I

t has been said that pumps are the

second most common piece of in-
dustrial equipment next to electric
motors. There are literally millions
of pumps in use around the world han-
dling thousands of different liquids.
With the many types of pumps avail-
able, selecting the proper pump for
any given application can be complex.
The pump selection process is, in large
part, matching a particular pumps ca-
pability with system requirements and
properties of the liquid to be pumped.
In this article, we will start with a
discussion of liquid and system prop-
erties and then move on to discussing
specific pump capabilities.
The basics
The first consideration in any applica-
tion is understanding the expectations
for the pump. Inlet conditions, re-
quired flowrate, differential pressure,
temperature, and liquid characteris-
tics such as viscosity, abrasiveness,
shear sensitivity and corrosiveness
must all be determined before a pump
can be selected.
A pump needs proper suction condi-
tions to work well. In fact, the major-
ity of pump difficulties can be traced to
bad suction conditions. Since a pump
can push liquid farther than pull it,
it is best to always keep the pump as
close to the liquid supply as possible.
This is an area where system design-
ers often have choices and can have
an impact on equipment life. Keep the
inlet conditions within the capabilities
of the pump.
Differential pressure is also critical,
particularly from an energy savings
and pump-life perspective. Smaller
pipe size and longer pipe runs may re-
duce the initial system cost but they
also cause higher differential pres-
sure for the pump. This translates
into higher energy consumption and
shorter pump life, meaning higher op-
erating costs and lower efficiencies.
The desired liquid properties are
generally known and it is important
to understand how a given pump may
affect these. Most users would like
the liquid to be in the same condition
coming out of the pump as when it en-
tered. Material compatibility, viscos-
ity, shear sensitivity and the presence
of particulate matter or solids are all
extremely important in selecting the
right pump.
Centrifugal versus PD
Once system conditions have been
optimized and liquid properties are
known, the selection process can
begin. The pumping world can be di-
vided into two basic categories: kinetic
energy (the largest category being
centrifugal) and positive displacement
(PD) pumps. Data from the U. S. Dept.
of Commerce show that approximately
70% of all pump sales are kinetic en-
ergy and the remaining 30% are posi-
tive displacement. To select a pump,
the first step is deciding whether cen-
trifugal or PD is the better choice.
Because the predominant industrial
pump is the centrifugal, many people
consider it first. A centrifugal pump
usually costs less than a PD pump
and, in many cases, is the right pump
to use. Each pump moves liquid in an
entirely different manner and each
has very different operating character-
istics. In essence, a centrifugal pump
imparts velocity to the liquid, which
results in pressure at the outlet. A PD
pump, by contrast, moves liquids by
capturing confined amounts of liquid
and transferring them from the suc-
tion to discharge port. For a centrifu-
gal pump, pressure is created and flow
results. For a PD pump, flow is created
and pressure results.
Performance. To make a good choice
between these pump types it is impor-
tant to understand that the two types
of pumps behave very differently. By
looking at the performance chart (Fig-
ure 1a), you can see just how different
they are. The centrifugal has varying
flow depending on pressure (or head),
whereas the PD pump has more or less
constant flow regardless of pressure.
Viscosity. Viscosity plays an impor-
tant role in a pumps mechanical effi-
ciency. Because the centrifugal pump
operates at motor speed, efficiency
goes down as viscosity increases due
to increased frictional losses within
the pump. However, efficiency often in-
creases in a PD pump with increasing
viscosity. Note how rapidly efficiency
drops off for the centrifugal pump as
viscosity increases (Figure 1b).
Another major difference between
the pump types is the effect that vis-
cosity has on the capacity of the pump.
You will notice in the flowrate chart
Feature Report
42 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007
Feature Report
John Petersen and Rodger Jacoby
Viking Pump, Inc.
The need to reduce production costs
and optimize energy consumption makes
proper pump selection more important than ever.
Understanding basic pumping principles
and the fluid characteristics for a given application
is the starting point for selection
Selecting a Positive
Displacement Pump
42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 42 7/26/07 5:01:12 PM
(Figure 1c), how the centrifugal pump
loses flow as the viscosity goes up but
the PD pump actually increases flow.
This is because higher viscosity liq-
uids fill in the clearances of the PD
pump causing a higher volumetric
efficiency. Figure 1c shows only the
effect of viscosity on the pump flow.
Remember, when there is a viscosity
change there is also greater line loss
in the system. This means flow in the
centrifugal pump will go down even
further due to increased pump differ-
ential pressure.
Efficiency. Kinetic and PD pumps
also behave very differently when con-
sidering differential pressure versus
mechanical efficiency. Figure 1d shows
how pressure, which increases directly
with head, impacts pump efficiency.
For a PD pump, efficiency actually
increases with increasing pressure,
whereas the centrifugal has a best-ef-
ficiency point (BEP). On either side of
this point, the overall pump efficiency
decreases dramatically.
Inlet conditions. Inlet requirements
for the two pump types are also quite
different. Centrifugal pumps need
liquid in the pump to create a pres-
sure differential. A dry pump will
not prime on its own. Once primed,
centrifugal pumps have definite inlet
pressure requirements that manufac-
turers can advise.
Because PD pumps move liquid
by expanding and contracting fixed
volumes of liquid, negative pressure
will be created at the inlet port and
PD pumps will prime on their own. In
some cases, this is the sole determin-
ing factor in whether to select a PD or
centrifugal pump.
Summary. In summary, consider a
PD pump when viscosity goes over
150 cP, flowrate must be predictable
over a wide flow range or the pump
must self prime. Also, consider en-
ergy consumption for the choice be-
tween centrifugal versus a PD pump,
as there may be considerable differ-
ences. This is particularly important
for flows below 100 gal/min where ef-
ficiency drops off more for centrifugal
pumps.
Positive disPlacement
Once the decision has been made to
consider a PD pump, there are still
many choices available. Before get-
ting into the details of each pump-
ing principle, lets review some of the
common operating characteristics of
PD pumps. As stated before, rotary
PD pumps displace the same volume
of liquid with each rotation of the
shaft. This means that flow is
proportional to speed. In other
words, flow can be controlled by
simply varying the speed of the
pump. For more viscous liquids,
the pumps can be used for me-
tering by simply counting shaft
revolutions.
PD-pump mechanics require
close-fitting internal parts with
some running clearance. Be-
cause of this clearance, some
liquid will flow from discharge
back to suction. This is called
slip. The amount of slip is de-
termined by liquid viscosity,
pressure differential and indi-
vidual pump clearances. Lower
viscosity generally results in more
slip and with thicker liquids, slip is
minimal.
Because PD pumps try to displace
equal amounts of liquid, it is im-
portant to have some form of over-
pressure protection in the system.
A blocked discharge of a PD pump
results in a pressure increase that
will stop only when: the limits of the
motor are exceeded; something breaks
in the system to relieve the pressure;
or the pump fails. None of these are
safe situations. Centrifugal pumps, on
the other hand, are capable of only a
finite pressure buildup. Blocking the
discharge of a centrifugal pump will
result in some pressure increase, but
generally not enough to cause prob-
lems. Many people do not realize this
difference between PD and centrifu-
gal pumps and hence, do not realize
that PD pumps need a way to relieve
pressure.
There are several ways to accom-
plish pressure relief. A pressure relief
valve is the most common, but rupture
disks in the discharge line may also be
used. Since driving torque is directly
related to differential pressure in a
PD pump, a torque-limiting coupling
may be used as well. The important
thing to remember is that there can
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 43
H
e
a
d

f
e
e
t
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150
Capacity, gaI/min
A. Performance
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
100
80
60
40
20
0
F
I
o
w
r
a
t
e
,

%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
80
70
60
50
40
0 250 500 750 1,000
Viscosity, cSt
0 100 200 300 400 500
Viscosity, cSt
55 80 105
Feet of head
CentrifugaI
CentrifugaI
Positive
Positive
B. Viscosity D. Head C. FIowrate
CentrifugaI
Positive
Positive
CentrifugaI
FIGURES 1a 1d. These graphs compare some of the important differences between centrifugal and positive displacement pumps
Rotor
IdIer
Crescent
FIGURE 2. Internal gear pumps are
ideal for high-viscosity liquids, but they
are damaged when pumping large solids
FIGURE 3. Internal gear pumps
have rigid shaft support from both
journal and antifriction bearings
42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 43 7/26/07 5:01:34 PM
be significant pressure buildup with a
PD pump that must be limited in the
event of a blocked or partially blocked
discharge.
PD pumps can be classified into
many types. The Hydraulic Institute
(Parsippany, N.J.; www.pumps.org),
an organization comprised of pump
manufacturers with published infor-
mation on pump types and standards,
has classified rotary PD pumps into
the following categories: vane, piston,
flexible member, lobe, gear, circumfer-
ential piston and screw. Each one of
these categories also has subcategories
meaning that there are many types of
PD pumps. Since they all do the same
thing move liquid how does one
choose a PD pump? Most PD pumps
can be adapted to handle a wide range
of applications, but some types are bet-
ter suited than others for a given set of
circumstances. Fortunately, a few of the
pump types have gained more popular-
ity than others for basic liquid transfer,
so the choices arent quite as many. In
the following sections, well cover in-
ternal and external gear pumps, vane-
and lobe-type pumps.

Internal gear pumps
The internal gear pump has an outer
gear called the rotor that is used to
drive the inner gear called the idler
(Figure 2). The idler gear, which is
smaller than the rotor gear, rotates
on a stationary pin and operates in-
side the rotor gear. The gears create
voids as they come out of mesh and
liquid flows into the pump. As the
gears come back into mesh, volumes
are reduced and liquid is forced out
the discharge port. Liquid enters the
expanding cavities through the rotor
teeth and recessed areas on the head.
The last key part of this pump design
is the crescent, which is integral to the
pump head. It functions as a seal be-
tween suction and discharge by trap-
ping the volumes of liquid carried be-
tween both idler and rotor teeth.
The rotor gear is attached to a shaft
that is supported by either journal or
antifriction bearings (Figure 3). The
idler gear contains a journal bearing
that rotates on a stationary pin in the
pumped liquid. Depending on shaft-
sealing arrangements, the rotor-shaft
support bearings may run in pumped
liquid. This is an important consid-
eration when handling abrasive liq-
uids as they can wear out a support
bearing.
Practical pressure limits on this
pump are determined by the rotor-
shaft support bearings. Most internal
gear pumps have differential pressure
ratings of 200 psi, although they can
be used at higher pressures with the
right application conditions.
The speed of internal gear pumps is
relatively slow compared to centrifu-
gal types. Speeds up to 1,150 rpm are
considered common, although some
small designs operate up to 3,450 rpm.
Because of their ability to operate at
low speeds, internal gear pumps are
well suited for high-viscosity appli-
cations, although they also are used
very successfully on thin liquid ap-
plications. With each revolution of an
internal gear pump, the gears have a
fairly long time to come out of mesh,
which allows the spaces between
gear teeth to completely fill and not
cavitate. Internal gear pumps have
successfully pumped liquids with vis-
cosities above 1,000,000 cSt and very
low viscosity liquids, such as liquid
propane and ammonia.
Flowrates for this pump range from
0.5 gal/min up to 1,500 gal/min. Ma-
terial choices include cast iron and a
number of different corrosion-resis-
tant alloys, including Hastelloy.
Internal gear pumps are made to
close tolerances and are damaged
when pumping large solids. These
pumps can handle small, suspended
particulates in abrasive applications,
but gradually wear and lose perfor-
mance. Pump life can be extended
dramatically, even on abrasive appli-
cations, by choosing wear-resistant
materials. Tungsten carbide, hard-
ened steel or a variety of coatings
work well. Some performance loss can
be restored by adjusting the pump end
clearance (the closeness of the rotor
gear to the head of the pump). Note
in the design shown in Figure 3, that
this adjustment can be made without
removing the pump from the line. This
must be done with the pump driver
turned off and locked out, of course.
Internal gear pumps have a very
broad application range and even
work well on shear-sensitive liquids.
Examples of applications where they
have been successfully used include
wastewater, polymers, shear-sensi-
tive paints, asphalt emulsions and
some food products, such as mayon-
naise. With these pumps, a very small
amount of liquid is in shear at any one
time in the pump. Clearance and speed
can also be modified to minimize the
effects of shear when required.
External gear pumps
External gear pumps are similar
in pumping action to internal gear
pumps in that two gears come into and
out of mesh to produce flow (Figure 4).
However, the external gear pump uses
two identical gears rotating against
each other. Each gear is supported by
a shaft with bearings on both sides of
each gear. Typically, all four bearings
operate in the pumped liquid.
Because the gears are supported on
both sides, external gear pumps are
used for high-pressure applications,
such as hydraulics. Pumps designed
for hydraulic service can go to pres-
sures of several thousand pounds
per square inch. Industrial transfer
Feature Report
44 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007
FIGURE 4. External gear pumps are
well suited for high-pressure applica-
tions due to excellent bearing support
FIGURE 5. Customized external gear
pumps, such as this double pump, allow
for multiple pumping sections
42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 44 7/26/07 5:02:07 PM
pumps can handle higher pressures,
but liquid characteristics can limit the
range. Thinner liquids can go to pres-
sures of several hundred psi, while
thick liquids allow pressures close
to that of hydraulic pumps. Usually,
small external gear pumps operate at
1,750 or 3,450 rpm and larger versions
operate at speeds up to 640 rpm.
Flowrates for this pump range from
extremely small (drops per minute) to
quite large at 1,500 gal/min. External
gear pumps can be constructed from
a wide range of materials, including
high-end alloys.
The design of these pumps allows
them to be made to closer tolerances
than internal gear pumps. The pump
is not very forgiving of particulates
in the pumped liquid. Since there are
clearances at both ends of the gears,
there is no end-clearance adjustment
for wear. When an external gear pump
wears, it must be rebuilt or replaced.
Both viscous and watery-type liq-
uids can be handled by this pump,
as long as the speed is properly set,
particularly for thick liquids. Since
viscous liquids need time to fill the
spaces between gear teeth, the pump
speed must be slowed down consider-
ably when pumping them. The viscos-
ity limit is essentially the same as the
internal gear pump at 1,000,000 cSt.
This pump does not perform well
under critical suction conditions, es-
pecially with volatile liquids. These
liquids tend to vaporize locally as gear-
teeth spaces expand rapidly. When the
viscosity of pumped liquids rises, torque
requirements also rise, and pump shaft
strength may not be adequate. Pump
manufacturers supply torque limit in-
formation when it is a factor.
Vane pumps
Sliding-vane pumps operate on the
same expanding- and contracting-
volume theory as other PD pumps,
but use different mechanics to ac-
complish it (Figure 6). A rotor with
radial slots is positioned off-center in
a housing bore. Vanes that fit closely
in rotor slots slide in and out as the
rotor turns. Vane action is aided by
centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure,
or pushrods, with the latter being
the most common. Pumping action is
caused by the expanding and contract-
ing volumes contained by the rotor,
vanes, and housing.
An interesting sidelight of this
pump is that it is actually two pumps
in one. The first pumping action is
caused by the expanding volume be-
tween the vanes, rotor and casing. The
second and not so obvious pump
is the area underneath the vanes.
Here, the vane going in and out of the
rotor slot creates pumping action and
actually accounts for about 15% of the
total pump displacement. This area
is typically vented through slots that
are in the side of the vane or in the
rotor. It is important to know this fact,
especially when dealing with thick liq-
uids, because it is more difficult to get
viscous liquid into and out of the area
underneath the vanes. The maximum
viscosity recommended for this pump
is about 25,000 cSt.
Vanes are the main sealing element
between the suction and discharge
ports and are usually made of a non-
metallic composite material. Because
there is no metal-to-metal contact,
these pumps are frequently used with
low-viscosity non-lubricating liquids
such as propane, ammonia or solvents.
Slip characteristics can be very good
on thin liquids due to direct contact of
the vanes to the casing and minimal
internal clearances.
Most transfer vane pumps are lim-
ited to 125 psi, although some are
rated to 200 psi. Pressure limits on a
vane pump are largely determined by
vane strength.
This pump primes very well, due to
the nonmetallic vanes and close run-
ning clearance. When a pump primes,
it must displace air, which is a very
thin fluid. The vane pump does this
very well, and is sometimes used as a
vacuum pump.
The vane pump is normally sup-
ported with either sleeve or antifric-
tion bearings on both sides of the rotor.
If sleeve bearings are used, they run
in the liquid that is pumped. If anti-
friction bearings are used, an inboard
seal is required to allow the bearings
to run in oil or grease. This design re-
quires two mechanical seals one on
each side of the rotor.
Vane pumps usually operate at
speeds between 1,000 and 1,750 rpm
and can go to flowrates as high as
2,000 gal/min. Applications with high-
viscosity liquids require a significant
reduction in speed in order to allow
liquid to get underneath the vanes.
Stronger vane materials are required
for high-viscosity applications in order
to avoid breakage. The most common
vane-pump construction is cast or duc-
tile iron. Some manufacturers make
stainless-steel versions where thin,
corrosive liquids must be handled.
Vane pumps can handle some abra-
sives but they cannot handle solids.
For abrasive applications, care must
be taken in selecting the proper vane
and seal materials. Vane pumps have
fixed-end clearances on both sides of
the rotor and vanes, similar to exter-
nal gear pumps. Once wear occurs,
this clearance cannot be adjusted, but
some manufacturers supply replace-
able or reversible end plates. Casing
liners are a way of restoring pump
performance as wear occurs.
Lobe pumps
Lobe pumps are similar to external
gear pumps in operation, except the
pumping elements or lobes do not
make contact. The design in Figure
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007 45
Rotor
Push rod Vane
FIGURE 6. Vane pumps have bet-
ter dry priming capability than other
positive displacement pumps
FIGURE 7. Vane pumps use non-me-
tallic vanes for excellent performance
with thin liquids
42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 45 7/26/07 5:02:39 PM
8 shows a trilobe design pump. There
are a number of variations ranging
from 2 to 5 lobes depending on ap-
plication requirements. The design
of the lobes does not permit one lobe
to drive the other, so external timing
gears are required. These are shown
in Figure 9.
Pump-shaft support bearings are
located in the timing gear case. Since
the bearings are out of the pumped
liquid, pressure is limited by bearing
location and shaft deflection. Pressure
on this pump is limited to 200 psi.
There are industrial versions of lobe
pumps where there is bearing sup-
port on both sides of the lobes. These
designs can go to pressures of 400
psi but sacrifice sanitary characteris-
tics and cleanability. More standard
industrial mechanical-seal options
are available on this design, whereas
more specialized seals are used on the
sanitary version.
Lobe pumps require two shaft seals
because of the external timing gears.
Proper seal selection is critical here
due to the closeness of the shaft sup-
port bearing and timing gears. Some
manufacturers offer seals that can be
easily replaced from the head end of
the pump. There is no metal-to-metal
contact in lobe pumps, which makes
them a frequent choice for food and
other clean applications.
To clean lobe pumps, a fluid is cir-
culated through them. Cleaning is
important when the product cannot
remain in the pumps for sanitary rea-
sons or when products of different col-
ors or properties are batched.
Due to their open-lobe design, these
pumps can handle larger solids than
other PD types. Since the lobes do not
make contact, and clearances are not
as close as in other PD pumps, this
design handles low-viscosity liquids
with diminished performance. Load-
ing characteristics are not as good as
other designs, and suction ability is
low. High-viscosity liquids require con-
siderably reduced speeds to achieve
satisfactory performance. Reductions
of 25% of rated speed and lower are
common with high-viscosity liquids,
so the maximum viscosity is limited to
100,000 cSt.
The maximum flowrate for the lobe
pump is 3,000 gal/min, although most
designs are much smaller. Because
they are frequently used for clean ap-
plications, construction is most often
stainless steel, although some manu-
facturers produce cast-iron versions.
Summary
Understanding how various pumps
work is a good first step in selecting
the right one for a given application.
Although the choices are not always
crystal clear, basic differences in op-
eration and capability can be used to
guide selection.
Internal gear pumps can be used
over a wide application range but
they generally run slower than other
pumps. Initially, this may result in a
slightly higher cost, but slower run-
ning pumps usually last longer.
External gear pumps have very
good pressure capability and precise
flow characteristics, but they cannot
handle solids or abrasives. They tend
to be less costly to produce so they can
also be an economical choice for less-
demanding applications.
Vane pumps are great for thin liq-
uids but have to be slowed down con-
siderably for thick liquids. They also
do not handle solids.
Lobe pumps are used most fre-
quently for food-type products due
to their sanitary nature and ease of
cleaning. They also handle larger sol-
ids and are gaining more acceptance
in the industrial world where cleaning
between batches is a requirement.
Improper pump selection is costly in
a number of ways. It can cost money
in downtime, lost production, mainte-
nance costs and energy consumption to
name a few. Taking the time to get the
right pump in the right system goes a
long way in minimizing unwanted op-
erational costs and reducing the total
cost of ownership. n
EditedbyDorothyLozowski
Authors
John Petersen is vice
president, technical cus-
tomer service for Viking
Pump, Inc. (a Unit of IDEX
Corp., 406 State St., Cedar
Falls, IA; Phone: (319) 266-
1741; Email: info.viking@
idexcorp.com). His respon-
sibilities include applica-
tion, troubleshooting and
technical support for gear-,
lobe- and vane-type rotary
pumps. Previous responsi-
bilities at Viking include project engineer, chief
design engineer, chief engineer of research and
development and vice president, engineering. Pe-
tersen received his B.S. degree from Iowa State
University (1970) and has over 36 years experi-
ence in the pump industry. He has authored a
number of articles on the design and application
of positive displacement pumps and is a regis-
tered professional engineer in the state of Iowa.
Rodger Jacoby is director,
international sales for Vi-
king Pump, Inc. His respon-
sibilities include strategic
sales planning, application
training, troubleshooting
and sales support for gear-,
lobe- and vane-type rotary
pumps. Previous responsi-
bilities at Viking include
district sales manager,
marketing manager, inter-
national sales manager,
director of strategic accounts, and director OEM
sales. Jacoby received his B.A. degree from Uni-
versity of Northern Iowa (1971) and has over 33
years experience in the pump industry. He has
authored a number of articles on the design and
application of positive displacement pumps.
FIGURE 8. The lobe pump de-
sign allows pumping of larger sol-
ids than most positive displace-
ment pumps
FIGURE 9. The lobes in these pumps
do not make contact because they are
driven by external timing gears
Feature Report
46 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com august 2007
42-46 CHE 8-07.indd 46 7/26/07 5:03:11 PM