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NEWS http://ricenews.irri.org
Rice prices spiral upward; no end in sight Export prices for rice
US$/ton
580 US 2/4%
Thai 100%B
rice-dependent countries are becoming securing adequate supplies.
Viet 5%
increasingly anxious. Amid growing Weather- and pest-related prob- 530
Pak Irri-25%
signs of civil unrest due to rising food lems have also helped force prices Thai A1 Super
prices in general, national leaders are up. Insect and disease outbreaks in 480
hustling to ensure rice supplies for their Vietnam, flooding and a major cyclone
populations. in Bangladesh, flooding in Indonesia, 430
To guarantee domestic supplies drought in the Philippines and Austra-
and keep local prices down, the world’s lia, and record-breaking cold weather 380
two largest rice exporters, Thailand in Vietnam and China—events that are
and Vietnam, have capped exports expected to increase in frequency and 330
below previous years’ levels. India has severity with climate change—have all
set a $1,000-per-ton minimum export affected global production. Higher oil 280
price—effectively limiting exports to prices are both increasing the cost of
premium basmati varieties—and China food production and prompting many 230
is taxing grain exports in an effort to farmers to switch to biofuel crops,
keep staple foods in the country. further reducing the area planted to 0
Aug-07
Dec-07
Feb-07
Apr-07
Feb-08
Jun-07
Oct-07
In February, Philippine President food crops.
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo took the “The [rice] price will have to rise
unprecedented step of asking Vietnam to the point where rice can compete, Source: FAO Rice Price Update March 2008
to ensure rice supplies. In March, financially, with fuel crops,” said Vichai
Thailand and Vietnam agreed to let Sriprasert, former president of the Thai International Rice Research Institute
the Philippines draw from their stocks Rice Exporters’ Association. “I believe (IRRI). “Longer term demand-supply
in the Association of Southeast Asian the domestic price of rice will triple, imbalance is clearly indicated by deple-
Nations’ emergency reserve. Thailand and will reach $1,000 per ton on the tion of stock that has been going on for
announced in late March that it would export market, just to catch up with several years—we have been consuming
reserve some of its stockpile to be sold oil prices.” more than we have been producing.”
to consumers at cost price. The Philip- The price increase is also hitting The current price rise is set against
pine government has even asked fast- aid agencies, such as the United Nations a background of ever-increasing pop-
food restaurants to offer half portions World Food Program (WFP), which are ulation sizes and stagnating yield
of rice to prevent wastage. being forced to scale down their opera- growth, compounded by a long-term
Several factors are conspiring to tions at a time when—because of the withdrawal of government and donor
amplify the rise in prices. As rice land high prices—the people they help are support for public-sector agricultural
and irrigation water continue to be lost most in need of support. WFP officials research.
to industrialization and urbanization, warned in February that climbing food “Ultimately, however, achieving a
Asia’s burgeoning urban middle class, prices were pushing up the agency’s supply-demand balance at a reasonable
especially in India and China, is de- budget requirements by several million rice price will require a steady invest-
manding more meat and dairy, which is dollars a week. ment in development and dissemina-
diverting production from food grains Although hoarding by traders may tion of new technologies and improved
to animal feed. Growing demand from have contributed to the problem, “this management practices to raise rice
Africa, where rice is an increasingly is not all about speculation,” said Sushil yields and lower the unit cost of produc-
important staple—Nigeria alone now Pandey, agricultural economist at the tion,” said Randy Barker, head of IRRI’s
Social Sciences Division.
Rising prices at a market IRRI Director General Robert Zei-
in Los Baños, Philippines. gler noted that, when the food crisis of
the 1970s struck, new high-yielding rice
varieties—products of the Institute’s
research after it was created in the
1960s—were already being distrib-
uted. “That success may have made
Jose Raymond Panaligan
have reported that many people have been forced onto a diet of wild roots,
yam, and sweet potatoes. Only one-fifth of the state’s monthly rice requirement is currently available.
after research investment in the 1960s
Worse, in early 2008, the rat plague moved into bordering areas of Bangladesh and Myanmar, increasing and 1970s underpinned lower prices
fears of widespread food shortages. throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
High-protein rice of poor and malnourished people in ing more than US$10 million in sales,
By crossing cultivated rice, Oryza developing countries who depend on was “Mice love rice.” Unfortunately,
sativa, with a wild species, scientists staple food for most of their nutrition. IRRI rodent experts confirm that this
in the U.S. and India have developed is all too true.
high-protein rice, according to a study Rodent ringtones
reported in the 23 January issue of the Former IRRI information technology Euro import regulation eased
American Chemical Society’s Journal head Paul O’Nolan has alerted Rice The European Union (EU) no longer
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Today to an article in the 2 February requires member states to test upon
Crossing IR64, a popular cultivated issue of The Economist. The story, arrival all imports of U.S. long-grain
variety, with wild O. nivara resulted about the Internet in China, discusses rice for the presence of the genetically
in rice with a protein content of 12.4%. the prevalence of mobile phones and modified Liberty Link (LL) Rice601
This is 18% and 24% more protein, the profits being made by selling ring trait. The new regulation requires only
respectively, than the parents. Protein tones and jokes for a few cents each to that the rice be tested prior to ship-
enrichment in rice could help millions millions of people. A recent hit, generat- ment from the U.S. Only rice that tests
on marginal land, are inevitably most Cotonou, Benin, and at the National
Participants at the launch of the Africa component exposed—and most vulnerable—to Agricultural Science Center in New
of the Gates Foundation project. poor soils, too much or too little rain, Delhi, India.
negative at the 0.01% level of detection New journal molecular breeding, and comparative
is permitted to be shipped. U.S. rice Japan’s National Institute of Agrobio- biology.
exporters hope that the change will help logical Sciences (NIAS), in collabora-
them re-establish the EU market. tion with Springer Publishing Co., Aroma boost patented
recently announced a new international Researchers who identified a compound
Chinese honor for IRRI scientific journal, RICE, which aims to responsible for aroma in rice have been
IRRI has been named as a recipient of fill a glaring void in basic and applied awarded a U.S. patent for a method they
the Chinese International Award for plant science publishing. The journal, subsequently developed for increasing
Science and Technology. The award, due to be launched in mid-2008, will fragrance. The team, from Thailand’s
recommended jointly by the Chinese be the world’s only high-quality serial Kasetsart University, was granted the
Ministry of Agriculture and hybrid rice publication for reporting advances in patent—also filed in Australia, China,
expert Yuan Longping, recognizes the rice genetics, structural and functional Philippines, Thailand, Japan, Vietnam,
Institute’s efforts in scientific research genomics, comparative genomics, India, France, and the European Patent
and training for Chinese agriculture. molecular biology and physiology, Office—in November 2007.
A chim Dobermann, an
inter nat iona lly recognized
agricultural research scientist with
national and international awards.
Dr. Dober mann received his
Ph.D. from the Institute of Tropical
F ormer IRRI principal scientist Sant
Virmani has won a Padma Award,
given to Indian citizens to recognize
many years’ experience working with Agriculture, University of Leipzig, distinguished public contributions. Dr.
rice in Asia and Europe, has been Germany. A f ter working at IRR I Virmani, recognized in the science and
appointed as IRRI’s new deputy director from 1992 to 2000, he moved to the engineering category, was among 71
general for research. Already at IRRI as University of Nebraska (Lincoln) in the eminent Indians who received Padma
leader of the Institute’s program on U.S. and rapidly rose to the rank of full Awards on 25 January 2008.
Sustaining productivity in intensive professor. During his time in Nebraska, Niranjan Baisakh, former IRRI
rice-based systems: rice and the he maintained strong research linkages Ph.D. scholar and postdoctoral fellow in
environment, Dr. Dobermann began with East, Southeast, and South Asian PBGB, has won a Tipton Team Research
his new role on 1 April 2008. colleagues. Award from the Louisiana State
After beginning his career as a soil T.P. Tuong, who served as interim University Agricultural Center, along
scientist, Dr. Dobermann expanded deputy director general for research with his colleagues from the Center’s
his research interests to cover a rich following the departure of previous School of Plant, Environmental, and
array of crop and social sciences. He deputy director general for research Soil Sciences. The team was recognized
is a Fellow of the American Society of Ren Wang, returns to a senior research in December 2007 for its work in
Agronomy and Soil Science Society of role in IRRI’s Crop and Environmental developing coastal plants to aid in
America, and recipient of numerous Sciences Division. coastal reclamation projects.
Moving on
biotechnology to develop high-yielding production specialist at IRRI (1974-
Standing with Rice Today in front of the 111-year- Glenn Gregorio, IRRI
old Faidherbe bridge in Saint Louis, Senegal, are rice breeder for Africa,
(left to right) Timothy Krupnik, Matty Demont, and takes Rice Today up Mt.
Koen Dillen, all working at the Africa Rice Center’s Cameroon, the highest
Sahel Research Station. mountain in West Africa
at about 4,000 meters.
Keeping up with IRRI staff In March 2008, IRRI bade farewell plant resistance in rice stem borer
to Philippe Hervé, molecular biologist management, also left in December.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault, designed as a last-resort backup for Earth’s most important crops, has
accepted its first samples, including more than 70,000 different types of rice
O
n Monday 21 January 2008, collections maintained by centers He added, “For long-term
flight LH3134 left Manila, of the Consultative Group on survival, seeds need to be stored
Philippines, for Oslo, Norway, International Agricultural Research at low temperature. This is most
counting more than 35 million (CGIAR)—were shipped to Svalbard. economical in a place like Svalbard,
grains of rice among its cargo. IRRI’s contribution included where the ambient temperature is
Headed not for Scandinavian dinner the first box placed in storage by low and the insulation is high.”
plates, these grains would continue on Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Further, he said, the risks
to the Norwegian island of Svalbard, Stoltenberg and 2004 Nobel Peace faced by IRRI and Svalbard are
north of the Arctic Circle, only 1,000 Prize Laureate Wangari Maathai not just independent but almost
kilometers from the North Pole. during the vault’s opening ceremony mutually exclusive. It is almost
The seeds, from the International on 26 February 2008. Prime inconceivable that any risk could
Rice Genebank of the International Minister Stoltenberg described simultaneously destroy the
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the vault, which cost around US$9 two copies of the collection.
represented 70,180 samples of million to build, as “a Noah’s Ark
traditional and modern rice varieties for our biological heritage.” Svalbard Global Seed Vault:
and their wild relatives bound for The facility—dubbed the the numbers
T
the newly constructed Svalbard “doomsday vault” by the world’s he vault is located 120 meters into the
Global Seed Vault. In total, more media—is owned and administered rock, ensuring that the vault rooms
than 200,000 crop varieties from by the Ministry of Agriculture and will remain naturally frozen even if the
Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Food on behalf of the Kingdom of mechanical cooling system fails or if
external air temperatures rise because of
the Middle East—drawn from seed Norway and was established as a climate change.
service to the world community. The distance from the front door of the
The Nordic Gene Bank will operate portal building to the back of the vault is
the facility and maintain a public 145.9 meters. The width of each vault is
online database of samples. 9.5–10 meters and the height is 6 meters.
Each vault is approximately 27 meters
Constructed in the permafrost long.
of the Svalbard mountains, the The vault has the capacity to store 4.5
vault is designed to store duplicates million seed samples. Each sample contains
of seeds from seed collections an average of 500 seeds, so a maximum of
around the globe. Ruaraidh 2.25 billion seeds can be stored. The seeds
will be stored at minus 18 degrees Celsius
Sackville Hamilton, head of the in specially-designed four-ply foil packages
International Rice Genebank, said that will be placed in sealed boxes. The
CIP
the Philippine national seed bank the seeds will not just be stored
Dr. Sackville Hamilton situated a few kilometers away in ice,” said Tay Gipo, addressing
helps load IRRI seeds in but left our facility unscathed,” the international audience,
preparation for the flight said Dr. Sackville Hamilton. “but further enriched by giving
to Svalbard.
Despite this, Dr. Sackville support to the work of farmers.”
I
as “thin and unstable,” meaning technologies that boost productivity
ncreasing rice productivity is that a relatively small percentage of was underscored by Randy Barker,
the only long-term solution total rice produced is bought and head of IRRI’s Social Sciences
that can provide high returns sold internationally, and that export Division. “Even before the spike
to farmers while keeping prices are prone to large swings. of prices in the 1970s, high-yield
the price of rice low for poor Thus, governments mostly seek a variety technology was well under
consumers. This was the consensus high degree of self-sufficiency. way to widespread adoption,” said
of participants at the Forum on Given this broad scenario, Dr. Barker, who emphasized that
rice policy research: key issues policy tools to promote the rice effective research and development
from national perspectives, held industry in different countries were requires long-term planning.
at the International Rice Research discussed. The policy research One implication of this, according
Institute (IRRI) in Los Baños, agenda identified during the forum to Leo Sebastian, executive director
Philippines, on 18-19 February 2008. included assessment of allocation of the Philippine Rice Research
The forum, held in the midst of of resources for research and Institute, is the need for increased
rice-price rises not seen since the development, analysis of comparative investment in agricultural research.
1970s, aimed to identify key policy advantage in rice production in “Impact of technologies is a
issues relevant to the rice industry different countries and rice-growing driver of increased rice production,
from the perspective of national environments, policies to provide whether a country exports or
systems, prioritize the identified adequate returns to farmers while imports,” said Dr. Sebastian.
policy issues for research, establish keeping the rice price low for “But everybody is saying that
a network of rice policy researchers, consumers, provision of safety nets investment in agricultural research
and develop a collaborative for the poor, and reorganization of is small or limited—and something
arrangement for conducting policy agriculture for greater efficiency. needs to be done about this.”
research on high-priority issues. Although the current rising Dr. Pandey said that the
Senior policy researchers from rice price was seen as beneficial Institute has identified technological
Asia (Bangladesh, China, India, for farmers who grow a reasonable and policy opportunities and
Indonesia, Nepal, Philippines, surplus that they can sell on the challenges for addressing the
Thailand, and Vietnam) and Africa market, poor farmers with small rising rice prices. “We are tackling
(Mozambique and Tanzania) or no surplus and poor urban the issue head-on by developing
attended the forum along with consumers will continue to lose and promoting interventions
representatives of the Africa Rice out if the price continues to rise. to increase the productivity of
Center (WARDA), the Food and Mahabub Hossain, executive the rice industry,” he said.
Agriculture Organization of the director of the Bangladesh Rural The forum participants agreed
United Nations, and the private Advancement Committee, pointed to establish a network of rice
sector. Sixteen papers were presented out that marginal farmers—who policy researchers to facilitate
on various aspects of rice policy, and are net buyers of rice—are also rapid exchange of ideas and
a panel discussion on the implications hurt by increasing fertilizer and information. The network will
of rising rice prices was held. pesticide costs, which are climbing develop linkages with the existing
The participants largely agreed in line with rising energy costs. agricultural policy networks in
that rice is seen by most governments According to forum organizer Asia and Africa. Proceedings
as a “political” commodity although Sushil Pandey, who leads of the forum are expected to be
the national perspectives on rice IRRI’s Rice Policy and Impact published by the end of 2008.
restricted their rice exports. So, 2008 practice that let them down, in a
I
Story and photos by Bob Hill amounted to a one-horse race, and, sellers’ market the likes of which
nternational rice trading is not a as the 2007 harvest began to roll in they had never experienced before.
business for the faint-hearted. from the fields, Thailand’s exporters Local and export prices were soaring,
Thailand’s exporters knew began their wheeling and dealing, even as they struck their deals to
that well. They also knew, when with buyers clamoring at the door. deliver in three or four months’ time,
they prepared in November “You can only make money if when they still had to buy the rice
2007 for what was supposed to be a you speculate properly,” says veteran they had just sold. In some cases,
boom year ahead, that prices were exporter and former president of the the small profit margins they were
likely to rise. Little did they realize Thai Rice Exporters’ Association happy to accept disappeared within
how steep that rise would be. Vichai Sriprasert. “At the time of a few hours. Then, they could only
Poor weather and domestic the deal, we expect to make $5 watch in despair as the spiraling
supply concerns had severely a ton. Nobody has 100% of the prices battered at their solvency. In
restricted competition on the world’s stock in hand. We hope to buy the order to honor their commitments,
markets from Vietnam and India, rest. If I end up making $1 per some were forced to buy milled rice
Thailand’s main export rivals. ton, then I’m happy with that.” at a ruinous US$200 per ton more
China, Egypt, and Australia had also It was their forward-orders than they had agreed to sell it.
In the few months from badly scared, many of Thailand’s developing countries such as China
November to February, 30 to 40 smaller exporters withdrew from are also a factor, with more land
exporters, many of them among the trading in March, to brood and needed to raise livestock to meet
country’s most experienced traders, wait for the second crop to come increasing demands for meat.
lost an estimated $128 million. in, later that month and in April. “The force of the technology that
Worse still, supplies of paddy Others cautiously accepted orders no created the Green Revolution has
(unmilled rice) all but dried up in more than one month in advance. run out,” says Mr. Vichai. “World
late February, leading to claims that Had they kept an eye on world stocks of rice have been falling
farmers and millers were hoarding food prices, they might have been for 4 or 5 years, and consumption
it to speculate on even higher forewarned. The price of wheat has of rice exceeds production. This
prices. The government ordered an doubled since April 2007 and the food is a very dangerous situation. We
official check of its own stocks after price index of the United Nations’ need a new level of technology
the discovery that 12,000 tons of Food and Agriculture Organization in the rice fields of the world, so
paddy had “disappeared” while in climbed by almost 40% in 2007. that we can meet the demand.”
the storage custody of millers, and Demand is outpacing supply and the In 2007, Thailand exported
exporters scoffed that 12,000 tons world’s stocks of cereals like rice are about 9.5 million tons of rice. In the
was the tip of a very large iceberg. dwindling to the point at which they 4 months from November 2007 to
The accusations rumbled back can no longer provide an effective February 2008, exports accelerated
and forth through a shell-shocked buffer in years of poor production. to 1 million tons per month—well
industry, bleeding on the one hand Although population growth above the expected monthly rate of
and profiting on the other. At the is the fundamental cause, the 800,000 tons. Some of Thailand’s
same time that many exporters production and pricing problems are biggest firms, such as CP Intertrade,
faced heavy losses, farmers, local also partly due to weather problems part of the giant Charoen Pokphand
paddy traders, and many millers linked to climate change as well as conglomerate, say that rice exports
profited like never before. rising oil prices boosting demand will bring them a bonanza. Other
Unable to find supplies and for biofuels. Changing diets in fast- big firms that bought rice at auction
T
he winds started to pick poor. People scrape by from season If you’ve never been to
up during the afternoon of to season, trying to grow enough Bangladesh, you may not know how
what should have been a rice to feed themselves and maybe flat the country is. Apart from hills
normal Thursday in southern sell a little if they’re lucky. It’s a in the southeast and northeast, the
Bangladesh. There had been warnings precipitous existence: one failed crop, land rarely gets more than a few
of a storm, somewhere out in the Bay one big flood, and it can send people meters above sea level. The country is
of Bengal, heading toward the coast. spiraling into destitution. And, at effectively an enormous delta formed
But the people of Chornajir Village this level of poverty, the channels by the confluence of the Ganges,
didn’t think things would get too bad. of communication, which should Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers
Besides, there was work to bring news of floods and storms, and their tributaries, which catch
be done in the fields and the don’t always work like they should. the Himalayan snowmelt and wend
nearest shelter was a long walk Cyclone Sidr, a category-4 their way toward the Bay of Bengal.
away, especially for the young brute with peak winds of 250 Hundreds of rivers and streams
children. If it rains, so be it. kilometers per hour, slammed into crisscross their way out to sea, the
Hopefully, the crops will be OK. the southern Bangladesh coast end result being an entire country
As evening approached, though, in the evening. By the time the that floods like a bathtub if it rains
it became clear that 15 November villagers of Chornajir, around 20 too much. Add to that a cyclone-
2007 would not be a normal kilometers inland, realized this was induced tidal surge and you start to
Thursday. Chornajir, like most of more than a common storm, it was understand how devastating a major
the villages in Patuakhali District, is too late to get to the shelter safely. storm can be here. In 1970, a cyclone
killed up to half a million people—one
of the largest single disasters in
Millions of southern Bangladeshis
human history. In 1991, another
were forced into makeshift huts after cyclone killed more than 130,000. In
Cyclone Sidr destroyed their homes. terms of the cost to human life, Sidr
was not as brutal, causing the deaths
of around 4,000 people (though still
a major disaster by any definition).
Fortunately, it struck at low tide, so
the surge was not as powerful as it
might have been. And, despite the
communication breakdowns that left
Chornajir residents in grave danger, a
great number of people made it to one
of the many cyclone shelters that have
greater frequency because of climate others, including BRAC, are helping farmers to grow boro rice,” explains
change—Institute scientists Dr. affected families get back on their Dr. Saleque. “In Barisal District,
Ismail, Dr. Johnson, Zainul Abedin, feet. It is an enormous task. BRRI and only 40% of the rice area (107,000
and M.A. Hamid Miah traveled BRAC both jumped in immediately hectares) is planted to boro rice.”
to southern Bangladesh on 14-16 to distribute seeds, but getting hold One major constraint, says
December 2007. They were joined by of enough was proving difficult, with Dr. Saleque, is that farmers
representatives from the Bangladesh around 20,000 tons required to meet must be organized. For example,
Rice Research Institute (BRRI), the expected shortfall. Abu Saleque, water allocation is a problem,
the Department of Agricultural principal scientific officer and as is the practice of allowing
Extension, and two nongovernmental head of the BRRI Research Station livestock to graze on aman crop
organizations—Action Aid and in Barisal District just north of residue—farmers would need to
SPEED Trust—working on the Patuakhali, says that, to cover losses coordinate to ensure that animals
IRRI-coordinated Food Security due to Sidr, BRRI is helping farmers don’t eat newly planted boro rice.
for Sustainable Household to grow transplanted aus rice. If the coming rice seasons are
Livelihoods (FoSHoL) project. “BRRI is supplying boro seeds to to be successful, the bare minimum
All groups, along with several farmers and is also encouraging more needed by farmers is seeds, fertilizer,
and help with land preparation. If storage facilities that can withstand Tolerant varieties will at least give
draft animals weren’t killed in the flooding, can buffer Bangladeshi a good start to the next season.”
cyclone, their feed was most likely farmers against future catastrophe. According to Dr. Johnson, an
lost. As a result, many farmers have “For this kind of disaster, it’s important role in IRRI’s research
either lost or ceased to keep animals. very difficult to design varieties is to reduce the vulnerability of
Although any rice crop hit that can withstand this kind of rice production systems and,
directly by a full-force cyclone is sure devastation—even human beings are through that, the vulnerability
to be damaged, new varieties with not able to do that,” says Dr. Ismail. of people’s livelihoods.
sufficient tolerance of submergence, “But you can develop certain traits “We saw a gradient from those
salinity, and flooding—but with that can mitigate the effects. We can areas that were seriously affected
higher yields than currently also see what varieties are available to areas that were less so,” he
grown local varieties—need to be that can be used immediately after says. “One hope is, if improved
developed, tested, and out-scaled the flood, because we expect to materials are available with greater
in southern Bangladesh and other see residual salinity, high iron, tolerance of some of the stresses
cyclone-prone areas. Subsequent and other changes in surface soil caused by an event like this, the
increased production, combined with due to debris brought by seawater. proportion of the area that is
seriously affected will be smaller.”
Dr. Hossain points out, however,
that the Sidr aftermath also
offers an opportunity to improve
livelihoods in the long run. “At times
of crisis, that’s the time to suggest
new ideas to farmers,” he says.
During the IRRI scientists’ visit
in December 2007, discussions were
predominantly about action—seed
distribution, next season’s crop
preparation, research to develop
technologies to minimize losses
after the next cyclone, and so on.
Importantly, says Dr. Abedin, these
are not the types of action that will
create dependence: they are ways
to not only get people back on their
Rice exposed to Sidr’s winds and feet, but also keep them there.
flooding was heavily damaged, like “Cash relief,” he says, “is
this example belonging to a farmer
(left) from Isladi Village. something people will use today. But
they need something for tomorrow.”
The big
Story by Adam Barclay,
photos by Raymond Jose Panaligan
squeeze
I
n 1998, the farming community higher-yielding, more reliable crops. As new members joined the
of Canarem, 120 kilometers Sure enough, P-38 did improve cooperative, enticed by P-38’s
north of Manila in the Philippine things. Farmers had access to promise, each farmer’s wait between
province of Tarlac, had reason more water and started growing an irrigations—which should have been
to celebrate. The Philippine additional dry-season rice crop each 7 days—grew to almost 2 weeks. In
National Irrigation Administration year. But the celebration was muted. the dry season, the interval became
(NIA) funded the construction of NIA paid in advance for the diesel so long that fields dried out and
a deep-well pump, designated P- that fueled the pump, with farmers the soil began to crack. Some of the
38, that would allow the farmers to repaying with a portion of their increasingly anxious farmers would
irrigate their rice fields. Previously harvest at the end of the season. With sneak out at night and divert water
dependent on rain or shallow a steady source of irrigation water into their own fields by placing holes
tubewell pumps, which often run dry, and no need to pay up-front fuel underneath their paddy dikes. Others
P-38 promised to help Canarem’s costs, farmers adopted a “too much turned to alcohol. Village officials
several dozen farmers produce is better than not enough” policy. were called in to resolve conflicts.
Dr. Soriano, “is that you can establish also stepped in and are currently 2008, organizations from Mindanao,
wet-season rice in early May, up to subsidizing seeds for farmers by 50%. in the southern Philippines, and
one-and-a-half months earlier—and In the Philippines, local northern Luzon, in the north, are
therefore harvest earlier—than government is responsible for set to join in. “We want to be the
transplanted rice, which needs much agricultural technology dissemination research-and-development center
more water before it can be planted. and training, so administrative or for aerobic rice in the Philippines,”
Then, following harvest in August financial support from mayors and says BASC president Josie Valdez.
or September, there’s still enough local extension officials is crucial In many ways, the burgeoning
rainfall to establish another crop.” if a new technology is to succeed. success of AWD and aerobic rice
Dr. Soriano says the ultimate BASC has also recruited is not a story about technologies.
goal of the project is to increase partners from other provinces. It’s a story about people, about
cropping intensity. Without aerobic Bataan Polytechnic State College and the local champions without
rice, Bulacan farmers manage a Palawan State University have already whom the best technologies in the
single rice crop per year. The project begun aerobic rice projects and, in world would languish on shelves
results so far suggest that as many and in academic journals.
as three-quarters of those farmers “We need these people who go
who adopt aerobic rice, which needs beyond the limits of their institution
irrigation only once a week or so, will and, really, beyond their own limits,”
be able to plant a second rice crop. says Dr. Lampayan. “IRRI did not
So far, farmers’ yields have assume that its partners would
been around 4.5 tons per hectare, champion the technology in the way
which is similar to what they they have. It was quite spontaneous.”
achieved with transplanted rice. Without people like Vic
One constraint is seed availability, Vicmudo, Evangeline Sibayan,
but two 1-million-peso (US$25,000) and Junel Soriano to provide the
projects, funded by Japan through sparks, promising technologies
the Philippine National Economic too often fail to ignite.
Development Authority and by the
Philippine Commission on Higher The development and dissemination of water-
Education, have enabled BASC to set saving technologies for rice as reported here
up a seed production business that are carried out through the Water-Saving
will also help raise revenue. Local Work Group of the Irrigated Rice Research
governments in the Norzagaray, Consortium and the Consultative Group
Doña Remedios Trinidad, and Bulacan Agricultural State College’s on International Agricultural Research
Junel Soriano.
San Rafael municipalities have Challenge Program on Water and Food.
technologies are helping to BRRI’s M.A. Mazid (front, with glasses and beard)
and IRRI’s David Johnson (behind sign) discuss
close the window of hardship. direct seeding and monga mitigation.
T
ravel from the Bangladeshi often struggling to piece together 12-year-old children are sent to
capital of Dhaka to the a single decent meal. At this time work for landowners. Boys receive
district of Rangpur in of the year, most of the people who about US$28 and food for a year
the country’s northwest rely on farmwork—around 70% of in exchange for hard labor in
takes about 7 hours by an the adult population—in the greater the fields. The girls, restricted to
increasingly rough road. In the course Rangpur District are jobless, waiting household chores, receive only food.
of that long journey, you get a feel for for the harvest of transplanted It does not help that northwest
this largely flat, waterlogged nation, rice in December. By the time the Bangladesh is transected by 21 rivers
teeming with around 150 million monga season comes, they have that regularly overflow, leaving
people. Departing the crowded consumed all of their stored food and thousands of families homeless.
urban streets of Dhaka, you leave opportunities for work have dried up. Floods usually arrive in August
behind images of makeshift tents Most of the men migrate to and September, bringing with them
crammed between trees along the cities to find work pulling rickshaws, water-borne illnesses and hardship
highway. Nearing Rangpur, you can transporting bananas and logs, that are only intensified by the
see communities of tin houses. And or similar. But these prospects monga, which follows close behind.
in villages in neighboring Nilphamari are few and poorly paid. Often, To help ease the suffering
and Kurigram districts, families families buy livestock and poultry during monga and improve farm
live in thatch huts, most of them before monga and sell them during productivity, the International
without electricity or plumbing. These these trying months. Even 8- to Rice Research Institute (IRRI)-led
simple dwellings represent home for Irrigated Rice Research Consortium
millions of Bangladesh’s poor. About (IRRC), the Bangladesh Rice
one-fifth of the nation’s population— Research Institute (BRRI), and
around 30 million people—suffer local nongovernment organizations
from severe hunger each year. (NGOs) have teamed up. Together,
Life for the rural poor, hard they are developing the means
enough at any time, gets harder for earlier harvests through
in northern Bangladesh from late shorter-duration rice varieties
September to mid-November. It combined with direct seeding of
is at this time that the annual rice and weed control options.
famine known as monga bares its IRRI weed scientist David
teeth. During these months, many Johnson, of the IRRC Labor
cannot afford three meals a day, Dr. Johnson with local residents in Rangpur. Productivity Work Group, and M.A.
T
he availability of water is a fundamental
requirement for crop growth. In many
places, rainfall is scant or erratic and this
can diminish crop yield and strongly affect
the livelihoods of farming households. To
cope with this problem, farmers can use irrigation, the
artificial supply of water to increase crop production.
Because irrigation takes away some of farming’s
climate risk, farmers who irrigate are more likely to
further invest in their agricultural production—by
using more fertilizer, for example. It is therefore
particularly in irrigated areas where we find the intensive
agriculture associated with the Green Revolution.
There are striking regional differences in the use
of irrigation (map). According to the data sources
used for this map,1 India and China each have about
20% of the world’s irrigated lands, and about 68%
of the world’s irrigated area is in Asia. Although
determining exact figures on this scale is impossible,
there is agreement about Asia's large share of global
irrigation. For example, the recent Comprehensive
Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture2
states that “over 60%” of the world’s irrigated land is in
Asia, and that about half of this land is used for rice. continent, and whether Green-Revolution-type
According to the Comprehensive Assessment, there intensification could take place there without it.
are currently about 300 million hectares of irrigated land There are many very dry areas in the world (less
worldwide—double the area in 1960. About 80 million than 250 mm of annual precipitation), but only a small
hectares (27%) of this irrigated land is used for rice proportion of this land is used for crop production. Where
production. Because rice receives more water than other it is used to grow crops, it tends to be irrigated. For
crops, it uses some 39% of the world’s irrigation water. example, in Egypt, more than 90% of agricultural land
Asia also has a large share—about 48%—of the is irrigated. However, only 30% of the world’s irrigated
world’s crop land. But this alone does not explain the area is in areas with less than 500 mm of rain per year
difference in the extent of irrigated areas: about 28% of (Figure 1). Another 30% is in areas with between 500 and
Asia’s crop land is irrigated, versus 9% for the rest of the 1,000 mm per year. The remainder is in areas with higher
world. Only 5% of the crop land in Africa is irrigated. rainfall. The majority of irrigated rice land in Asia receives
Much of this is in very dry areas such as the lower Nile more than 750 mm of rain per year. In these areas,
Valley; unlike in Asia, there is very little irrigation irrigation provides either additional water during the
in zones with 500 to 1,000 mm annual irrigation. rainy season and the opportunity for dry-season crops.
The low level of irrigation in Africa raises Detailed geographic data on the extent of crop land
the questions of whether there should be more and irrigation are an important source of information
investment in irrigating the crop lands of that for studies of agriculture and development. Here, we
1
Sources: Crop land: GLC2000 (www-gvm.jrc.it/glc2000/); Wood et al, IFPRI Agricultural extent v2, IFPRI. Irrigation: Siebert et al 2005. Global map of
irrigated areas version 3. University of Frankfurt and FAO; Thenkabail et al 2006. An Irrigated Area Map of the World (1999) derived from Remote
Sensing. Research Report 105. IWMI. Precipitation: Hijmans et al 2005. International Journal of Climatology 25:1965-1978; www.worldclim.org.
2
Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive
Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscan and IWMI. www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Assessment.
combined the two most recent satellite data (Thenkabail et al). currently available or will be in the
global irrigation data sources The relative strengths and future. This is important because
available. One is based on maps weaknesses of these two sources the future of irrigation is uncertain
of irrigation schemes (Siebert et are open to debate, but they have at in many areas. Groundwater is being
al), which may include areas that least one limitation in common: they depleted in many important rice-
could be, but may in fact not be, show only the presence or absence growing areas such as the Punjab in
irrigated, the other is based on of irrigation, not how much water is India. Tube-well irrigation, which has
boomed in India and Bangladesh,
has become much less profitable
because of the increased cost of
fuel. Demand is also growing for
nonagricultural water use, such as for
clean drinking water from wealthier
and larger urban populations (see
the Comprehensive Assessment
for a recent in-depth analysis).
So, we need to know more.
More importantly, though, we need
rice production technologies that
enable farmers to use water more
efficiently and rice varieties that are
more tolerant of drought—not only in
Figure 1. The percentage of global crop land that is irrigated, and the distribution Africa, where irrigation is scarce, but
of the world's irrigated crop land by annual rainfall. also in more heavily irrigated Asia.
by Savitri Mohapatra Rice farmers in the region have reducing the impact of RYMV lies
U
been worried ever since severe in the use of resistant varieties in
nique to Africa, rice yellow RYMV epidemics broke out in complement with measures such as
mottle virus (RYMV) has West Africa—the main rice belt in direct sowing, removal of alternative
become the continent’s most sub-Saharan Africa—in the 1990s, hosts on which virus populations
rapidly spreading disease primarily because of the adoption of can survive during the off-season,
of rice since it was first discovered intensive rice cultivation methods, and control of the insect vectors.
in Kenya in 1966. It has the potential including irrigation, monocropping, In response to strong demand
to devastate lowland and irrigated and high-yielding but highly from West African countries that
rice throughout Africa, contributing susceptible Asian rice varieties. were badly affected by the RYMV
to food scarcity in areas where The disease is transmitted by epidemic, WARDA took the lead in
rice is an important staple food. insect vectors, such as beetles and the mid-1990s to conduct research
“Unfortunately, all rice varieties grasshoppers, or mechanically on the disease on a regional basis,
traditionally grown in irrigated through injury to plants during building on the RYMV resistance
conditions and in lowland areas of hoe-weeding or transplanting in screening work of the International
Africa are susceptible to RYMV,” the presence of virus particles. Institute of Tropical Research.
says Africa Rice Center (WARDA) The symptoms of RYMV-affected As a result, a regional research
plant pathologist Yacouba Séré. plants are stunted growth, mottled strategy to address RYMV was
“It is therefore a major threat to yellow leaves, reduced number developed and implemented with
more than 3 million hectares of of tillers, and sterile grains. support from the UK Department for
rice in sub-Saharan Africa.” The best hope for significantly International Development, using
R. Raman
may be susceptible elsewhere.
Over the past few years,
however, scientists have made
several important advances.
A rapid tool for diagnosing 3-year project on marker-assisted been trained to use the laboratory
RYMV using antibodies (an immune selection (MAS) with support from equipment. To further increase the
response from animals and plants in the U.S. Agency for International biotechnology capacity of Africa,
response to virus particles) has been Development to train national staff students from Benin, Burkina
developed and shared with project of four West African countries— Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Niger are
partners. Several RYMV strains Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, and The doing their Ph.D. studies on RYMV
were identified and characterized. Gambia—in the application of MAS under WARDA’s supervision.
Rice varieties with resistance to techniques to transfer the gene with According to Marie-Noelle
RYMV have been identified and RYMV resistance to popular rice Ndjiondjop, WARDA molecular
sent to national partners for testing. varieties. (MAS involves linking a biologist, who is heading the project,
Most importantly, a few sources of desired gene with a marker so that it this is the first time that national
high resistance to RYMV, such as can easily be bred into a rice variety.) programs in the project countries
Gigante, a traditional low-yielding Thanks to this innovative have had access to laboratories
rice variety from Mozambique, and project, WARDA’s national partners equipped for this sort of science.
several indigenous African varieties are benefiting in several ways. The “The legacy of this project,”
have been identified. Resistant resistance gene rymv1 has been says Dr. Ndjiondjop, “will be
lines were obtained through successfully transferred into various the availability of laboratories
backcrossing, some of which have West African popular varieties furnished with the equipment
already been adopted by farmers. that were previously susceptible to necessary to apply molecular
As conventional breeding is RYMV and rice seeds bearing the biology techniques to rice breeding,
slow and lacks precision, WARDA rymv1 allele have been produced as well as trained national staff
scientists are working in close from the best lines. These seeds who can apply these techniques
partnership with advanced research have been multiplied to produce across many different crops.”
institutes to fast-track the process of enough seed for distribution to For the trainees—such as Ms.
developing RYMV-resistant varieties project countries for evaluation and Ken Bugul Jaiteh, research technician
using molecular biology techniques. use in national breeding programs. from the National Agricultural
One of its important partners in Perhaps most significantly, the Research Institute, The Gambia—the
this area is the Institut de recherche project has substantially boosted project has been valuable in building
pour le développement (IRD) in participating countries’ research national research capacity in
France, which has identified a gene, capacity. Eight scientists from biotechnology. This will help them
rymv1, that confers RYMV resistance the project countries underwent identify and adapt the technology to
and molecular markers associated intensive hands-on training in the their country’s needs and constraints.
with it. A marker is a segment of DNA use of molecular techniques in their The potential benefits of the
linked to an allele (a version of a gene) plant breeding programs. Functional project are expected to go far beyond
that controls an important trait and biotechnology laboratories have the four project countries to reach all
can easily be detected in the lab. been established in each of the four the African countries that grow rice
This achievement led to the countries and 27 national scientific and could eventually turn the tide
launching by WARDA in 2004 of a staff, including women, have in the battle against the disease.
The new science of metabolomics is shining a light into the dark space between a rice plant’s
genes and the resultant qualities we appreciate when we eat rice
T
he publication in 2005 of protein, connect a glucose molecule of rice quality, an obvious application
the rice genome—the sum to a growing chain of starch, or join for metabolomics is to try to solve
total of genetic information together to make the key aromatic some of the mysteries of aroma. Even
in the rice plant, encoded in compound in fragrant rice. These Westerners who don’t grow up eating
its DNA—provided a huge boost to processes, which are regulated or rice can discriminate between the
genetic research. But, as we try to find carried out in families of reactions, taste of Thai jasmine and Indian/
genetic answers to questions such as involve tens of thousands of small Pakistani basmati rice. Asians who
why one variety tastes delicious but chemicals and compounds known as eat rice from the moment they can
another tastes mediocre, we fall into metabolites, many of which chemists manage solid food, on the other hand,
that dark space between genotype have never seen. The detection, can discriminate between basmati
and phenotype—that is, the unknown identification, and quantification grown in the Punjab and basmati
processes at the subcellular level that of these small compounds are the grown 50 km away, and between
are regulated by the genes, and that elements of a new science called jasmine rice grown in different
lead to the end result that humans metabolomics. Some of the small regions of Thailand. Besides jasmine
can see, feel, and of course taste. compounds dissolve in solutions and and basmati, well-trained palates can
That dark and seemingly some are volatile. These features discriminate between the many, many
impenetrable gap is buzzing with determine the equipment that can be more aromatic rice varieties grown in
chemicals and reactions. It is the used, or that needs to be developed, Southeast, South, and Central Asia.
place where a chemical compound to identify and measure them. Scientists have found a gene
or compounds can switch on a gene, For a person involved in for aroma, which is carried by both
link an amino acid onto a growing unravelling the science of the traits jasmine- and basmati-style rice
Getting together at impression on me because he was on realized this older man—he was 5
J
Washington State crutches—and he was my lab partner. years older!—who had impressed
im was the grandson of a A year passed and we didn’t pay me was interested in me. We were
very famous pioneer in the much attention to each other. Then married almost immediately (within
field of soil science, Dr. Curtis he visited me in the summer of 1955, 6 months). He finished his very
Fletcher Marbut, who did when I was working at Yellowstone long research project, a study of
quality international work in National Park during a break from grazing and burning of pastures in
South America, the Soviet Union, and my graduate studies. Suddenly, I the Columbia Basin Region; I did a
Africa, as well as in the United States.
This was always on Jim’s mind and
it honed his interest in doing similar
research. Jim grew up on the Branch
Experiment Station in Dickinson,
North Dakota, where his father,
Leroy Moomaw [also an agronomist
and noted for his work with crested
wheat grass], was superintendent
for many years. Jim had a degree in
botany (ecology), with a particular
interest in applied agronomy
involving soils, pastures, and grasses.
I met Jim at Washington State
University—Washington State College
in those days—in a class on soil
microbiology. We were both graduate
students, but he had been there
Gene Hettel
T
IRRI-bound on the USS Hoover he food crisis is the result of
specific failures in specific
Jim was being courted by the locations, for specific causes—
Rockefeller Foundation, which by usually weather or technology. It
then [along with the Ford Foundation] is not the trend, but the deviation
had decided to establish IRRI. from the trend, that causes disaster.
Alvin W. Regier
So, I really hadn’t come out of it until
I met Frank at Winrock. Finally, I
Carolyn with her brood (from left, Bill, Charlie, Martin, and John) in front of their house at IRRI on could say I’m still alive; I’m still here.
22 January 1967. Later that year, they joined Jim in Ceylon as IRRI’s first outposted family.
Dirty boots and rice widows
Bob and Sunny Chandler were
other basic necessities. In the end, Together with the resident Nigerian incredible people—inspiring,
I agreed to go and we were quite a rice breeder, he developed the energetic, devoted, and generous.
unit going into the IRRI program rice program and then became Bob had very little patience for trivia,
at Kandy [south-central Ceylon]. the farming systems leader. This however. He wanted everybody—all
Most of the time, Jim was broadened his scope a lot to include the scientists—to get their boots
in the field. He was all over that economics and soil and water dirty right away, be out in the field.
island. He was so motivated to see management. Some of the people In fact, the story was he would go
everything and to get as many rice whom he hired in the department around and look at the boots. If a
plots established as possible. He were just very, very good and very staff member hadn’t been in the field
worked all the time and so I had my motivated—including Eugene that day, there were questions. Of
own responsibilities taking care of Terry [a future director general of course, Jim had no problem with that.
four sons. All of a sudden, we were WARDA, the Africa Rice Center, Agronomy is the field. We admired
the only ones [IRRI people in Ceylon 1987-96]. It was a big department both of them greatly and I learned
and almost the only Americans!] with respected Nigerian staff too. so much from Sunny. Apart from
and so everybody who was coming Then, Jim was offered the my mother, she had more influence
through, of course, either stayed outreach director position. He on me as a developing, maturing
with us or we entertained them. accepted and traveled all over young woman than anyone else in
That was really fun for me. It was a Africa putting in programs. I don’t my life and that holds true today.
very, very nice 2 years that we spent think he ever got to South Africa; Yes, we [the spouses of the
there. It wasn’t easy, but it was nice. he traveled mostly in the middle early IRRI international staff] were
part of Africa. It was dangerous in rice widows. I think Bob Chandler
Into Africa many respects, mostly traveling in actually coined that phrase. And
After Ceylon, I was disappointed that a small plane. It was very nerve- that’s what we called ourselves.
we didn’t come back to IRRI. I wanted racking for me. Internal travel while He was an empathetic man and
to come back. I wasn’t all that keen on we were in Nigeria was really very recognized our plight, but IRRI
going to Africa. We had arm-twisting difficult because the roads were scientists, often away from home for
sessions in New York with [Richard] so bad. So, I didn’t get to do very long periods, had a job to do and we
Bradfield [IRRI agronomist, 1963-71] much traveling in Africa myself. appreciated and supported that.
and the Rockefeller people who talked
us into the job. We knew that it was Still alive Go to www.irri.org/publications/today/
important. We knew that this new Without Frank Byrnes [IRRI’s first Pioneer_Interviews.asp to read the full
institution [the International Institute communications specialist, 1963-67], transcript of the Carolyn Moomaw interview
of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)] I would have lost contact with the in which she discusses more of her family’s
needed what Jim could offer, and in international life after Jim died [of a life at IRRI headquarters and in Ceylon,
the end we decided that we would do brain tumor at the age of 55 in New gives her no-nonsense impressions of
it and we went to Nigeria [in 1970]. York] in 1983. He’s the one that made other pioneer IRRI staff and their families,
Jim enjoyed IITA. He first a real effort to keep me informed and describes how attitudes in Asia
went there as the rice specialist. of what was going on at IRRI. His and Africa are completely different.
T hree systems—
rice, water,
and forests—are
and to harmonize the descriptors with those
of the International Union for the Protection
of New Varieties of Plants, which are geared
Agricultural Sciences; 782 pages.
Safer and more effective pesticide use by Philippine farmers provides a striking
example of the impact of good policy, but good research must be a starting point
I
n the late 1960s, newly developed, production, and encourage safer pesticide smuggling. In addition, the
high-yielding rice varieties pesticide management practices FPA allowed the use of legal generic-
launched the Asian Green (these initiatives are collectively brand pesticides, resulting in lower
Revolution, which rapidly pushed referred to here as the 1992-96 costs that reduced the attraction
up yields and allowed rice production pesticide policy package, or PPP). of cheap, but illegal, pesticides.
to keep pace with population growth. However, even with the best In the 2007 survey, 93% of
In the Philippines, as in many political will, getting millions of the farmers said they could no
other countries, widespread use of farmers in a developing country to longer find the banned chemicals
pesticides expanded in step with adopt new regulations is difficult. in the marketplace, and 90% said
the new varieties. This was largely To determine whether or not the they no longer use the banned
due to concerns that crop losses regulatory policy changes made pesticides. Further, more than
from pest infestation would negate a real difference on farms, IRRI 99% of the chemicals being used
the benefits of planting modern conducted a survey of rice farmers by the respondents were registered
rice varieties. Even the release of in 2007 in Quezon, Nueva Ecija, and for use in rice production in the
pest-resistant varieties did little to Laguna provinces. The survey results Philippines, even though 29% of the
curb the growing use of pesticide were compared with corresponding respondents said that they would
during the 1970s and into the 1980s. data collected in 1989-91 surveys still use the banned pesticides if they
Indeed, the Philippine government undertaken before the policy changes were available despite recognizing
at the time promoted the wide and as part of IRRI-led research on the health and safety issues.
intensive use of agro-chemicals types and quantities of pesticide In sum, the survey results
among small farmers from 1973 to used, pesticide application and indicated that the FPA has largely
1986 under the Masagana 99 scheme. storage practices, incidence of been successful in promoting the
By the 1980s, it was clear that farmer poisonings, and the overall use of less toxic pesticides. Of the
indiscriminate use of pesticides could effects of pesticide use on the registered alternatives now available,
exacerbate, rather than alleviate, health of Philippine rice farmers. 61% are classified as Category II
pest problems. In addition, there was The primary policy advice arising (moderately hazardous), 28% as
growing evidence of the ill effects of from this research was to restrict
the injudicious use of toxic pesticides the use of hazardous pesticides Table 1. Pesticide management and safety prac-
on both the environment and by imposing and implementing tices (% of farmers), Nueva Ecija, 1991 and 2006.
human health. Moreover, research bans on those pesticides that Nueva Ecija
Preventive/safety measures
undertaken by the International Rice pose acute or chronic health (% of farmers reporting)
Research Institute (IRRI) showed effects or adversely affect the
1991 2006
that farmers’ private health costs environment—a recommendation
were greater than any economic that was reflected in the PPP. Avoid smoking while spraying 61 92
benefits gained from using pesticides Avoid spraying into the wind 63 94
Avoid spraying when very hot 72 92
without appropriate health, safety, Changes in types of pesticide used (before 8:30 a.m.)
and environmental knowledge Prior to the PPP, Philippine rice Eat or drink before spraying 9 78
and the attendant precautions. farmers commonly used pesticide Wash immediately after spraying 6 86
Wash sprayer after use 83 84
In response, and in keeping classified as World Health Wash-water not thrown in 17 64
with international protocols, the Organization (WHO) Hazard Class irrigation canal
government under President Fidel I (highly or extremely hazardous) Recap bottle after use 83 86
Do not recycle empty bottles 17 34
Ramos (1992-98), through the and II (moderately hazardous).
Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority On 1 June 1994, the FPA banned
Table 2. Deaths due to pesticide poisoning.
(FPA), instigated a new suite or restricted the use of all Class I
of pesticide regulatory policies and some Class II pesticides. Despite 1982-85 1991-95 2000-01
and implementing guidelines. this, importation and use of banned
Cases Deaths Cases Deaths Cases Deaths
These aimed to ban or restrict or restricted pesticides continued for
the use of commonly used but a number of years. In response, an 1,704 332 336 63 327 18
highly toxic pesticides in rice task force was formed to minimize
Unsafe pesticide practices in the Frequency of pesticide use in Nueva Ecija 1.0
3.5 Pesticide use per hectare in Nueva Ecija
Philippines have been documented
in several studies. The 1989-91
3.0 0.8
IRRI studies found that, even if
farmers were aware that pesticides 2.5
were hazardous, they often lacked 0.6
knowledge of proper pesticide 2.0
The revolution
by Kei Kajisa
keeps rolling
I
t has been well documented that the Asian Green School enrollment rates (%) by age group and average annual rainfall in Tamil
Revolution (GR), which began in the 1960s with the Nadu, India.
introduction of modern, high-yielding rice varieties, Middle Secondary Higher secondary
has contributed to poverty alleviation by reducing the real school school school
rice price on the world market by more than half without Years (11–14 years) (15–16 years) (17–18 years)
depleting producers’ profit. The poorest of the poor, such as High-rainfall Low-rainfall High-rainfall Low-rainfall High-rainfall Low-rainfall
urban laborers and rural landless and marginal farmers,
have benefited most from this price reduction because they 1993-1994 77 70 58 57 32 30
1999-2000 83 64 76 65 54 46
are net buyers who spend a large portion of their income
on staples. Source: Cost of Cultivation of Principal Crops, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Notes: The figures for primary-school age groups are not shown as universal primary education had been
An emerging consensus from recent research is that almost achieved in Tamil Nadu by the early 1990s. High-rainfall group: villages with annual rainfall greater than
the mean. Low-rainfall group: villages with annual rainfall less than the mean.
the GR had an impact on not only the generation of farmers
who directly benefited but also on multiple succeeding
generations. It has become clear that the GR produced long- However, there are concerns that such GR-led educational
term benefits much greater than those mentioned above, progress makes farm families in favorable areas wealthier,
including a reduction in childhood malnutrition, which but leaves the poor in unfavorable areas behind. Nevertheless,
affects people for their entire life and is thus considered the Tamil Nadu data, which also show that the income gap
more serious than adult malnutrition (also see Do rice prices between the high- and low-rainfall areas has narrowed,
affect malnutrition in the poor? on page 37 of Rice Today contradict this. What is happening?
Vol. 5, No. 3). The increase in nonfar m job
Another less-recognized benefit is opportunities in unfavorable farming
improved children’s education. Several The Green Revolution areas is also a key to income growth, given
recent studies, including one by the the disadvantages of farming such land.
International Rice Research Institute In particular, the expansion of unskilled
(IRRI),1 reveal that the GR vigorously
has produced or semiskilled job opportunities (jobs
enhanced schooling investments for in household goods factories or in
children—often considered a luxury long-term benefits the rural service sector, for example)
many poor cannot afford. Agricultural is important for the uneducated in
development catalyzed by the GR led unfavorable areas. And, to this end,
to an initial growth in farm income, much greater than there is evidence that the GR-driven
which accelerated parents’ schooling development of the agricultural sector
investments for their children, resulting contributes through increased demand
in further income growth via educated
previously thought for nonfarm products and services in
children’s participation in the relatively rural areas. Indeed, nonfarm industries
lucrative nonfarm sector. Thus, the GR contributed to faster are often established in agriculturally unfavorable areas a
poverty alleviation for the children of GR farmers. moderate distance from urban centers, where they can take
The Indian state of Tamil Nadu offers an example advantage of lower wage rates without losing their access to
of how the GR has increased schooling investment. For markets. Thus, the GR has had an indirect positive effect on
farmers in many parts of the state, farming depends on income growth in unfavorable areas.
rainfall-supplemented irrigation systems or direct rainfall. The link from the GR to the development of the nonfarm
Therefore, the GR increased farm income the most in areas sector and then to income growth in unfavorable areas
that received sufficient rainfall. The table (above right) shows therefore provides another example of a long-term indirect
that, as expected, areas with higher average rainfall (thus, impact. More research is required to confirm this link, but,
higher farm income) have achieved faster growth in school if confirmed, the long-term benefits of the GR would be
enrollment rates. boosted even further.
1
Keijiro Otsuka, Jonna P. Estudillo, and Yasuyuki Sawada, editors. Forthcoming. Dr. Kajisa is an agricultural economist in IRRI’s Social Sciences
Rural Poverty and Income Dynamics in Asia and Africa. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. Division.