Intro

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver with some technical limitations which are only removed for military

Concepts
A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include the time the message was transmitted precise orbital information (the ephemeris) the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).

The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes. Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position since space has three dimensions and a position near the Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light
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the speed at which satellite signals propagate results in a large positional

error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for the receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations. Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.
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Structure
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (U.S.).
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The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the

space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.
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The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is composed of a master control station, an alternate master control station, and a host of dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil,

Abstract: Spatial data is the crucial component of a GIS. The important sources of spatial data are the already existing digital files, maps, which can be digitized, and more recently GPS. GPS (mapping type receivers) can be used to map an area and the data can be converted into GIS compatible forms. GPS-GIS integrated systems have some important applications in the field of Transportation engineering. These applications include vehicle tracking system for fleet management, vehicle navigation systems, and network travel time studies. GPS-GIS integrated systems can be used to predict the parameters in the car following theories, improving the trip reporting procedures. The present paper gives some details of these applications and in particular the application of GPS-GIS integrated systems for network travel time studies, which areuseful for quantifying congestion in terms of various parameters. An experiment is also planned for finding the travel time on some of Mumbai's roads. The results of this experiment are expected to be presented in the Conference.
mmercial, and scientific users of the

Introduction Transportation data is usually associated with spatial data, like traffic counts from particular sites, the traffic volumes along particular roads or links, etc. (Taylor et al, 2000). Geographical Information System (GIS) can be used as a database for storing transportation data. The primary advantage of using GIS as a database for transportation data is the fact that GIS can integrate the spatial data and display the attribute data in a user-chosen format. The chief sources of spatial data are the existing digitized files (e.g.: Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) files in the US). The Global Positioning System (GPS) is widely being used as a tool for collecting the spatial data. Systems which chiefly use GPS as a spatial data source for a GIS are called as GPS-GIS integrated systems. The use of GPS-GIS integrated systems in transportation engineering are described below. An experiment is planned to find the travel time on some of Bombay's roads and hence to estimate the congestion on the roads. The results of this experiment are expected to be ready for being presented in the Conference

Applications In this section, the various applications of GPS-GIS integrated systems in transportation engineering are described. Vehicle tracking systems Vehicle tracking systems are usually used for managing a fleet of vehicles. The vehicles of a fleet are fitted with GPS, which usually transmit the positional data of the vehicles to a central station. The central station is a monitoring station, where the position of vehicles is displayed on a GIS map. Vehicle tracking systems will be useful for the police and emergency response services. The central station usually diverts the vehicle nearest to the site, where the vehicles are required. By using a wireless phone service or cellular phone network, real time corrections can be sent to the receivers fitted on the vehicles and better results can be obtained.

Car following analyses The basic assumption in car following theories is that the speed and acceleration of a car are dependent upon the vehicle immediately preceding it (in a single lane of traffic). The General Motors Corporation has done some extensive studies of car following behaviour. They have used two-vehicle platoons to estimate driver behavioral responses. The Louisiana State University (LSU) has developed a new technique; it had used GPS to record aspects of vehicle motion, independently, for vehicles under open roadway

conditions. A GIS was also used as tool for the creation of mapped road networks, route analysis and linear referencing. The study involved the use of GPS and GIS to collect and process vehicle movement information. In the system used by the LSU researchers, latitude and longitude coordinate information as well as speed and time data for test vehicles were collected independently. These data were reduced and translated using a GIS linear referencing technique to prepare a set of movement data for each vehicle. The study conducted at LSU has shown that GPS was a viable and valuable tool for the collection of vehicle movement data. The research conducted at LSU has allowed the results of General Motors to be expanded and the results to be further verified through the use of open roadway car following data. They have also found that the price-to-accuracy afforded by GPS was also one of its significant advantages (Wolshon and Hatipkarasulu, 2000). GPS for trip reporting The problems with the existing methods of trip reporting procedures are: the poor data quality on travel start and end times, total trip times and destination locations. A project study was conducted in Lexington, Kentucky in fall, 1996 where GPS was used to capture vehicle-based, daily travel information. The project used a computer for computer-assisted self-interviewing, combined with GPS system. Though the design of equipment required the respondents to actively turn the computer on each time they made a private vehicle trip, the GPS component could capture the "actual" travel rather than the self-reported travel. The driver had to actively select the driver and passenger names, and their trip purposes. The GPS component captured date and time, and latitude/longitude data every three seconds when a trip had begun, so that the trip start and end times were passive data elements to the respondent. The advantage of passive data recording is that respondent burden is minimized and the travel times and distances that were collected represent the true picture about the length and duration of the trip. The usage of computer for computer-assisted-self-interviewing has helped to capture data regarding trip purpose and vehicle occupancy. Having the data regarding the trip purpose, occupancy, together with the route choice and travel speed, would provide planners with the information that could be used in evaluating management systems, designing ITS, etc. To further reduce the burden on the driver, GIS can be integrated with GPS. The GPS data, after exporting to a GIS can be viewed on the map. The use of GIS helps in knowing the destination of the trip, without the driver intervention, and also in knowing the particular route the driver had chosen to reach his destination. Though GIS has not been used in the research mentioned above, its usage for the trip reporting purpose will definitely improve the trip reporting procedure

navigation systems Vehicle navigation systems are used for guiding vehicles to their destination. These systems usually use GPS or inertial navigation systems or a combination of both for positioning the vehicle. The advantage of using both inertial navigation systems and GPS is that navigation can be continued even when the GPS cannot receive the signals form the satellites due to obstruction. In countries like the US, vehicle navigation systems are used for guiding tourists to different tourist spots. The vehicle navigation systems use a computer, which determines the position of the vehicle, plans the route and gives the directions to the driver. The driver gives the location of his/her destination while starting his journey and the computer guides the driver by giving either audio or and visual instructions. The route the computer plans is usually optimized route; the route is the route optimized for distance or the route can be the most or the least used route (Jurgen, 1998).

(MurakamVehicle

The above-described applications are a part of the intelligent transportation systems, where the vehicles are navigated and help is provided to the vehicles, which are stranded due to some problem with the vehicle or any accident. Zito et al, (1995), have studied the usage of GPS for Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS). Much of the research and development work related to IVHS (presently it is known as intelligent transportation systems or ITS) depends upon the reliability of the methods used for locating and monitoring vehicles. Some of their observations and conclusions are: 1. GPS receivers, which have the capability of displaying the speed, will be useful for determining the speed of the vehicle, even though the display might show a non-zero value of speed sometimes, when the speed of the vehicle is zero. 2. The number of satellites the receiver is able to track (NSAT) and the PDOP give an indication about the reliability of the speed data. It was found that the error in speed increased when the PDOP values were high (greater than three) and the NSAT value was three. 3. GPS, when integrated with GIS, is a valuable tool for travel time studies. 4. The conclusion that they gave was: GPS stands ready as a valuable tool for IVHS applications, given adequate attention to its possible shortcomings. Though, the above conclusions were drawn when Selective Availability (S/A) was on, these conclusions

Reference 1. Jurgen, R. K. 1998, Navigation and Intelligent Transportation Systems, Pennsylvania: Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 2. Murakami, E. & D. P. Wagner, 2000, Can using Global Positioning System (GPS) improve trip reporting?, Transportation Research -C, 7C: 149-165 3. Quiroga, C. A. & D. Bullock, 1995, Travel time studies with global positioning system and geographic information systems: an integrated methodology, Transportation Research-C, 6C : 101-127 4. Wolshon, B. & Y. Hatipkarasulu, 2000, Results of Car following Analyses Using Global Positioning System, ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, 126: 324-331 5. Zito, R., D'este, G., & M. A. P. Taylor, 1995, Global Positioning systems in the time domain: How useful a tool for Intelligent Vehicle-Highway systems?, Transportation Research-C, 6C: 193-20are still relevant and valid.i and Wagner,
1999).

Rail systems throughout the world use GPS to track the movement of locomotives, rail cars, maintenance vehicles, and wayside equipment in real time. When combined with other sensors, computers, and communications systems, GPS improves rail safety, security, and operational effectiveness. The technology helps reduce accidents, delays, and operating costs, while increasing track capacity, customer satisfaction, and cost effectiveness. Modern railways in several different countries are fielding Positive Train Control (PTC) systems to prevent collisions, derailments, work zone incursions, and passage through switches in the wrong position. PTC is the combination of real-time location information with sophisticated command and control systems to monitor and control train movements.

A PTC system can automatically vary train speeds, reroute traffic, and safely direct maintenance crews onto and off tracks. In addition to enhancing safety, PTC increases track capacity by maintaining a constantly updated operating plan that optimizes rail use and flow. The United States has mandated the use of PTC by 2015. U.S. PTC systems may use the Nationwide Differential Global Positioning System, an enhanced form of GPS that is accurate enough to tell whether a train changed tracks after going through a switch. Rail systems that do not have PTC also gain benefits from GPS technology. GPS gives dispatchers and passengers more accurate information on train arrivals. It enables the automation of track surveying and mapping operations. GPS also allows the automation of track inspection systems that work much faster and detect more defects than human crews, saving time and money while improving safety. GPS also synchronizes the timing of railroad communication systems, including data transmissions for PTC, voice contact between locomotive engineers and dispatchers, and intermodal communications among trains, rail stations, ports, and airports. Looking to the future, researchers are exploring ways to integrate GPS into vehicle-tovehicle communication systems that could warn trains and cars of potential collisions at railroad crossings.

Marine The Global Positioning System (GPS) has changed the way the world operates. This is especially true for marine operations, including search and rescue. GPS provides the fastest and most accurate method for mariners to navigate, measure speed, and determine location. This enables increased levels of safety and efficiency for mariners worldwide. It is important in marine navigation for the ship's officer to know the vessel's position while in open sea and also in congested harbors and waterways. While at sea, accurate position, speed, and heading are needed to ensure the vessel reaches its destination in the safest, most economical and timely fashion that conditions will permit. The need for accurate position information becomes even more critical as the vessel departs from or arrives in port. Vessel traffic and other waterway hazards make maneuvering more difficult, and the risk of accidents becomes greater.

Mariners and oceanographers are increasingly using GPS data for underwater surveying, buoy placement, and navigational hazard location and mapping. Commercial fishing fleets use GPS to navigate to optimum fishing locations, track fish migrations, and ensure compliance with regulations. An enhancement to the basic GPS signal known as Differential GPS (DGPS) provides much higher precision and increased safety in its coverage areas for maritime operations. Many nations use DGPS for operations such as buoy positioning, sweeping, and dredging. This enhancement improves harbor navigation. Governments and industrial organizations around the world are working together to develop performance standards for Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems, which use GPS and/or DGPS for positioning

information. These systems are revolutionizing marine navigation and are leading to the replacement of paper nautical charts. With DGPS, position and radar information can be integrated and displayed on an electronic chart, forming the basis of the Integrated Bridge System which is being installed on commercial vessels of all types.

GPS is playing an increasingly important role in the management of maritime port facilities. GPS technology, coupled with geographic information system (GIS) software, is key to the efficient management and operation of automated container placement in the world's largest port facilities. GPS facilitates the automation of the pick-up, transfer, and placement process of containers by tracking them from port entry to exit. With millions of container shipments being placed in port terminals annually, GPS has greatly reduced the number of lost or misdirected containers and lowered associated operation costs. GPS information is embedded within a system known as the Automatic Identification System (AIS) transmission. The AIS, which is endorsed by the International Maritime Organization, is used for vessel traffic control around busy seaways. This service is not only vital for navigation, but is increasingly used to bolster the security of ports and waterways by providing governments with greater situational awareness of commercial vessels and their cargo.

AIS uses a transponder system that operates in the VHF maritime band and is capable of communicating ship to ship as well as ship to shore, transmitting information relating to ship identification, geographic location, vessel type, and cargo information -- all on a real-time, wholly automated basis. Because the ship's GPS position is embedded in these transmissions, all essential information about vessel movements and contents can be uploaded automatically to electronic charts. The safety and security of vessels using this system is significantly enhanced. Finally, with the modernization of GPS, mariners can look forward to even better service. In addition to the current GPS civilian service, the United States is committed to implementing two additional civilian signals. Access to the new signals will mean increased accuracy, more availability, and better integrity for all users.

Highway It is estimated that delays from congestion on highways, streets, and transit systems throughout the world result in productivity losses in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually. Other negative effects of congestion include property damage, personal injuries, increased air pollution, and inefficient fuel consumption. The availability and accuracy of the Global Positioning System (GPS) offers increased efficiencies and safety for vehicles using highways, streets, and mass transit systems. Many of the problems associated with the routing and dispatch of commercial vehicles is significantly reduced or eliminated with the help of GPS. This is also true for the management of mass transit systems, road maintenance crews, and emergency vehicles.

GPS enables automatic vehicle location and invehicle navigation systems that are widely used throughout the world today. By combining GPS position technology with systems that can display geographic information or with systems that can automatically transmit data to display screens or computers, a new dimension in surface transportation is realized. A geographic information system (GIS) stores, analyzes, and displays geographically referenced information provided in large part by GPS. Today GIS is used to monitor vehicle location, making possible effective strategies that can keep transit vehicles on schedule and inform passengers of precise arrival times. Mass transit systems use this capability to track rail, bus, and other services to improve on-time performance. Many new capabilities are made possible with the help of GPS. Instant car pools are feasible since people desiring a ride can be instantly matched with a vehicle in a nearby area. Using GPS technology to help track and forecast the movement of freight has made a logistical revolution, including an application known as timedefinite delivery. In time-definite delivery, trucking companies use GPS for tracking to guarantee delivery and pickup at the time promised, whether over short distances or across time zones. When an order comes in, a dispatcher punches a computer function, and a list of trucks appears on the screen, displaying a full array of detailed information on the status of each of them. If a truck is running late or strays off route, an alert is sent to the dispatcher.

Many nations use GPS to help survey their road and highway networks, by identifying the location of features on, near, or adjacent to the road networks. These include service stations, maintenance and emergency services and supplies, entry and exit ramps, damage to the road system, etc. The information serves as an input to the GIS data gathering process. This database of knowledge helps transportation agencies to reduce maintenance and service costs and enhances the safety of drivers using the roads. Research is underway to provide warnings to drivers of potential critical situations, such as traffic violations or crashes. Additional research is being conducted to examine the potential for minimal vehicle control when there is a clear need for action, such as the pre-deployment of air bags. The position information provided by GPS is an integral part of this research. GPS is an essential element in the future of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). ITS encompasses a broad range of communications-based information and electronics technologies. Research is being conducted in the area of advanced driver assistance systems, which include road departure and lane change collision avoidance systems. These systems need to estimate the position of a vehicle relative to lane and road edge with an accuracy of 10 centimeters. With the continuous modernization of GPS, one can expect even more effective systems for crash prevention, distress alerts and position notification, electronic mapping, and in-vehicle navigation with audible instructions