissner-effect/>. Lertola, Joe. "Science: Superconductors!" TIME Magazine 11 May 1987. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,964303,00. html>. Superconductivity: The Meissner Effect, Persistent Currents and the Josephson Effects. Rep. MIT Dept. of Physics, 2 Sept. 2010. Web. <http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/JLExperiments/JLExp39.pdf>. "Superconductor Uses." Superconductors.org. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://www.superconductors.org/Uses.htm>.

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"What Is Superconductivity?" How Stuff Works. The Discovery Channel. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/questi on610.htm>. Woodford, Chris. "Introduction to Superconductivity." Explain That Stuff! Science and Technology Made Simple. 23 Sept. 2008. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. <http://www.explainthatstuff.com/superconductors.html>.

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