Marine Structures 16 (2003) 185200

Review

Fatigue analysis of welded joints: state of development

Wolfgang Fricke*
Technical University Hamburg-Harburg, AB 3-06, Lammersieth 90, D-22305 Hamburg, Germany . Received 21 January 2002; accepted 7 October 2002

Abstract The literature on fatigue analysis of welded joints is reviewed, considering mainly papers and books published during the past 1015 years. After a short introduction, the different approaches for fatigue analyses are covered, i.e. the nominal stress approach, the structural or hot-spot stress approach, the notch stress and notch intensity approach, the notch strain approach and nally the crack propagation approach. Only seam-welded joints are considered, and not the behaviour of spot-welds, which is a very special eld. Due to the vast amount of relevant literature, some specic areas are left for other reviews or only touched, i.e. fatigue testing and evaluation, fatigue loading and variable amplitude effects, environmental effects and fatigue reliability. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue analysis approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nominal stress approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural or hot-spot stress approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Notch stress approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Notch intensity approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Notch strain approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crack propagation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction to references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 187 188 189 191 192 192 193 195 195

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*Tel.: +49-40-428-32-3148; fax: +49-40-428-32-3337. E-mail address: w.fricke@tu-harburg.de (W. Fricke). 0951-8339/03/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 5 1 - 8 3 3 9 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 7 5 - 8

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1. Introduction Fatigue of materials is a very complex process, which is still today not fully understood. The damage of the material starts in the crystalline structure and becomes visible in a later stage by plastic deformation, formation of micro-cracks on slip bands, coalescence of micro cracks and nally propagation of a main crack. Many inuence factors complicate the subject. The behaviour of different materials and the effect of these inuence factors has been and is being extensively investigated. Very often, the phenomena are analysed and further evaluated with the aim of wider application. Fatigue of welds is even more complex. Welding strongly affects the material by the process of heating and subsequent cooling as well as by the fusion process with additional ller material, resulting in inhomogeneous and different materials. Furthermore, a weld is usually far from being perfect, containing inclusions, pores, cavities, undercuts etc. The shape of the weld prole and non-welded root gaps create high stress concentrations with widely varying geometry parameters. Last but not least residual stresses and distortions due to the welding process affect the fatigue behaviour. As a consequence, fatigue failures appear in welded structures mostly at the welds rather than in the base metal, even if the latter contains notches such as openings or re-entrant corners. For this reason, fatigue analyses are of high practical interest for all cyclic loaded welded structures, such as ships, offshore structures, cranes, bridges, vehicles, railcars etc. In view of the complexity of the subject and the wide area of application it is not surprising that several approaches for fatigue analysis of welded joints exist. However, it is almost impossible to follow up the great amount of related literature dealing with fatigue testing and the development or application of approaches to consider all the different inuence parameters. Much effort is spent in working groups of several organisations with the aim to follow the development, to condense information and to derive recommendations and codes. Two examples of such organisations should be mentioned here, in which also the author is involved: (a) the International Institute of Welding (IIW) with representatives from National Welding Societies all over the world, and (b) the International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress (ISSC), where the members of various Committees summarise and present the state-of-the-art every 3 years [1]. Due to the vast amount of literature, the following report can review only a limited number of relevant publications and will concentrate exactly on fatigue analysis of welded joints. In this connection, only seam-welded joints are considered, whereas the analysis and behaviour of spot-welds is a specic area treated quite differently and being mostly applied to thin-walled structures. Furthermore, the following areas, each of which could be the subject of similar reviews, have been left out here or are only touched:
* *

Fatigue testing and evaluation of welded joints and structures, Fatigue loading and the effect of variable amplitudes on life prediction,

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* *

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Consideration of environmental effects (in particular corrosion), Application of reliability methods to the fatigue assessment (fatigue reliability).

On the other hand, much progress has been achieved during the past years in the development of approaches considering the local geometry and material effects, which will form the main part of the following review. Before different areas of the fatigue assessment of welded joints are covered, some books are mentioned in the following, which give introduction into the subject and summarise the fundamentals as well as recent developments. Among others, Suresh [2] gives a comprehensive description of the mechanics and micro-mechanics of fatigue in metals. The topic of the textbook by Dowling [3] is the mechanical behaviour of materials in general, but emphasis is placed on practical methods of predicting the fatigue life of mechanical parts and structural members. The new book by Schijve [4] aims at the understanding of the fatigue mechanism in the material and how it can be affected by a large variety of practical conditions, helping to design a structure for durability and thus against fatigue. Bannantine [5] explains in detail the fatigue analysis methods related to crack initiation and propagation in base metal and provide a separate manual containing a great number of solutions of practical problems. Carpinteri [6] summarises several topics of fatigue crack propagation in a 2-volume handbook. In connection with welded joints, the books by Gurney [7] and Maddox [8] have certainly to be mentioned, presenting investigations on the fatigue behaviour of welds as well as fundamentals of the fatigue strength assessment together with design rules and applications. Comprehensive information on procedures and data for fatigue strength assessment from the viewpoint of special applications (offshore structures; vehicles) is contained in [9,10]. Radaj [11] presents the fatigue strength characteristics of welded joints and outlines different approaches for their assessment. More recently, Radaj and Sonsino [12] have given a comprehensive overview on the assessment of welded joints by local approaches together with analysis procedures and application examples. Both books include an extensive list of references including early and fundamental papers as well as in particular German literature.

2. Fatigue analysis approaches Different approaches exist for the fatigue analysis of welded joints, which can be distinguished by the parameters used for the description of the fatigue life N or fatigue strength. Fig. 1 shows the different parameters together with characteristic diagrams. In general, the approaches can be subdivided into the following categories:
*

Nominal stress approach, using the nominal stress range Dsn determined by the external or internal loads and by the related cross section properties. Structural or hot-spot stress approach, using the structural stress range Dss at the weld to consider additionally the effect of the structural discontinuity.

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Fig. 1. Approaches for description of the fatigue strength and life, after [12].

Notch stress and notch intensity approach, using the elastic notch stress range Dsk or an equivalent parameter such as the stress intensity to take the notch effect of the weld toe or root into account. Notch strain approach, using the local elasticplastic strain range Dek and/or other parameters describing the relevant damage process in the material. Crack propagation approach, using special parameters such as the J-integral or the range of the stress intensity DK to describe the increase of the crack length per cycle, i.e. the crack propagation rate da=dN: This categorisation is used in the following to review the related papers published.

3. Nominal stress approach The fatigue assessment according to the nominal stress approach uses standard S2N curves together with detail classes of basic joints which can be found in several Standards and guidelines and which are mainly based on the statistical evaluation of relevant fatigue tests in the 1970s [13,14], where also uniform scatter bands have been dened for the S2N curves. Later, a harmonised set of S2N curves and an associated catalogue of details was agreed upon internationally and issued by the IIW [15], which contains joints at aluminium alloys in addition to steel. It is interesting to note that the recent Norwegian structural design code combines the IIW classication and the class designations used in several British and related Standards [16]. Over the past few years, the consideration of several inuence factors in fatigue analyses has been investigated, such as the mean stress effect and in particular the socalled plate thickness effect, which has to be taken into account in case of welded joints at relatively thick plates [7]. Recent proposals based on various investigations can be found in Refs. [17] and [18]. The consideration of the opposite effect for welds at relatively thin sheets (26 mm) has been investigated by Gurney [19], who established a suitable parameter for the use in design.

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Bi-axial stress states require special attention, especially if the stress components are not acting in-phase. These are in the nominal stress approach . usually considered by interaction equations. B. ckstrom and Marquis [20] rea analysed eight different experimental investigations and applied three potential interaction equations from different codes, giving mostly conservative results for proportional and non-proportional loading, however, showing a relatively large scatter. Petinov et al. [21] criticise the lost similitude between test specimens and real structures and propose that only the initial phase of the fatigue life, which is governed by the local conditions, should be described by adjusted S2N curves. The subsequent crack propagation should be analysed separately, taking the effects of the surrounding structure and loading into account. This proposal is principally followed by local approaches.

4. Structural or hot-spot stress approach The structural or hot-spot stress approach, sometimes also called geometric stress approach, considers the stress increase due to the structural conguration or in other words, the macro-geometry. The idea to exclude the local stress concentration due to the weld toe by using the stress or strain at a certain distance away from the weld toe is related to experimental investigations performed in the 1960s by Peterson, Manson and Haibach, see [12]. The hot-spot stress approach with the denition of reference points for the stress evaluation and extrapolation at certain distances away from the weld, which depend on the plate or shell thickness, was developed in the 1970s in a combined effort by classication societies and operators of offshore installations together with research institutes. The objective was the fatigue strength assessment of tubular joints. The development is reviewed and summarised, e.g. in [9,2224]. Various codes and recommendations exist for load assumptions, for stress evaluation and extrapolation, for parametric formulae of hot-spot stress concentration factors (SCFs) and for the denition of an appropriate S2N curve [24]. In this connection, also IIW has issued recommendations, which have recently been revised [25]. They contain new parametric SCFs for welded circular and rectangular hollow sections, allowing an improved combination of different load components. Parallel to this, van Wingerde et al. [26] present simplied design formulae and graphs to facilitate the SCF-determination of K-shaped connections. Analytical expressions for SCFs of circumferential welds in tubulars under consideration of fabrication tolerances are given by Lotsberg [27]. The structural or hot-spot stress is a ctitious value; however, Radaj [11] demonstrated that in plate or shell structures it corresponds to the sum of membrane and bending stress at the weld toe, which can be determined either by surface extrapolation or inner linearisation of the stress. He presented applications of the approach to several welded plate structures. Fricke and Petershagen [28] derived a

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generalised hot-spot stress approach for plate structures using Radajs local approach [11] and applied it to complex welded structures. The hot-spot stress approach for welded plate structures was further developed particularly in Japan [29,30], France [22] and Finland [31]. Maddox [32] has recently re-evaluated several fatigue tests using the stress extrapolation recommended by IIW [15] to validate the related design S2N curve. Detailed recommendations for the determination of hot-spot stresses are given by Niemi [31]. However, several applications showed that the stress results are still affected by the nite element meshing and element properties. Additional recommendations for nite element modelling and hot-spot stress evaluation are given by Huther et al. [33] and by Fricke [34], the latter based on extensive round-robin stress analyses. A comprehensive IIW-guidance for the structural stress approach is currently under preparation [35]. The appropriate selection of reference points for the stress evaluation and the denition of the hot-spot S2N curve is still under debate. Labesse and Recho [36] discuss the selection by the example of a T-joint and make a new proposal to take into account effects of the loading mode. Tveiten and Moan [37] describe the development and verication of a new and general method for the structural stress extrapolation, being based on the asymptotic behaviour of the stresses adjacent to an idealised notch and the denition of a stress extrapolation from points outside the region affected by the singularity. Soh [38] found that the stresses in the vicinity of the welded brace/chord intersections of tubular joints computed with solid elements do not satisfy the free surface conditions and developed a correction procedure to improve the accuracy of computed stresses. Dong [39] utilises the structural stress denition by Radaj [11] and evaluates the structural stress at the weld toe position from nite element results by using principles of elementary structural mechanics. Mesh insensitivity is demonstrated by several examples, however, mostly on 2D basic joints. The above-mentioned denition fails at in-plane notches such as welded edge gussets, where plate thickness is no more a relevant parameter for the denition of the reference points for stress evaluation. Niemi and Tanskanen [40] as well as Fricke [34] propose alternative procedures for the hot-spot stress analysis in such cases, using absolute distances for the reference points. The bi-axial fatigue data for welded connections mentioned in the previous . chapter have been re-analysed by B. ckstrom and Marquis [41] also on the basis of a hot-spot stresses according to three design criteria, of which the hot-spot critical plane model was most successful in resolving the data to a single hot-spot S2N line. Other parameters such as the mean stress and thickness effect are treated in a similar way as in the nominal stress approach. Misalignment effects are, however, considered separately in the applied stress. Based on earlier investigations by Maddox [8] and others, a procedure is given in [15]. Several applications of the structural or hot-spot stress approach in different industrial areas give insight into specic problems and solutions, such as details in ship and offshore structures [4247], structures for mechanical engineering [48], vehicles [49,50] or steel bridges [51].

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5. Notch stress approach The analysis and assessment of the elastic notch stress at the weld toe or root contain the problems of high or even innite stress peaks at sharp notches and of micro-structural support effects reducing the stress relevant for the crack initiation and propagation. Different micro-structural support hypotheses exist, which are further described in textbooks such as [11]: the stress gradient approach according to Siebel and Stieler, the stress averaging approach according to Neuber and the surface layer approach according to Peterson. More recently, approaches have been proposed which are based on highly stressed volume [52] or the stress at a critical distance from the notch root [53]. Corresponding approaches developed for welded joints cover generally the crack initiation phase up to a certain crack depth, which is differently dened (between 0.1 and 0.5 mm). Lawrence et al. [54,55] proposed a procedure for the evaluation of the fatigue notch factor, which is based on Petersons hypothesis [56] and which shows a maximum value for the weld toe radius of approx. 0.25 mm taken as worst case condition. The crack initiation life is obtained using the elastic part of the strain S2N curve (Basquin relation). The approach has been applied to several cases, where the subsequent crack propagation phase is treated separately [5759]. Radaj [11] developed an approach based on Neubers micro-structural support hypothesis by suggesting an additional ctitious radius rf at the notch, which allows the local stress to be analysed directly without requiring an SCF or fatigue notch factor. By assuming plane strain condition at the notch and the von Mises strength criterion for ductile material, he found for steel a value of rf 1 mm, which may be applied in a worst-case approach as notch radius, i.e. assuming a sharp notch at the weld toe. Radaj [11,12] gives also characteristic values for endurable stress ranges. The approach is frequently applied also in the nite life range by assuming a typical slope exponent of the S2N curve [15,60]. The applicability of the approach to welded joints in aluminium alloy and the associated micro-structural support effect have been investigated by Sonsino et al. [61]. Seeger et al. [62,63] (see also [12]) proposed a notch stress approach for welded joints, which uses also the toe radius of 1 mm at steel; however, he considers this radius as the mean of values in reality. A large number of welded T- and Y-joints with plate thickness between 8 and 40 mm was investigated with respect to their fatigue strength and elastic notch stress, allowing characteristic values of the notch stress S2N curve to be derived. The analysis of the notch stress to be used in the approaches mentioned may be based on the theory of elasticity or on numerical methods such as FEM or BEM (nite or boundary element method). Useful are also SCFs available for standard cases, which can be found a.o. in [55,6467]. Further demonstration examples and applications are described in [11,12,68,69]. The notch stress approach allows certain effects to be considered in a rened way. Janosch et al. [70,71] show that the weld quality, in particular the weld prole, can be well assessed by the notch stress approach. For instance, undercuts occurring with different welding processes can be recorded and subsequently assessed using the

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notch stress approach. Furthermore, the geometry of llet-welded joints can be optimised with respect to fatigue, taking all geometrical inuence factors into account. Also the effects of multi-axial loading and residual stresses have successfully been considered in the notch stress approach [70]. Comprehensive investigations of welds under biaxial constant and variable amplitude loading [72,73] show that in-phase loading can be treated well by conventional hypotheses, while good fatigue predictions under out-of-phase loading can be achieved particularly by the so-called equivalent effective shear stress hypothesis in case of ductile materials such as negrained steel. However, for semi-ductile metals such as aluminium alloys, the consideration of the plane with the maximum normal/shear stress combination has shown to be superior to others.

6. Notch intensity approach The elastic stress eld around sharp notches can alternatively be described by the theoretical solution for V-shaped notches under symmetric and anti-symmetric loading. Williams showed already 50 years ago the solution for different opening angles of the V-notch containing the stress singularity, which is well known for crack-like notches. Verreman and Nie [74] proposed from observations to use the related notch stress intensity factor (N-SIF) as a parameter describing the crack initiation life of welds including short crack propagation up to a crack depth of approx. 0.5 mm. Lazzarin and Tovo [75] quantied the contributions of the symmetric and anti-symmetric loading modes for different geometries of welds and re-analysed experimental data in terms of the new stress eld parameter. This reanalysis was extended in [76] and supplemented by various aluminium-welded joints, yielding a single scatter band for each material when related to the N-SIF approach. Further applications of the approach demonstrate the limits of the structural stress approach [77] and of local strain measurements close to the weld toe [78]. On the other hand, Atzori et al. [79] show that the N-SIF approach can directly be coupled with the well-established crack propagation approach. Good agreement is achieved between prediction and published test data when assuming an initial crack length of 0.3 mm for the subsequent crack propagation part.

7. Notch strain approach Contrary to the above, the notch strain approach considers the local elasticplastic stress and strain in the notch. The elements of the approach, which has been successfully applied to notches at base material, include the computation of the local stress and strain taking into account the elastic support effect of the surrounding material and the cyclic material behaviour, i.e. the stressstrain relation as well as the crack initiation life. Data of various materials obtained from tests can be found, e.g. in [80].

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The approach has been applied also to welded joints to predict the crack initiation life particularly for load cycle numbers less than 105, where local plasticity effects are more pronounced. Lawrence et al. [54] used the approach for the description of the crack initiation period up to a depth of approximately 0.25 mm. In order to take local plasticity and cyclic relaxation at the notch root into account, Neubers macrostructural support formula is extended by an additive residual stress term together with a relation by Jhansale and Topper [81]. The consideration of residual stresses has been shown to be particularly important [59,82]. The approach has been further developed in respect of its crack initiation aspects [58,83]. Different models for the prediction of the so-called short crack propagation phase are discussed by Hou and Charng [84], who compare the calculated ratio between crack initiation and propagation with observations. An alternative approach is related to Seeger et al. (described e.g. in [12]), which is based more on the classical elements used in connection with base metal, i.e. stressstrain relation by Ramberg and Osgood, Neubers macro-structural support effect, stressstrain path approximated according to Masing and strain S2N curve according to Manson, Cofn and Morrow or, alternatively, a damage parameter P2N curve, where [85] is preferred. The notch strain approach for welded joints has been further developed by Sonsino [52] in respect of multiaxial fatigue, modifying Neubers macro-structural support formula in case of mild-notches, introducing an equivalent notch strain to describe multiaxial low-cycle fatigue and converting the hypothesis of highly stressed volume into a strain related criterion. Glinka [86] proposed an energy density approach for the calculation of the localised yielding near notches and cracks. Applications of the notch strain approach to welded joints can be found a.o. in [12,54,87,88].

8. Crack propagation approach The history of the crack propagation approach for fatigue assessment has been reviewed by Smith [89] and more recently also by Paris [90], giving some insight into the dramatic development during the past 40 years. Today, the approach is well established particularly for the fatigue assessment of welded joints, where the crack propagation phase is typically longer than the crack initiation phase if failure is dened, for instance, by a through-thickness crack. By calibrating the initial crack length, the fatigue assessment of welded joints is sometimes even performed using the propagation approach only. On the other hand, the approach offers the one and only way for several cases, such as a tness for purpose assessment of structural members with aws or other crack-like defects. The elements of the approach are the crack propagation equations, normally according to Paris and Erdogan, the stress intensity factor including magnication at weld toes (Mk -factor), the crack shape and path governed normally by mode-I loading, material parameters and other inuence factors such as mean or residual stress and sequence effects under variable amplitude loading (recently extensively

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reviewed in [91,92]). In addition to the books mentioned in the beginning, Dijkstra and van Straalen [93] give an overview on practical application to welded joints, presenting fracture mechanics analyses and making reference to the relevant literature, which has grown very fast. For that reason, the following review concentrates on certain topics. Standard handbooks on stress intensity factors (SIFs) are frequently not applicable to welded joints. Following the work by Maddox in the 1970s (see [8]), several investigations have been performed on semi-elliptical cracks at T-butt welded joints varying the geometry and loading parameters [94101]. Hobbacher presented SIFs for various types of welded joints [102] including in-plane side gussets [103]. Several results are summarised together with assumptions for material parameters in the relevant IIW-recommendations [15,104]. The crack path and shape development at welds was investigated a.o. in [105]. Bell et al. [106,107] as well as Pang and Grey [108] studied the coalescence of multiple cracks at transverse welds and developed empirical models for its consideration. The crack propagation approach has been used to investigate the effect of special geometrical inuence factors on the fatigue life, e.g. the effects of a longitudinal attachment [109], the misalignment of load-carrying cruciform joints [68] and the effects of undercuts and residual stresses at misaligned butt-joints [110]. Here, the undercuts were found to have the most signicant geometrical effect on the fatigue strength. The approach has also been applied to relatively complex structures. Sumi [111] recommends the weight function method to consider arbitrary load combinations. The crack propagation may be strongly affected by load-shedding effects, as exemplied by Xu and Bea [112]. In tubular joints, special methodologies and geometry functions have been developed to improve the correlation between predicted and measured aspect ratio patterns of the crack shape [113,114]. Several recent investigations have focussed on the following additional aspects: One aspect is the effect of crack closure on the propagation rate, which Elber [115] proposed to consider by an effective range DKeff of the SIF. The major difculty in practical situations is the estimation of the effective part of the cycle, which is inuenced by the plastic wake left behind the crack tip. Hou and Lawrence [83] use a strip-yield model developed earlier by Newman for simulating the crack closure of welded joints showing typically a steep stress gradient. Frequently, the nite element method is applied. McClung [116] addresses in a critical review several modelling issues regarding crack closure and describes applications to different problems. Another aspect is the short crack behaviour, which is related also to the notch stress and strain approach as well as to crack closure effects. As demonstrated a.o. by Newman et al. [117], the growth behaviour including threshold value of small cracks differs considerably from that of large cracks. They introduced a correction of the effective SIF range for the plastic cyclic zone and a constraint factor accounting for 3D state-of-stress effects to model the observed trends. The total life prediction was demonstrated using inclusion-particle sizes. Hou and Charng [84] show that the short-crack propagation based approach, when it includes crack nucleation, gives

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more consistent results compared with experimental data than the local stress approach. As an alternative to the effective SIF range DKeff ; a new parameter called re-tensile plastic zones generated load (RPG load) has been proposed by Toyosada and Niwa [118] determining an effective SIF range (DKRPG ) corresponding to the load under which the re-tensile plastic zone appears in the loading process. Based on this parameter, the crack propagation rate appears to be linear in a wide range from the region of very slow growth rate to the region of stable crack growth. The physical meaning is further discussed in [119]. Finally, the aspects of remaining life assessment and damage tolerant design should be addressed, which have gained in signicance in the light of severe accidents and the extended use of ageing structures. In this respect, the crack propagation approach plays a key role to assess the remaining life and structural redundancy [104,120,121] and to establish rational inspection planning.

9. Introduction to references The references selected concentrate on the subject fatigue analysis of welded joints, while specic topics such as spot-welds, fatigue evaluation and testing, fatigue loading and the effects of variable amplitudes, environmental effects and fatigue reliability are excluded or only touched as explained in the Introduction. In order to further limit the number of references, emphasis is placed on the past 1015 years. Earlier essential papers are mostly quoted in textbooks, so that the full history needs not be covered. References in English as well as those published in Journals are generally preferred, as well as one key paper in case of similar publications by the same author. Of special interest might be the books [24,7,8,11,12] mentioned also in the Introduction, providing an overview on the phenomenon of fatigue and the possibilities for fatigue analyses.

References
[1] Ohtsubo H, Sumi Y, editors. Proceedings of the 14th International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress. Report of Committee III.2fatigue and fracture. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2000. [2] Suresh S. Fatigue of materials, 2nd Ed.. Cambridge: University Press, 2002. [3] Dowling NE. Mechanical behaviour of materialsengineering methods for deformation, fracture and fatigue, 2nd Ed.. Englewood Cliffs, MA: Prentice-Hall, 1998. [4] Schijve J. Fatigue of structures and materials. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. [5] Bannantine JA. Fundamentals of metal fatigue analysis. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1990. [6] Carpinteri A, editor. Handbook of fatigue crack propagation in metallic structures. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1994. [7] Gurney TR. Fatigue of welded structures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. [8] Maddox S. Fatigue strength of welded structures. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1991. [9] Almar-Nss A, editor. Fatigue handbookoffshore structures. Trondheim: Tapir Publishers, 1985.

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[10] Rice RC, editor. SAE Fatigue design handbook. Warrendale, USA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1997. [11] Radaj D. Design and analysis of fatigue-resistant welded structures. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1990. [12] Radaj D, Sonsino CM. Fatigue assessment of welded joints by local approaches. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1998. [13] Gurney TR, Maddox SJ. A re-analysis of fatigue data for welded joints in steel. Welding Research Int 1973;3(4):154. [14] Olivier R, Ritter D. Catalogue of SN curves of welded joints in structural steel, vol. 15. Report no. 56. Dusseldorf: DVS-Verlag, 1979. . [15] Hobbacher A, editor. Recommendations for fatigue strength of welded components. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1996. [16] Lotsberg I, Larsen KP. Fatigue design in the new Norwegian structural design code. Proceeding of the Nordic Steel Conference, Bergen, 1998. [17] rjasaeter O. Effect of plate thickness on fatigue of welded components. IIW-Doc. XIII-1582-95/ XV-890-95, International Institute of Welding, Paris 1995. [18] Yagi J, Machida S, Matoba M, Tomita Y, Soya I. Thickness effect criterion for the fatigue strength evaluation of welded steel structures. J Offsh Mech Arct Eng 1993;115:5865. [19] Gurney TR. Fatigue of thin-walled joints under complex loading. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1997. . [20] B. ckstrom M, Marquis G. Evaluation of interaction equations for multiaxial loaded a welded structures. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Biaxial/Multiaxial Fatigue & Fracture, Lisbon, Vol. 1. European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) 2001, p. 6572. [21] Petinov SV, Reemsnyder HS, Thayamballi AK. The similitude of fatigue damage principle: application in SN curves-based fatigue design. In: Marquis G, Solin S, editors. Fatigue design and reliability. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999. [22] Huther M, Lieurade H-P. Application of the hot spot stress method. Proceedings of the International Conference on Performance of Dynamically Loaded Welded Structure. New York: WRC, 1997. p. 3328. [23] Marshall PW. Design of welded tubular connectionsbasis and use of AWS code provisions. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992. [24] van Wingerde AM, Packer JA, Wardenier J. Criteria for the fatigue assessment of hollow structural section connections. J Constr Steel Res 1995;35:71115. [25] Zhao X-L, Herion S, Packer JA, Wardenier J. Design guide for circular and rectangular hollow . section welded joints under fatigue loading. Cologne: CIDECT, TUV Verlag, 2000. [26] van Wingerde AM, Packer JA, Wardenier J. Simplied SCF formulae and graphs for CHS and RHS K- and KK-connections. J Constr Steel Res 2001;57:22152. [27] Lotsberg I. Stress concentration factors at circumferential welds in tubulars. Mar Struct 1998;11:20730. [28] Fricke W, Petershagen H. Detail design of welded ship structures based on hot spot stresses. In: Caldwell JB, Ward G, editors. Practical design of ships and mobile units. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1992. [29] Nagamoto R, Matoba M, Kawasaki T, Inoue K, Hori T, Iino N, Fukuoka T. Model fatigue test results of welded structural element and proposal for fatigue design procedure. Naval Arch Ocean Eng 1993;30:13342. [30] Nihei K, Inamura F, Koe S. Study on hot spot stress for fatigue assessment of llet welded structure. Proceedings of the Seventh International Offshore and Polar Conference, vol. IV. 1997. p. 55764. [31] Niemi E, editors. Recommendations concerning stress determination for fatigue analysis of welded components. Cambridge: Abington Publishers, 1995. [32] Maddox S. Recommended design SN curves for fatigue assessment of FPSOs. Proceedings of the ISOPE2001, Stavanger.

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