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2006 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org). Published in ASHRAE Journal (Vol.

48, June 2006). For personal use only. Additional distribution in either paper or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAEs permission.

Solar Cooling
An Overview of European Applications & Design Guidelines
By Constantinos A. Balaras, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE, Hans-Martin Henning, Ph.D., Edo Wiemken, Gershon Grossman, Dr.Sci., Erich Podesser, Ph.D., and Carlos A. Infante Ferreira, Ph.D.

olar air conditioning is an emerging market with a huge growth potential. Peak cooling demand in summer is associated with

fect, and new refrigerant is supplied in its place in an open-ended loop.


Comparing Technologies

high availability of solar radiation, which offers an excellent opportunity to exploit solar energy with heat-driven cooling machines. The main obstacles for large-scale applications, besides high rst cost, are the lack of practical experience with the design, control, operation, installation and maintenance of these systems.
For low power cooling systems, commercial technologies are available on a limited basis. However, a strong focus exists for research on other applications including photovoltaic-operated refrigeration cycles and solar mechanical refrigeration.1 This article reviews representative European solar cooling installations and provides some practical design guidelines. The main heat-driven cooling technologies include:
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Single- and double-effect gas-red absorption systems, primarily manufactured in the U.S., China, Japan, and India, are proven and marketable technologies that may be adapted and integrated in a solarassisted installation. Typical coefcient of performance (COP)* for large single-effect machines are 0.7 to 0.8. For improved
About the Authors Constantinos A. Balaras, Ph.D., Group Energy Conservation, Institute for Environmental Research & Sustainable Development, at the National Observatory of Athens, Greece; Hans-Martin Henning, Ph.D., and Edo Wiemken, Thermal Systems and Buildings, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, Freiburg, Germany; Gershon Grossman, Dr.Sci., professor of mechanical engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel; Erich Podesser, Ph.D., Joanneum Research, Institute of Energy Research, Graz, Austria; Carlos A. Infante Ferreira, Ph.D., Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.

Closed-cycle systems. Absorption2 and adsorption3 cycles are examples. They produce chilled water that can be used in combination with any airconditioning equipment such as an air-handling unit, fan-coil systems, chilled ceilings, etc. Open-cycle systems. Desiccant systems are one example.3 The term open cycle is used to indicate that the refrigerant is discarded from the system after providing the cooling efashrae.org

performance, double-effect absorption systems are available, with typical operating COPs of 1.0 to 1.2. Current research is focusing on three- and four-effect systems, which present an attractive potential for improved cooling performance, with a COP of 1.7 to 2.2.4 For solar-assisted systems, it is important to select the appropriate solar collector type to meet the temperature needs of the cooling machine. Systems with high COP values need higher operating temperatures. For example, double-effect cycles need high-efciency concentrating collectors. Commercially available absorption chillers range in capacity from medium (40 to 100 kW [11 to 28 tons]) to high (300 kW [85 tons] and up). A number of large-scale solar cooling systems for large commercial building and industrial applications have been successfully demonstrated and it is now necessary to support wide market introduction. However, given the increasing cooling demand in residential and small size building applications, a growing market exists for low cooling capacity equipment (i.e. less than 10 kW [34,000 Btu/h]). Small-scale solar cooling systems could be ready within a decade or earlier, if research and development support is provided. Solar cooling has a strong potential for signicant primary energy savings. Today, adsorption chillers have a higher efciency than absorption chillers at low driving temperatures (dened as Systems using liquid desiccants are less widespread. The the average temperature of the heating uid between inlet and liquid desiccant system essentially is an open-cycle absorption outlet of the heating system). The advantage is that their internal system, where water serves as the refrigerant. It has various cycle does not have any moving parts (no pumps, no electrically advantages including: driven valves). Also, crystallization cannot occur, as in the case of Fewer components since condensation of the refrigerant no LiBr/H2O absorption chillers. However, due to their intermittent longer uses a condenser but rather uses the environment; operation (periodic cycle), they require more effort in system The whole system operates at atmospheric pressure, thus design and operation control. In addition, compared to absorption alleviating the need for pressure-sealed units; machines, they are larger, heavier, and more expensive per kW The amount of refrigerant (water) evaporated in the recooling capacity. Only a few manufacturers make the systems, generator is independent of an evaporator, thus providing limiting equipment choices. The COP of commercially available greater exibility; and systems is 0.55 to 0.65, depending on operating conditions. More efcient use of low heat driving temperatures (down The use of sorption air dehumidication, using solid or liquid to about 60C to 70C [140F to 158F]). desiccants, offers an alternative to conventional vapor compresHowever, this technology has not yet arrived in the market, sion equipment. When combined, they lead to higher efciency and further system optimizations are necessary. Commercially by increasing the evaporator temperature of the compression available systems are expected soon. cycle. Most desiccant systems presently use a solid desiccant Desiccant air-conditioning plants need a good control system material like silica gel. Since the solid desiccant cannot be with a reliable control strategy, which can ensure an economipumped, these systems usually use a desiccant wheel to allow cal year-round operationair conditioning in summer, heating continuous operation. The use of solid desiccants makes sense, and humidication in winter, and dedicated ventilation during if the air change and/or the dehumidication of the indoor air intermediate seasons, if there are no heating or cooling loads. are necessary or strictly prescribed. Examples exist in superThe COP of desiccant systems is dened as the change in markets, museums, and assembly halls with high occupancy. enthalpy of the process air (resulting from reduction of both humidity and temperature) divided by the heat input in the * Dened as the ratio of the cooling capacity of the system and the heating power delivered to the system by the solar collectorsdirectly or indirectly through the storage vessel. regenerator. The COP of a desiccant cooling system strongly
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1.0 COP 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 50C 70C 90C 110C 130C Driving Temperature 150C 170C

Initial Cost (Euro/kW)

depends on the outdoor, supply and return air conditions. Under average design conditions, the COP is about 0.7 with a cooling power of 5 to 6 kW (17,000 to 20,000 Btu/h) per 1000 m3/h (35,300 ft3/h) of supply air.5
Representative Installations

1.4 1.2

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 Specic Collector Area (m2/kW) 10.0

Solar-assisted cooling systems use solar thermal collectors connected to thermal-driven cooling devices. They consist of several main components (Figure 1): the solar collectors, a heat storage, the heat distribution system, the heat-driven cooling unit, an optional cold storage, an air-conditioning system with appropriate cold distribution and an auxiliary (backup) subsystem (integrated at different places in Figure 1: A solar air-conditioning system, describing the integration of different components. the overall system either as an auxiliary heater parallel to the collector or the collector/storage or as Performance The evaluation of different applications can be based on an auxiliary cooling device or both). Table 1 summarizes the general characteristics of representa- various parameters,8 among which are the COP and the Carnot tive installations, from recent European69 and IEA10 programs. Efciency Factor (CEF).** Most of the installations were constructed with additional fund** Dened as the ratio of the thermal COP and the COP for a Carnot cycle operating ing by government programs or other sources. under the same external conditions.

Figure 2 (left): COP as a function of heating medium temperature.8 Each symbol refers to a single installation included in the survey. Figure 3 (right): Initial system cost as a function of the specic collector area.8 Each symbol refers to a single installation included in the survey.

Single-effect absorption systems8 have a thermal COP in the range of 0.50 0.73 of which LiBr/H2O systems average 0.66 and H2O/NH3 systems average 0.60. Double-effect absorption systems can reach a COP of 1.3 when the driving temperature is sufciently high. In the evaluated projects, the driving temperature range is 60C to 165C (140F to 329F). The majority operate below 97C (207F), using at plate solar collectors. Based on our survey, adsorption systems8 have a lower thermal COP, averaging 0.59. However, since adsorption systems can operate at a lower driving temperature than absorption systems (52.5C to 82C or 127F to 180F), and accounting for working conditions, they show a relatively high average value of CEF (0.38), which is

greater than the average value of all evaluated projects (0.31). If the adsorption system is driven by the lowest temperature (52.5C [127F]), it can reach the greatest value of CEF (0.54).
Solar Collectors

Common at plate solar collectors are used for reaching a driving temperature of 60C to 90C (140F to 194F), due to their low rst cost. With selective surface at plate solar collectors, the driving temperature can be up to 120C (248F). However, the collector efciency is low at this temperature level. Stationary at plate evacuated tube solar collectors typically are used for 80C to 120C (176F to 248F), and can reach

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higher temperatures but at a lower collector efciency. Compound parabolic concentrators can reach 97C to 165C (207F to 329F). The variation of the systems thermal COP with the driving temperature is illustrated in Figure 2. As expected, the COP increases with the driving temperature. The average specic solar collector area for the evaluated projects8 was 3.6 m/kW (136 ft2/ton), ranging from 0.5 to 5.5 m/kW (19 208 ft2/ton). Adsorption and absorption systems typically use more than 2 m/kW (76 ft2/ton) and usually lower than 5 m/kW (189 ft2/ton). Overall, H2O/NH3 systems require

larger specic collector areas than LiBr/H2O systems. As a result, the installations usually are more expensive (Figure 3). ( The initial overall cost of the evaluated projects8 per installed cooling capacity in kW averages about 4000 Euro/kW ($5,050/ kW), excluding the cost for distribution networks between the system and the application and the delivery units.
Auxiliary Equipment

Country Austria Croatia France

Building Use Ofce Wine Factory Ofce Wine Factory Ofce Ofce Ofce Ofce Ofce Meeting Room Ofce Seminar Room Ofce Ofce, Lab Laboratory Ofce Factory Ofce Ofce Hospital Ofce Ofce Ofce Meeting Rooms Ofce, Lab Ofce Hospital Ofce Cosmetics Factory Hotel Hotel Ofce Ofce, Show Room Ofce Ofce Ofce Ofce Ofce Laboratory Hotel Laboratory Retirement Home Laboratory Library Hotel Ofce, Lab Ofce, Stores Retirement Home Ofce Factory Ofce Arts Center Ofce Ofce

Technology Desiccant Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Adsorption Desiccant Absorption Desiccant Adsorption Absorption Adsorption Adsorption Desiccant Absorption Absorption Adsorption Absorption Absorption Adsorption Desiccant Absorption Absorption Adsorption Desiccant Adsorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Desiccant Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Desiccant Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption

Cooling Capacity 28 kW/8 ton 10 kW/3 ton 12 kW/3 ton 52 kW/15 ton 35 kW/10 ton 105 kW/30 ton 70 kW/20 ton 35 kW/10 ton 70 kW/20 ton 18 kW/5 ton 35 kW/10 ton 30 kW/8 ton 105 kW/30 ton 143 kW/ kW/41 ton 70 kW/20 ton 352 kW/ kW/100 ton 108 kW/31 ton 70 kW/ kW/20 ton 2 46 kW/2 13 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton 143 kW/41 ton 15 kW/ kW/4 ton 70 kW/20 ton 60 kW/ kW/17 ton 58 kW/16 ton 58 kW/16 ton 70 kW/20 ton 80 kW/23 ton

Solar Collectors Type* Area FPET+district heat 12 m2/129 ft2 FPW 100 m2/1,080 ft2 FPW FPET FPET FPET FPET FPET FPW FPW FPET FPA FPW FPET FPW FPW FPA FPW FPET FPW FPET FPET FPET FPA FPET FPET FPET FPW FPW FPW FPW FPW FPW FPW FPW CPC CPC CPC FPW, FPET FPET FPW, FPET FPW, FPET FPW FPA FPW FPW, FPET FPW FPET CPC FPW FPW FPW FPET FPET 60 m2/646 ft2 215 m2/2,310 ft2 100 m2/1,080 ft2 300 m2/3,230 ft2 176 m2/1,890 ft2 30 m2/323 ft2 80 m2/861 ft2 23 m2/248 ft2 45 m2/484 ft2 100 m2/1,080 ft2 170 m2/1,830 ft2 300 m2/3,230 ft2 230 m2/2,480 ft2 2000 m2/21,500 ft2 100 m2/1,080 ft2 229 m2/2,460 ft2 348 m2/3,750 ft2 116 m2/1,250 ft2 300 m2/3,230 ft2 100 m2/1,080 ft2 175 m2/1,880 ft2 100 m2/1,080 ft2 108 m2/1,160 ft2 108 m2/1,160 ft2 171 m2/1,840 ft2 70 m2/753 ft2 2700 m2/29,100 ft2 450 m2/4,840 ft2 500 m2/5,380 ft2 160 m2/1,720 ft2 265 m2/2,850 ft2 227 m2/2,440 ft2 80 m2/861 ft2 78 m2/840 ft2 78 m2/840 ft2 48 m2/517 ft2 53 m2/570 ft2 328 m2/3,530 ft2 128 m2/1,380 ft2 123 m2/1,320 ft2 158 m2/1,700 ft2 105 m2/1,130 ft2 173 m2/1,860 ft2 99 m2/1,070 ft2 1626 m2/17,500 ft2 149 m2/1,600 ft2 214 m2/2,300 ft2 528 m2/5,680 ft2 63 m2/678 ft2 163 m2/1,750 ft2 1095 m2/11,800 ft2 175 m2/1,880 ft2

Installed 2003 2003 1979 1991 2003 2005 1985 1996 1996 1997 1997 1998 1999 1999 1999 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2003 1999 2001 2001 2002 2004 2003 1985 1985 1985 1999 1994 1995 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004

The average auxiliary electrical power (for fans and pumps) as a percent of the cooling capacity is about 22.5%.8 The average specic water consumption is 5.3 kg/h per kW of average cooling capacity (41 lb/ ton-h). The majority of the projects consume 4 to 6 kg/h per kW cooling capacity (30.9 to 46.4 lb/ton-h), depending on the technologies used.8 The gures indicate that a considerable potential exists for future improvements since large differences exist in auxiliary energy and water consumption.
Guidelines for Design, Control & Operation

Germany

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Each technology has specic characteristics that match the buildings HVAC design, loads and local climatic conditions.5 A good design must rst exploit all available solar radiation and then cover the remaining loads from conventional sources. Proper calculations for collector and storage size depend on the solar cooling technology used. A hot water storage may be integrated between solar collectors and heat-driven chiller to dampen the uctuations in the return temperature of the hot water from the chiller. Storage size depends on the application. When cooling loads mainly occur during the day, then a smaller storage will be necessary than when the loads peak in the evening. Heating the hot water storage by the backup heat source should be strictly avoided. The storages only function is to store excess heat of the solar system and to make it available when sufcient solar heat is not available.
Absorption

Greece

2 350 kW/2 99 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton 105 kW/30 ton 35 kW/ kW/10 ton 108 kW/31 ton 2 45 kW/2 13 ton 12 kW/3 ton 12 kW/ kW/3 ton 10 kW/3 ton 36 kW/10 ton 10 kW/3 ton 125 kW/ kW/35 ton 35 kW/10 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton 35 kW/10 ton 55 kW/ kW/16 ton 105 kW/30 ton 35 kW/ kW/10 ton 170 kW/48 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton 105 kW/30 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton 115 kW/33 ton 229 kW/ kW/65 ton 252 kW/72 ton 105 kW/ kW/30 ton

Italy Kosovo Malta

Portugal Spain

The single-effect machine gives best results with a heat supply temperature of 80C to 100C (176F to 212F). Doubleand triple-effect machines require higher supply temperatures. Therefore, if one selects these machines, then a higher
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* Solar collector typesFPA: Flat Plate Air; CPC: Compound Parabolic Concentrators; FPET: Flat Plate Evacuated Tube; FPW: Flat Plate Hot Water.

Table 1: Characteristics of representative European solar cooling installations.8,9,10 June 2006 ASHRAE Journal 19

temperature collector is required. However, with a double-effect system, if the solarsupplied temperature drops below 100C (212F), the performance will drop sharply, below that of a single-effect system. Most large-scale applications (300 kW [85 ton] and up) use LiBr/H2O as working pair, and produce chilled water at about 6C to 7C (43F to 45F). The COP is relatively higher than for H2O/NH3. However, LiBr systems must be water cooled, usually requiring a cooling tower, while NH3 systems can have an air-cooled condenser. Due to the large vapor volume of the water refrigerant, the LiBr/H2O chillers usually have large physical dimensions. For small cooling loads and for applications where it is not possible to use water cooling, an H2O/NH3 system is preferred. In hot and sunny climates, the required solar collector area is approximately 3 to 4 m2 per kW cooling (114 to 152 ft2/ton). Higher heat supply temperature for multieffect chillers require higher cost evacuated tube or concentrating collectors, and may need a high temperature storage (i.e., thermochemical). In LiBr/H2O systems, the refrigerant freezes at 0C (32F). Thus, care must be exercised while the machine is idle, especially during winter. Another problem is crystallization of the LiBr solution at high concentrations, which may result from high generator temperatures or from inadequate temperature control at other parts of the machine. Thus, the heat supply temperature from the solar collectors or heat storage must be adequately controlled. The cooling water temperature, particularly to the absorber, must also be monitored. The chiller capacity may be controlled by increasing the heat supply temperature or decreasing the cooling water temperature, since both increase the capacity as well as the COP. A fuel-red boiler usually covers the need for a backup system to heat the desorber of the heat-driven chiller. However, caution should be exercised since the collectors connected in series with a backup boiler can turn into a heat sink instead of a heat source during periods with low solar radiation availability. Alternatively, one may use a backup conventional chiller alongside the solar-assisted machine, but
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this would require an additional full-size chiller, which would be idle for long periods. A viable design solution for a singleeffect absorption cycle is to incorporate an auxiliary desorber, which is powered by the backup while the original desorber is powered by solar heat. The weak solution goes rst to the solar-powered desorber where it is concentrated as much as pos-

sible with the available solar heat and then proceeds to the auxiliary desorber where it is concentrated further using heat from the backup source. The vapor from both desorbers is then supplied to the condenser.
Adsorption

Due to the periodic nature of an adsorption cycle, uctuations occur at all

temperature levels. For stable operation, using heat storage is recommended at least at the high temperature level and on the chilled water side. This makes the control more stable and avoids, for example, that high temperature peaks are transferred into the primary cycle of the solar collector. Variable speed pumps are required to adjust the volumetric ow of the heat transfer medium through solar collectors and provide the desired outlet temperature that matches the operating conditions. Commercially available adsorption chillers use a constant period between switching from adsorption of the one compartment to desorption and vice versa. Typical time periods range between 6 7 minutes per half cycle. However, under part-load conditions, extending the cycle time can increase the COP, because the adsorption potential of the sorptive materials is better exploited. This is only possible when the loads are below the chiller capacity. The COP of an adsorption chiller may increase by reducing the cooling water temperature. To avoid freezing in the evaporator, it is necessary to install a chilled water storage, thus increasing the thermal inertia of the system. This requires proper control of the chilled water pump that should operate for about 10 minutes after completing the heating cycle of the adsorption chiller, to avoid regenerated sorption material causing continued evaporation of water in the evaporator and cooling below the freezing point.

Desiccants

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Liquid desiccant systems can be cheaper than solid desiccant wheels when comparing commercially available products. Liquid desiccant systems can store cooling capacity by means of regenerated desiccant. Thus, the hygroscopic salt solution may be concentrated when solar energy is available, stored, and then used to dehumidify process air at a later time. When both situations occur simultaneously, which is often the case (AC is required when solar radiation is available), desiccant can ow directly from the desorber to the absorber, bypassing the storage. A good control system should allow for these various operation modes. The salt solution storage is the most compact cold storage. It requires no thermal insulation and can be applied indenitely. Storage may be enhanced by increasing the concentration difference between concentrated and diluted solution by cooling during the absorption process. This requires a special design of the absorber, which is no longer adiabatic, and is similar to that in a closed absorption system. The dehumidication process can be operated while concentrated desiccant exists and independent of the availability of driving heat for regeneration at the same time. If both hot water storage and solution storage are available, one should always use the solution storage before using the heat storage, which is subject to heat losses. A potential problem in liquid desiccant systems is crystallization of the solution at high concentrations, which may result from high temperatures in the desorber or from inadequate temperature control at other parts of the machine. Therefore, the heat supply temperature from the solar collectors or storage must be adequately controlled. A higher supply temperature generally increases the capacity and the COP.
Conclusion

Further research and development activities are necessary to stimulate market integration and reduce the cost of using solar-assisted air conditioning in buildings. Solar cooling has a strong potential for signicant primary energy savings. The investment may become more nancially attractive by maximizing the use of the solar system throughout the year, for both cooling and heating.
1. Klein, S.A. and D.T. Reindl. 2005. Solar refrigeration. ASHRAE Journal 47 (9):S26S30. 2. 2002 ASHRAE HandbookRefrigeration, Chapter 41. 3. 2005 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, Chapter 22. 4. Grossman, G. 2002. Solar-powered systems for cooling, dehumidication and air-conditioning. Solar Energy 72:5362. 5. Henning H.M., ed. 2004. Solar Assisted Air-Conditioning in BuildingsA Handbook for Planners pp. 150, Wien: Springer-Verlag. 6. Balaras, C.A., et al. 2006. Solar air-conditioning in EuropeAn overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, in press. 7. Balaras, C.A., et al. 2003. Recent activities on solar air-conditioning. ASHRAE Transactions 109(1):251 260. 8. SACE Project, Solar Air-Conditioning in Europe. European Commission, D.G. XII. www.ocp.tudelft.nl/ev/res/sace.htm. 9. Climasol Project, Promoting Solar Air-Conditioning. European Commission, D.G. XII. http://raee.org/climatisationsolaire. 10. IEA Task 25 Project, Solar Assisted Air-Conditioning of Buildings. International Energy Agency. www.iea-shc-task25.org. ASHRAE Journal 21

References

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