11 Fracture Mechanics

Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007
Fracture mechanics
Fracture mechanics
Subjects of interest
Introduction/ objectives
Stress intensity factor
Determination of fracture toughness
Fracture toughness and design
Plasticity correction
Crack opening displacement
R curve
Probabilistic aspects of fracture mechanics
Chapter 11
Tapany Udomphol
Objectives
Objectives
This chapter provides fundamental backgrounds of
fracture mechanics and its use for the understanding of
brittle fracture.
Different approaches used for determining fracture
toughness of materials will be discussed.
The application of fracture mechanics are emphasised
for the selection of materials for the required applications.
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Introduction
Introduction
Irwin later modified the Griffith theory by replacing
the term 2
p
with the potential strain energy
release rate G , giving the expression as follows;
Griffith proposed that an existing
crack will propagate when the
released elastic strain energy is at
least equal to the energy required
to create the new crack surface.
2a

Griffith
crack model
2 1
2
|
\
|
=
a
E
s
f
Eq.1
2
1
|
\
|
=
a
EG
f
Eq.2
Irwin showed that G is measurable and can be
related to the stress intensity factor, K, obtained
from the sharp crack fracture toughness test.
The critical condition to which the crack
propagates to cause global failure is when this G
value exceeds the critical value, G.
Fracture
mechanics
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In mode I failure and plane-strain condition, the relationship
between G
IC
and K
IC
can be shown by an expression as follows;
Crack deformation mode.
E
K
G
IC
IC
) 1 (
2 2

=
Eq.3
Where K
IC
is the critical stress intensity
factor for mode I failure.
Note: K value can be evaluated using standard experimental
approaches, which is much more readily than values of G.
Fracture modes
Mode I: tension,
opening
Mode II: In plane shear,
sliding
Mode III: Out of plane
shear, tearing
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1) brittle fracture
2) in the presence of a sharp crack
3) under critical tensile loading
c app IC
a K =
Eq.4
Where
K
IC
is the critical stress intensity factor for
plane strain condition in mode I failure.
a
c
is the critical crack length in an infinite plate

app
is the applied stress
is a parameter dependent on specimen and
crack geometry
Stress intensity factor K
IC
can be
described as fracture toughness
of materials (material resistance
to crack propagation) under
conditions of
Crack deformation mode
LEFM Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
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K values of various crack geometries
K values of various crack geometries
2a
Through thickness crack

a K
app
=
a
Edge crack
a K
app
12 . 1 =
2a
a K
app
8 . 0 =
Semi elliptical crack
2a
a K
app
6 . 0 =
Semi circular crack
a
a K
app
8 . 0 =
Corner crack
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
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Fracture toughness of material can be determined
according to LEFM analysis
1) K
IC
fracture toughness
2) Crack tip opening displacement CTOD
3) J-integral (J
IC
)
4) R-curve
works well for very high strength materials.
exhibiting brittle fracture
Used for lower strength materials (
o
< 1400 MPa),
exhibiting small amount of plastic deformation
before failure.
Used for lower strength materials, exhibiting small
amount of plastic deformation before failure.
The resistance to fracture of a material during slow
and stable crack propagation.
Tapany Udomphol
K
K
IC IC
fracture toughness
fracture toughness
K
IC
fracture toughness of material is obtained by determining
the ability of material to withstand the load in the presence of
a sharp crack before failure.
Crack propagation direction

Fracture toughness How long the
existing crack will grow until the
specimen fails
Fracture toughness is required in
the system of high strength and
light weight, i.e., high strength
steels, titanium and aluminium
alloys.
Flaw geometry and design of
cylindrical pressure vessel
EX:
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Stress distribution in the presence
of a crack
of a crack
The stress distribution in a thin plate for an elastic solid in terms of
the coordinates (fig) is given by
Model for equations for stresses
at a point near a crack
(
\
|
=
(
\
|
+
|
\
|
=
(
\
|

|
\
|
=
2
3
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
2 1
2 1
2 1

r
r
a
r
a
z
y
x
Eq.5
Where is gross nominal stress = P/wt
for a > r > . . . .
For an orientation directly ahead of the
crack tip ( = 0)
0 ,
2
2 1
=
|
\
|
= =
xy y x
r
a

Eq.6
Tapany Udomphol
of a crack
of a crack
High local stress
intensity is present in front
of the sharp crack.
stress concentration
leading to brittle failure.

z
is strongly dependent
on specimen thickness and
is negligible in thin
specimen (plane stress).
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Determination of K
Determination of K
IC IC
fracture toughness
fracture toughness
1) Validation of K
IC
fracture toughness values
2) Specimen preparation
3) Testing procedure
4) Calculation of K
IC
value
K
IC
the critical stress intensity in mode I fracture
Need to make sure that the specimen is tested under mode I
fracture and in a plane strain condition brittle condition.
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Validation of K
Validation of K
IC IC
value
value
Since the stress distribution
under the notch varies due to
specimen thickness, which also
affect toughness of materials
of different test specimen
dimensions.
Effect of specimen thickness on
stress and mode of fracture
Due to the criterion for brittle fracture
in the presence of the notch, the plane
strain condition, is required for the
validation of fracture toughness K
IC
values.
2
5 . 2 , ,
|
|
\
|

o
IC
o o
K
a a W B
Where B is specimen thickness

W is specimen width
a
o
is the original crack length
W-a
o
is the ligament

o
is the yield strength
Eq.7
Compact tension
specimen
Bend
specimen
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Specimen preparation
Specimen preparation
Select the specimen dimensions.
Select the crack propagation direction.
Fatigue pre-cracking by applying
fatigue load at a controlled condition of
small load and amplitude to obtain a sharp
fatigue pre-crack to ensure high stress
distribution ahead of the crack tip.
Example of fracture
toughness specimen
Fatigue
precrack
Notch
Directions of crack propagation
Stress distribution
ahead of fatigue pre-
crack
Different specimen
dimensions

Distance
Crack tip
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Test procedure for K
Test procedure for K
IC IC
fracture toughness
fracture toughness
Three-point
bend
arrangement for
fracture
toughness test
A pre-cracked specimen is arranged and
monotonically loaded until failure.
Load and clip gauge displacement are
recorded during loading to give a graph,
which will be used for calculation.
Load-clip gauge displacement curves
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Calculation of K
Calculation of K
IC IC
fracture toughness
fracture toughness
Fracture toughness K
Q
is calculated using the following expression (for a
bend specimen).
|
\
|
=
W
a
f
BW
PS
K
Q
5 . 1
Where P is the load
S is the span length
B is the specimen thickness
W is the specimen width
f(a/W) is the compliance function
Compliance function depending
on the crack length
(
(
\
|
+ |
\
|
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
|
\
|
= |
\
|
2 9 2 7 2 5 2 3 2 1
7 . 38 6 . 37 8 . 21 6 . 4 9 . 2
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
f
o o o o o o
(
(
\
|
+ |
\
|
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
|
\
|
= |
\
|
2 9 2 7 2 5 2 3 2 1
7 . 38 6 . 37 8 . 21 6 . 4 9 . 2
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
W
a
f
o o o o o o
For bend specimen
a
o
B
W
|
\
|
+
+
=

=
=
8
2
9 1
0
2 8
1
i
i
i
a
a a
a
Eq.8
Eq.9
Eq.10
If the K
Q
value
obtained from Eq.8 is
verified according to
Eq 7, K
IC
.
Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007 Tapany Udomphol
Typical values of K
Typical values of K
IC IC
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If the K
IC
value of material is known and the presence of
a crack is allowed, we can then monitor the crack propagation
during service prior to failure. How long we can use the
component before it fails.
Crack in the component (in service) can be detected by
using Non Destructive Testing (NDT), i.e., ultrasonic, dye-
penetrant, X-ray, Eddy current, ferromagnetic inspection.
Relation between fracture
toughness and allowable stress
and crack size
c app IC
a K =
From equation and figure, we can design
the allowable stress at the presence of
a given crack length a without failure.
EX: Crack observed
in pressure vessel
Eq.11
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Example: Example: The stress intensity for a partial-through thickness flaw
is given by where a is the depth of flaw
penetration through a wall thickness t. If the flaw is 5 mm deep in
a wall 12 mm thick, determine whether the wall will support a
stress of 172 MPa if it is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy.
t a a K 2 / sec =
K
IC
of 7075-T6 Al alloy = 24 MPa.m
1/2
,
a = 5 x 10
-3
m
t = 12 x 10
-3
m
( )
( )
260 . 1
6545 . 0 cos
1
6545 . 0 sec
10 12 2
10 5
sec
2
sec
3
3
= = =

t
a
( )
MPa
t a a
K
IC
171
01979 . 0
24
260 . 1 10 5
24
2 / sec
3
= =
= =

But the applied stress is 172 MPa.m

1/2
. The flaw will therefore
propagate as a brittle fracture.
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Example: Example: A thin-wall pressure vessel is made from Ti-6Al-4V with K
IC
= 57
MPa.m
1/2
and
o
= 900 MPa. The internal pressure produces a circumferential
hoop stress of 360 MPa. The crack is a semi-elliptical surface crack orientated with
the major plane of the crack perpendicular to the uniform tensile hoop stress, see
fig. For this type of loading and geometry the stress intensity factor is given by
a = surface crack,
= the applied nominal stress
Q =
2
-0.212( /
o
)
2
Q
a
K
I
2
2
21 . 1
=
4 . 0
900
360
0
= =
For a 12 mm wall-
thickness, we will find
out the critical crack
a
c
that causes
rupture. If 2a=2c,
then Q = 2.35.
mm
Q K
a
I
c
5 . 15
) 360 ( 21 . 1
) 35 . 2 ( ) 57 (
21 . 1
2
2
2
2
= = =

Note:
a
c
(15.5 mm) > wall thickness (12 mm),
leak before failure
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If the crack is very elongate, e.g., a/2c = 0.05, then Q = 1.0,
and the critical crack length a
c
is now 6.6 mm.
mm
Q K
a
I
c
6 . 6
) 360 ( 21 . 1
) 0 . 1 ( ) 57 (
21 . 1
2
2
2
2
= = =

In this case the vessel would fracture
when the crack had propagated about
half-way through the wall thickness
Tapany Udomphol
Variables affecting fracture toughness K
Variables affecting fracture toughness K
Metallurgical factors
Test conditions
- Microstructure, inclusions, impurities
- Composition
- Heat treatment
- Thermo-mechanical processing
-Temperature
- Strain rate
- Specimen thickness
K
IC
Temp
Strain rate
Specimen
thickness
Temperature,
o
C
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
F
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

t
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
.
m
1
/
2
0
20
40
60
80
0
.
2
%

Y
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Fracture toughness, K
Q
0.2% Yield stress
Tapany Udomphol
Estimation of plastic zone size
In the presence of a sharp crack, the
plastic zone size ahead of the crack
tip varies dependent on the sharpness
of the crack tip and the state of
stresses.
Plastic zone ahead of the crack tip
Von Mise Tresca
2
2
2
1
o
p
K
r

=
2
2
6
1
o
p
K
r

=
Plane stress
Plane strain
From r r
p
,
y
>
o
In reality, yielding occurs and is
not allowed in the shaded area.
This is compensated by
extending the plastic zone to be
larger than r
p
.
Dugdales model of
plastic zone
Eq.12
Eq.13
Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007 Tapany Udomphol
Crack tip opening displacement
Crack tip opening displacement
(CTOD)
(CTOD)
Model of crack-tip displacement
The crack-tip displacement concept
considers that the material ahead of the
crack contains a series of miniature
tensile specimen having a gauge
length l and a width w.
For materials that exhibit certain
extent of plasticity before failure.
Under unstable crack growth
Specimen near the crack tip
fails first and immediately
causes the adjacent one crack
further. occur under
decreasing stress.
Under stable crack growth
Failure of specimen near the crack
tip does not immediately causes
failure in the adjacent one. need
to increase the load to further
propagate the crack. controllable
stable.
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Determination of CTOD
Determination of CTOD
CTOD, , can be determined using
the clip gauge which give an
indirect measurement of
displacement at the crack tip .
If the origin of the
measurement at the centre of
a crack of length 2a then,
( )
2 1
2
4
p
ar
E
CTOD

= =
Where is the applied stress
r
p
is the plastic zone size
E is the Youngs modulus
Eq.14
Specimen test arrangement
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J
J
-
-
integral
integral
J-integral is a more comprehensive approach to
fracture mechanics of lower-strength ductile
materials.
J-integral can be interpreted as the potential
energy difference between two identically loaded
specimens having slightly different crack lengths.
Physical interpretation of
the J integral
Testing is carried out in a similar manner to fracture toughness K
IC
but using a series of identical specimens (the multi-specimen
approach) or a single specimen.
Three point
bend specimen
Bb
A
J
2
=
Compact tension
specimen
(
+
+
=
2
1 (
) 1 ( 2
Bb
A
J
Where A = area under load-displacement curve
B = specimen thickness
b = unbroken ligament (W-a)
|
\
|
+
(
(
+
|
\
|
+
|
\
|
= 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 1
2
b
a
b
a
b
a
Specimen
dimensions
Eq.15 Eq.16
Eq.17
Tapany Udomphol
J
J
-
-
integral
integral
J-integral data is represented as a crack-resistance curve,
J vs a, fig (a).
The blunting line is drawn from the origin through the curve where
) ( 2 a J
flow
=
Eq.18
Tapany Udomphol
R
R
-
-
curve
curve
The R curve characterises the resistance to fracture of a material
during slow and stable crack propagation as the plastic zone grows as
the crack extends from a sharp notch.
An R curve is a graphical representation of the resistance to
crack propagation R versus crack length a.
a R
a G

/
/
(a) R-curve for a ductile material,
(b) R-curve for a brittle material.
a
R
a
G
Irwin suggested that failure

(unstable crack growth) will occur
when the rate of change of strain-
energy release rate equals
the rate of change in resistance to
crack growth .
a G /
a R /
a
R
a
G
Eq.19
Tapany Udomphol
Probabilistic aspects of fracture
Probabilistic aspects of fracture
mechanics
mechanics
Failures of brittle materials normally give a high variability of
results which requires statistic analysis.
Ex: The fracture stress values can be achieved at different values.
If specimen is divided into small elements
each having a crack of different sizes, the
strength of the material is determined by
the element with the longest crack
(weakest-link concept) not by the
average values of the distribution of flaws.
Calculated frequency distribution of
fracture stress as a function of number
of cracks N
The initial crack size must be assumed to be
the largest crack size that can be expected
to be undetected by non destructive
inspection and the fracture toughness might
be assumed to be the lowest possible value
to be expected in the material.
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Toughness of materials
The role of metallurgical variables on toughness of materials.
Strength Toughness
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To obtain material with high toughness
Small and rounded particles reduce pileup stress.
Should be widely spaced proper volume fraction.
Inclusions should be avoid, or large widely spaced
inclusions are less damaging.
Fine grain size minimise dislocation pileup stress.
High crack deflection more energy absorb during
fracture.
Tapany Udomphol
References
References
Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
Sanford, R.J., Principles of fracture mechanics, 2003,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, ISBN 0-13-092992-1.
Tapany Udomphol

11 Fracture Mechanics

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Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007

Through thickness crack

Where B is specimen thickness

But the applied stress is 172 MPa.m

Irwin suggested that failure

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