Liver

The liver is a reddish brown organ mostly found in vertebrates. Divided into five lobes, it is below the diaphragm, to the right of the stomach and overlies the gall bladder. The largest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body, it is so important organ that there is no way to survive long term without it, although liver dialysis can be used short term. Attached to it are the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic vein and the hepatic arteries. Most parts of it is covered with a thin, double-membrane that reduces friction against other organs. It has a wide range of functions. It is involved in detoxification of harmful substances eg. ammonia and toxins whereby chemicals from the blood is filtered via the hepatic portal venous system. To make the filtered chemicals less bio-active and enable excretion through the intestines, it performs enzymatic reactions (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis). The liver is also a storage place for the largest supply of glycogen. Glycogen is stored in liver cells because it does not affect blood sugar levels as glucose. It can be broken down to glucose as needed to be used by other parts of the body. Besides this, it stores fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K), folate, vitamin B 12 , and minerals such as copper and iron. It is involved in plasma protein synthesis. It synthesizes proteins such as Albumin(25 % ) and blood clotting factors. It is also a major site for thrombopoietin production. Thrombopoietin is a glycoprotein hormone that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow. It produces bile, a greenish-yellow liquid collected in bile canaliculi which merge to form bile ducts. Bile is an alkaline compound made up of bile salts and bile pigments. It emulsifies lipids in order to aid digestion. By regulating blood levels of substances such as cholesterol and glucose, the liver helps maintain body homeostasis. Lastly, the liver is responsible for the production of biochemical lesions necessary for digestion and the decomposition of red blood cells. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_does_the_liver_detoxify http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110222083328AAHxXLc http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080507224737AAqBy62

Pharynx
The human pharynx is the part of the throat situated behind the mouth and nasal cavity, connecting the buccal cavity to the oesophagus and the larynx (voice box) and leading to the trachea (windpipe). It is part of both the digestive system and respiratory system. Both food and air must pass through the pharynx when they enter the body. During swallowing, a flap of connective tissue called the epiglottis closes over the glottis (slitlike opening in larynx). It moves up and the glottis moves down. This is to prevent the food from going into the trachea instead of the oesophagus. The pharynx is divided into three sections. The first section is the nasopharynx or epipharynx, which is the most cephalad portion of the pharynx. It extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate. The pharyngeal tonsils or the adenoids, are lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. It function is warming, moistening and removing the particulate materials of the air, preventing the epithelium from dehydration by moving air. Polyps or mucus can obstruct it. The second part is the oropharynx or mesopharynx which lies behind the oral cavity, extending from the uvula to the level of the hyoid bone. It is lined by non keratinised squamous stratified epithelium, serving as a common passageway for air and food. The mucous lining of the walls change slightly to adapt for handling the food and air. The final part is the laryngopharynx or hypopharynx which is the caudal part of the pharynx; it is the part of the throat that connects to the esophagus. Air enters the larynx anteriorly. It serves as a passageway for food and air and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_pharynx http://wwwmgs.bionet.nsc.ru/mgs/gnw/trrd/thesaurus/Re/pharynx.html http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_function_of_oropharynx http://library.thinkquest.org/2935/Natures_Best/Nat_Best_Low_Level/Respiratory_page. L.html

Gall bladder
Most vertebrates have gallbladders, whereas invertebrates do not. In vertebrates the gallbladder is a small greenish-yellow organ that aids digestion is a hollow system that sits just beneath the liver. It temporarily stores bile produced by the liver. The adult human gallbladder stores about 50 milliliters of bile, which is released into the duodenum when it contracts due to food containing fat entering the digestive tract, because a hormone called cholecystokinin is released, signaling the contraction. This stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK). The force of the contraction propels the bile back through the common bile duct and then into the small intestine, where it emulsifies fatty molecules so that fat and the fat-absorbable vitamins A, D, E, and K can enter the blood stream through the intestinal lining. Bile becomes more concentrated in the gall bladder which increases its potency and intensifies its effect on the emulsification of fats. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallbladder http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090527024618AAlnSse

Pancreas
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is connected to the duodedem by the pancreatic duct. An exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass into the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help to break down the various types of nutrients in the chyme. some of the enzymes that can be found in the pancreatic juices are trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, lipase and amylase. Both trypsin, chymotrypsin breakdown the proteins. Lipase is responsible for breaking down fat and amylase breaks down starch or carbohydrates. At the same time, it is part of the endocrine system. It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones like insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin which are released into the body These hormones control the concentration of glucose in the blood and carbohydrate metabolism to regulate mood, growth and development, tissue function and metabolism.

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