UNIT I UNIT I Fundamenttalls off Techniicall Wriittiing Fundamen a s o Techn ca Wr ng Priinciiplles off Techniicall and Sciienttiiffiic Vocabullary Pr nc p es o Techn

ca and Sc en c Vocabu ary Inttroducttiion tto Techniicall and Sciienttiiffiic Vocabullary In roduc on o Techn ca and Sc en c Vocabu ary
We are going to begin with simple vocabulary in order to understand more complex structures. Remember this is the beginning of your study and you must get familiar with the technical and scientific vocabulary you are going to use during your major. Laboratory Equipment Glassware

Thermometer: an instrument for measuring temperature, often consisting of a narrow calibrated sealed glass tube filled with a liquid (mercury or alcohol) whose properties vary with temperature, e.g. mercury which expands as the temperature increases and contracts as it decreases.

Crucible: a container in which metals or other substances may be melted or subjected to very high temperatures; it is also called melting pot.

Pipette: (noun) a slender tube with a bulb at one end, filled by sucking liquid into the tube, used for transferring or measuring out quantities of the liquid; (verb) to pour or draw off using a pipette.

Petri dish: a shallow circular glass or plastic plate with a flat base and a loosely fitting lid that biologists, chemists, etc., use to culture cells.

Graduated or measuring cylinders: tall narrow containers with a volume scale used especially to accurately measure out volumes of liquids for use in reactions.

Mortar and pestle: a device known in various forms since ancient times for grinding granular material into powder. The mortar is a bowl of hard material. The pestle is a conical piece of similar material with a rounded end, with which the material to be ground is forced against the bowl. Simple forms are used in the kitchen or in simple pharmacy. Modern sophisticated mechanized versions are used in industry.

Dropper: a short glass tube with a rubber bulb at one end for measuring out drops of liquid.

Burette: a vertical cylindrical piece of laboratory glassware with a volumetric graduation on its full length and a precision tap, or stopcock, on the bottom. It is used to dispense known amounts of a liquid reagent in experiments for which such precision is necessary, such as a titration experiment.

Erlenmeyer flask: a flat-bottomed and narrownecked conical bottle used in chemical experiments, etc.

Beaker: a lipped glass vessel for scientific experiments; a deep wide-mouth thin-walled vessel usually with a lip for pouring that is used especially in science laboratories; a deep glass container, usually one with a lip for pouring, used by chemists in laboratory work.

Funnel: a tube with a cone-shaped opening through which liquid, etc can be poured into a narrow-necked container; a utensil that is usually a hollow cone with a tube extending from the smaller end and that is designed to catch and direct a downward flow.

Test tube: a piece of laboratory glassware composed of a finger-like length of glass tubing, open at the top, with a rounded U-shaped bottom.

Carboys: a large glass or plastic bottle, usually protected by a basketwork casing, used for storing or transporting corrosive liquids.

Condenser: an apparatus for changing a vapour into a liquid by cooling it and allowing it to condense.

Equipment

Bunsen burner: a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.

Deflagration spoon: a spoon used to heat and burn various chemicals, small quantities of substances and materials at a very high temperature to remove moisture and compounds in laboratories. The spoon has a long handle to keep the hands away from heat; it has a deep set bowl with a large diameter for easily and safely holding chemicals and other substances. The spoon is specially designed with the handle angled at 50 degrees to eliminate the need of a hand shield.

Swab: a piece of cotton wool, gauze, etc., that is used for cleaning wounds, applying antiseptics, taking a medical specimen, etc.

Inoculating loop: an instrument used to introduce a micro-organism, e.g. a bacterium or virus, into (a sterile medium) in order to start a culture, or into another organism, e.g. a rabbit, in order to produce antibodies to that micro-organism.

Tweezers: a small pair of pincers for pulling out individual hairs, holding small objects, etc.

Centrifuge: a device for separating the components of a mixture (solid-in-liquid or liquid-in-liquid) by applying rapid rotation and consequent centrifugal force.

Goggles: protective spectacles with edges that fit closely against the face. They were formerly used by pilots, motorists, etc and are now chiefly used in industry and when swimming.

Hot plate: a simple portable appliance for heating in limited spaces and used in laboratory.

Microscope: an optical instrument consisting of a lens or combination of lenses for making enlarged images of minute objects.

Chromatograph: an instrument for performing chromatographic separations and producing chromatograms. A chromatogram is the pattern formed on the adsorbent medium by the layers of components separated by chromatography.

Multimeter or tester: equipment that tests voltage, resistance, continuity, and diodes.

Mesh: a woven, knit, or knotted material of open texture with evenly spaced holes.

Oven: a closed compartment or arched cavity, in which substances may be heated, used especially for baking or roasting food, drying clay, etc.; a small furnace.

Furnace: an enclosed chamber in which heat is produced, e.g. for smelting metal, heating water or burning rubbish.

Sieve: a utensil with a meshed or perforated bottom, used for straining solids from liquids or for sifting large particles from smaller ones.

Three-beam balance: a balance that has three beams that allow you to move known masses along the beam.

The Sentence: definition and parts Key words

Word order, definition, paragraphs, topic, verbal forms, subject, noun, parts of a sentence, present, past, audience, purpose, sense, predicate, verb, passive voice What is a sentence? A sentence is a sequence of words forming a meaningful grammatical structure that can stand alone as a complete utterance, and which in written English usually begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete idea or thought. A sentence in English is formed by two parts: a subject and a predicate. Lets analyze the following expressions. Chemistry is the scientific study of the composition, properties, and reactions of chemical elements and their compounds. Chemistry is the study of the composition and transformation of matter. Pharmacy is the science of preparing, compounding, and dispensing medicines. Pharmacy is the science that studies the methods and techniques of preparing and dispensing drugs. Alchemists made important discoveries in the areas of early metallurgy and pharmacology. Scientists use the scientific method to search for solutions to problems. For a better understanding lets analyze the former sentences.

Complete subject
Chemistry

Complete predicate
is the scientific study of the composition, properties, and reactions of chemical elements and their compounds. is the study of the composition and transformation of matter. is the science of preparing, compounding, and dispensing medicines. is the science that studies the methods and techniques of preparing and dispensing drugs. made important discoveries in the areas of early metallurgy and pharmacology. use the scientific method to search for solutions to problems.

Chemistry

Pharmacy

Pharmacy

Alchemists

Scientists

Lets see other examples. Biotechnology and gene technology are enjoying an upswing in Germany. A change from one phase to another, as in boiling or melting, is called a phase transition. Small and medium-sized biotechnology companies in the USA have proved to be the prime innovative force.

Complete subject
Biotechnology and gene technology A change from one phase to another, as in boiling or melting, Small and medium-sized biotechnology companies in the USA

Complete predicate
are enjoying an upswing in Germany. is called a phase transition. have proved to be the prime innovative force.

A continuacin se te presentan una serie de expresiones que NO renen los requisitos de lo que es una oracin. Estdialas con cuidado junto con tu profesor quien te guiar en el anlisis de las mismas. Identificar las partes del mechero. Conectar la manguera de hule del mechero a la llave del gas. Girar el collar mvil para cerrar la entrada de aire. Las expresiones anteriores no son oraciones porque: a) Comienzan con un verbo en el modo infinitivo, es decir, no est conjugado. b) Los verbos en infinitivo, tanto en espaol como en ingls, se utilizan para redactar objetivos y aqu se estn dando indicaciones. c) Es imposible encontrar el sujeto ya que slo existe el verbo en infinitivo. Para que estas expresiones sean verdaderas oraciones deben sufrir un pequeo cambio. Fjate en el cambio. 1) Identifique las partes del mechero. 2) Conecte la manguera de hule del mechero a la llave del gas. 3) Gire el collar mvil para cerrar la entrada de aire. Si te das cuenta ahora las expresiones se han convertido en oraciones y podemos analizarlas. 1) Sujeto: Ud., en forma tcita o sobreentendida. Predicado: identifique las partes del mechero. 2) Sujeto: Ud., en forma tcita o sobreentendida. Predicado: conecte la manguera de hule del mechero a la llave del gas. 3) Sujeto: Ud., en forma tcita o sobreentendida. Predicado: gire el collar mvil para cerrar la entrada de aire. Veamos una pequea tabla:

Sujeto
Ud. o en algunos casos t Ud. o en algunos casos t Ud. o en algunos casos t

Predicado
identifique las partes del mechero. conecte la manguera de hule del mechero a la llave del gas. gire el collar mvil para cerrar la entrada de aire.

Ahora vamos a escribir estas oraciones en ingls y las vamos a analizar. 1) Identify the parts of the Bunsen burner. 2) Assemble the rubber hose of the Bunsen burner to the gas intake. 3) Turn the sleeve for closing the air intake.

Subject
(You) (You) (You) Exercise 1

Predicate
Identify the parts of the Bunsen burner. Assemble the rubber hose of the Bunsen burner to the gas intake. Turn the sleeve for closing the air intake.

Corrige las siguientes expresiones y convirtelas en oraciones. Despus de haberlas corregido elabora una tabla, siguiendo el ejemplo anterior e identifica el sujeto y el predicado. 1) Agregar agua destilada hasta la mitad en un vaso de precipitados de 100 mL. 2) Introducir la punta de la pipeta de Mohr hasta el fondo del vaso de precipitados, sin tocar el vidrio. 3) Succionar por el extremo superior de la pipeta hasta que el nivel del lquido est arriba de la marca de cero. 4) Tapar el extremo de la pipeta con el dedo ndice y controlar la salida de lquido permitiendo que ste fluya lentamente hasta que la parte inferior del menisco coincida con la marca de cero, manteniendo siempre la pipeta en forma vertical. 5) Transferir los 10 mL de agua en alcuotas de 2 mL a un vaso de precipitados de 50 mL. Exercise 2 Using as a model the former example, identify in the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate. 1. Pharmacology is the study of the effect of chemical substances on living tissues. 2. Modern drugs are derived from many sources: minerals, plants, microbial cultures, and animal and human tissues. 3. Chemical analysis is essential to the identification of active drug substances. 4. Drugs have played a role in the religious practices of many cultures. 5. Drugs may be classified in many ways and any one substance may belong to more than one drug family. 6. Side effects of a drug are physiologic effects exerted by the chemical that are not related to the desired therapeutic effect. 7. Toxic effects are those that involve an excessive drug effect. 8. Medical textbooks are written for medical students and physicians and emphasize therapeutic considerations in the prescribing of drugs. 9. Pharmacopoeia are collections of drug data considered standard by the group developing them (medical or pharmaceutical societies or government task forces), or by some other authority. 10. Journals are an important source of information when a specific topic is to be researched in detail.

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Exercise 3 Identify the sentences in the following expressions. Use the pattern: complete subject + complete predicate. 1. It is like a politician before a camera. 2. Drug therapy is the use of chemical agents to bring about a desired change in a person. 3. Which are carried out by the drug industry and the pharmacist? 4. A veterinarian is a person qualified to treat diseases of animals. 5. The recommendation of a specific substance with instructions for its use is called a prescription. 6. The scope of pharmacy has become increasingly concerned with more clinical functions, such as the checking of doses and drug interactions. 7. Legal status varies from state to state. 8. A pamphlet has been published by a convention. 9. Over-the-counter (OTC) preparations are employed. 10. Many drugs are currently dispensed in containers with special childproof caps. Pharmaceutical Forms or Preparations A pharmaceutical form or preparation is the way the drugs are delivered to the patient. They can be classified into three categories: solids, semisolids, and liquids. The following are types of pharmaceutical forms: ampoule, capsule , caplets, cream, elixir, emulsion, drops, injection, pellets, solution, liniment, lotion, spray, powder, suppository, suspension, syrup, tablet, tincture, ointment, pills, troches or lozenges. Solid Pharmaceutical Forms or Preparations An ampoule or ampule is a small glass sealed vial which is used to contain or preserve a fluid.

A capsule is a small gelatinous case enclosing a dose of medication.

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A caplet is a capsule-shaped medicinal tablet.

A pellet is a small pill or ball containing medication.

A pill is usually a medicinal or dietary preparation in a small rounded mass to be swallowed whole.

A powder is a measured dose of solid medication that is usually dissolved in water before ingestion.

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A tablet is a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted into a solid. Tablets can be classified in: buccal, coated, effervescent, enteric-coated, sublingual, timed-release or prolonged-action.

A troche or lozenge is a small sweetened and flavored medicated material that is designed to be held in the mouth for slow dissolution, even though troches may be used orally or vaginally.

Semisolid Pharmaceutical Forms or Preparations A cream is a topical preparation usually for application to the skin. A healing cream is an herbal cream normally made with natural and organic ingredients; it is normally designed to heal, renew, nourish and protect skin. It is often used by cancer patients during radiation treatments.

Foam is a substance that is formed by trapping many gas bubbles in a liquid or solid or a colloidal suspension of a gas in a liquid.

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A gel is a colloid consisting of a solid and a liquid that are dispersed evenly throughout a material and have set to form a jellylike mass, e.g. gelatine. A colloid is an intermediate state between a suspension and a true solution, in which fine particles of one substance are spread evenly throughout another. A suppository is a soluble preparation of medicine that remains solid at room temperature and that dissolves when it is inserted into the rectum or into the vagina, releasing its active ingredient.

An ointment (salve, unction, unguent) is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include the skin and the mucus membranes of the eye (an eye ointment), vagina, anus, glands, and nose. An ointment may or may not be medicated.

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Liquid Pharmaceutical Forms or Preparations Drops are liquid medications administered in small amounts. Eye drops are salinecontaining drops used as a vector to administer medication in the eye.

An elixir is a pharmaceutical preparation containing an active ingredient, such as morphine, that is dissolved in a solution that contains some percentage of ethyl alcohol and is designed to be taken orally.

An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible substances, usually oil and water. Examples of emulsions include butter and margarine, espresso, mayonnaise, semen, the photo-sensitive side of photographic film, and cutting fluid for metalworking.

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An injection is a method of putting liquid into the body with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin long enough for the material to be forced into the body.

A liniment is a kind of thin oily lotion for rubbing into the skin to ease muscle pain.

A lotion is a low- to medium-viscosity medicated or non-medicated topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin. Lotions can be used as: antibiotics, antiseptics, antifungal, etc.

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Pharmaceutical syrup is any sugar-flavored liquid medicine.

A spray is a dynamic collection of liquid drops and the entrained surrounding gas.

A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

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A suspension is a mixture of two substances, one of which is a liquid, the other a finely divided solid dispersed in the liquid.

A tincture is an alcoholic extract (e.g. of a herb) or solution of a non-volatile substance (e.g. of iodine, mercurochrome).

Parts of a Drug Label Active ingredient: an active ingredient is the chemical compound in the medicine that works with your body to bring relief to your symptom. It can always be found as the first item on the label. Uses or indications: this section tells you the only symptoms the medicine is approved to treat. Warnings: this section tells you what other medications, foods or situations to avoid, e.g. driving or operating machinery, when taking this medicine. Directions: the only recommended daily dosage and frequency of dosage. Other information: any other important information about the product, such as how to store the medicine.

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Inactive ingredients: an inactive ingredient is a chemical compound in the medicine that has no effect on your body. Preservatives and items that bind the pill together and food colors are mentioned in this section. How to Read Drug Labels Medicines, or drugs, come as either prescription or over-the-counter. Prescription drugs are used under a doctor's care. Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs can be bought and used without a doctor's prescription, and you buy them at a drug store or grocery store. When using any kind of drug, it is important to read the drug label for instructions. Not following the instructions can hurt your health. Read the label each time you use a drug, just in case there have been changes to it since the last time you used it. See the drug labels below to know what to look for. If you read the label and still have questions, call your doctor, nurse, or pharmacist for help.

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The paragraph: definition and characteristics Key words

Cohesion, unified, development, patterns of organization, indentation, topic, audience, purpose Despus de haber estudiado y formado oraciones sueltas las vamos a unir para tener una nueva forma del pensamiento escrito. A todas las oraciones que desarrollen un tema principal le daremos el nombre de prrafo. A continuacin se te presenta en ingls la definicin y las caractersticas que deben tener los prrafos. What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a group of sentences or a single sentence that is unified, coherent, well-developed and forms a unit and develops a central idea or topic.

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Unified: the sentences should all refer to the main idea, or thesis, of the written work. Coherent: the sentences should be arranged in a logical and meaningful manner and following a definite plan for development. Well-developed: every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the written works controlling idea. Los prrafos tambin se clasifican por su estructura de organizacin, entre las cuales podemos mencionar definicin, causa y efecto, comparacin y contraste, etc. Exercise 4 Following there are three groups of sentences, only one of them constitutes a paragraph. Identify it. I like the climate of my country, El Salvador. In El Salvador I can go shopping to Metrocentro. I like to eat pupusas. Los Planes de Renderos is a beautiful landscape. I like to eat pupusas. I like swimming. Santa Ana is one of the main departments in El Salvador. I like to visit my people. Pupusas is a very typical food of my country. They are made of cornmeal and in some cases of rice meal. You can make them in the following way: mix cornmeal and water in a bowl in order to form a thick mixture; add to this mixture ground and refried beans, cheese and pork rind. Pat the mixture between your hands into thin cakes. Place the cakes on a very hot comal. Cook the pupusas until one side browns, then turn to the other side. Enjoy them!

Patterns of organization Type of Pattern

Description - this pattern of organization is used to show the reader what the writer sees: objects, scenes, characters, ideas, and even emotions and moods. Description relies heavily on the use of sensory language (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound). Narration - this pattern of organization is used to tell a story. Narration usually involves telling about a series of events or real life happenings that occurred over a period of time. Chronological order is often used in narration. Illustration - this pattern of organization uses examples to present or support the main idea.

Key Words
descriptive adjectives specific nouns

after, afterward, at last, before, during, immediately, now, presently, shortly, since, until, while for example (e.g.), to illustrate, that is (i.e.), as demonstrated, for

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Illustrations help the reader understand general or instance abstract thoughts by including specific illustrations or examples that demonstrate the idea. also, likewise, in a like manner, Comparison and contrast - this pattern of similarly, similar to, compared organization discusses the similarities and/or with, although, however, but, differences which exist between two or more conversely, nevertheless, yet, on ideas, events, or things. the contrary, on one hand...on the other hand, at the same time Definition - this pattern of organization is used to convey the full meaning of a word that is central to the main idea. The definition may be means, can be defined as, refers discussed in terms of its denotative meaning - the to, is, are literal meaning of the word or its connotative meaning - the meaning associated with the word through its common usage. Classification - this pattern of organization is category, field, rank, group, used to group or categorize information. The various elements, characteristics, writer attempts to analyze where events, ideas, or types, parts facts fit in with other events, ideas, or facts. Process/analysis - this pattern or organization explains to a reader how something is done, how something works, or how something occurs. The next, first, second, third, last. writer attempts to analyze a process by taking it apart or separating the process into individual steps or stages. Cause and effect - this pattern of organization answers the basic human question - why? This according, effect, as a result, pattern looks at the expected consequences of a because, consequently, hence, in chain of happenings. It looks for causes or short, maybe due to, reasons, conditions and suggests or examines results, results, then, therefore, thus consequences, or effects. Argument and persuasion - this pattern of organization attempts to convince the reader to follow the ideas or views of the author. It clearly, logically, no one can involves a clear statement of the author's position refute, surely, without hesitation and then uses supporting details to convince or persuade the reader of the author's correctness of thought.

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Exercise 5 In the following readings identify the dominant pattern of organization

Branches of medicine
Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professional and medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Some examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians and bioengineers. The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry and psychology, while separate disciplines from medicine, are considered medical fields. Nurse, midwives and physician assistants treat patients and prescribe medication in many legal jurisdictions. Veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals. The original focus of veterinary medicine was primarily the healthcare of domestic animals. In recent years the discipline has broadened to include all vertebrate animals and even some of the more economically valuable or scientifically interesting invertebrates. Veterinary and human medicine had similar origins but diverged in the West largely under the influence of Christian doctrine which emphasized a fundamental difference between human and all other species. The two disciplines re-converged to some degree after the Renaissance when scientific study of anatomy and physiology revealed undeniable similarities between humans and other animals. The similarities further extend into pathology and disease control leading the early pioneer in scientific pathology Rudolph Virchow to proclaim the doctrine of "one medicine." Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.

The Nature of Matter

Everything around us consists of matter: this page, your body, the air you breathe, and the water you drink. Matter is anything that has weight or mass and takes up space. All matter may be classified as solid, liquid, or gas. Solids are firm and have a definite form. Rubber, wood, glass, iron, cotton, and sand are all classified as solids. A considerable force would be needed to change the shape or volume of an iron bar, for example, because the atoms or molecules of a solid are densely packed and have very little freedom of movement. Solids may be further divided into two classes: crystalline and amorphous. Rocks, wood, paper, and cotton are crystalline solids. Crystalline solids are made up of atoms arranged in a definite pattern. When these solids are heated, the change to a liquid, known as melting, is sharp and clear. Amorphous substances include rubber, glass, and sulfur. In these substances, the pattern of the atoms is not orderly, and when heated, they gradually soften. Liquids, on the other hand, are not rigid. If water, milk, or oil is poured on a table, it will flow all over the surface. The atoms or molecules of liquids attract each other and thereby enable liquids to flow. But these atoms are loosely structured and do not keep their shape. Therefore a liquid will take the shape of any container in which it is poured. However, liquids have a definite volume; a quart of milk cannot fit in a pint container. Gases, such as air, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, have no fixed shape or volume of their own. They diffuse or spread out to fill any container. If water is put into a tire, it will run to the bottom; if air is put into a tire, it fills the whole space 23

inside the tire. The atoms or molecules of gases are widely spaced and move very rapidly. They either compress or expand to adapt to any area.

Pharmacy
Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe use of medication. The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing medications on the orders of physicians, and it also includes more modern services related to patient care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Pharmacists, therefore, are experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize medication use to provide patients with positive health outcomes.

Drugs
Drugs are chemicals that change the way a person's body works. Drugs can be classified into legal and illegal. Medicines are legal drugs, meaning doctors are allowed to prescribe them for patients, stores can sell them, and people are allowed to buy them. Cigarettes and alcohol are two other kinds of legal drugs. When people talk about the "drug problem," they usually mean abusing legal drugs or using illegal drugs, such as marijuana, ecstasy, cocaine, LSD, and heroin.

Chemistry
Chemistry is the science that studies matter at the atomic to macromolecular scale, the reactions, transformations and aggregations of matter, as well as the energy and entropy released or absorbed during these processes. Moreover, chemistry studies molecules, crystals, and metals and is concerned with the composition and statistical properties of such structures, as well as their transformations and interactions to become materials encountered in everyday life.

Sedatives
A sedative is a substance that depresses the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in calmness, relaxation, reduction of anxiety, sleepiness, slowed breathing, slurred speech, staggering gait, poor judgment, and slow, uncertain reflexes. Sedatives may be referred to as tranquilizers, depressants, anxiolytics, soporifics, sleeping pills, downers, or sedative-hypnotics. Sedatives can be abused to produce an overlycalming effect (alcohol being the classic and most common sedating drug). At high doses or when they are abused, many of these drugs can cause unconsciousness and even death.

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Acetaminophen
Paracetamol or acetaminophen is a common analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. Paracetamol is also useful in managing more severe pains, allowing lower dosages of additional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or opioid analgesics to be used, thereby minimizing overall side-effects.

Biology
Biology is the study of life and is concerned with such topics as classifying the various forms of organisms, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment. Biology covers a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. Many of the sub-disciplines of biology are ancient, such as botany, zoology, and medicine.

Botany
Botany is the scientific study of plant life. As a branch of biology, it is also called plant science(s) or plant biology. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development and diseases of plants, chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between different plant groups. The study of plants and botany began with tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.

Mathematics
Mathematics is the body of knowledge centered on concepts such as quantity, structure, space, and change, and also the academic discipline that studies them. Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.

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UNIT II
Introduction to Reading Techniques Basic Reading Techniques Previewing and Prediction Reading techniques are strategies that are very useful in the understanding of a composition. The two basic reading techniques we are going to begin with are: previewing and prediction. Whenever you read a technical book, a short story, a fairy tale, a novel, etc., you must proceed in the following way. 1. First, read the title of the literary work. 2. Then, read the name of the author(s). Do you know him/her/them? If possible, find out any additional information about the author(s). 3. Is this a fiction or non-fiction literary work? 4. Look at any pictures, tables, charts, graphs, etc. 5. Notice if the literary work is divided into parts, units, chapters, and so forth. Pay attention to names, numbers, dates, and words that stand out. 6. When reading paragraphs, read the first sentence of each paragraph and the last paragraph 7. What can you predict that this literary work is about? 8. List some of the adjectives which can be found in the reviews on the back and front covers of the literary work (if any). 9. Would you like to read this literary work? Why?

If you are going to use a textbook, the technique of previewing will be very useful for you. Study the following tips when you are going to preview a textbook. 1. First, read the title, the name of the author(s), and the copyright page. 2. Then, read the table of contents. See if the textbook is divided in parts, units, chapters, etc. 3. Scan the first part, unit, or chapter and look at the first page of each part, unit, or chapter. 4. Skim quickly through the final part, unit, or chapter. 5. Finally, examine the reviews at the back of the book (if any). Useful tips for previewing a textbook part, unit, or chapter. 1. First, read the title of the textbook part, unit, or chapter and look at all of the illustrations. 2. If the part, unit, or chapter is divided into subparts, subunits, or subchapters scan the headings of the part, unit, or chapter. 3. Then, read very quickly the first and last paragraphs of the part, unit, or chapter. 4. Finally, read very quickly the summary or discussion questions (if any).

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Exercise 6 Find a literary work, short story, novel, etc., you have not read. Use the previewing and predicting list below to find out all you can about the literary work. What is the title of the literary work? Who is (are) the author(s)? Type of literary work: is the literary work fiction or non-fiction? What is its date of publication? How many pages does the literary work have? Is the literary work easy to read or difficult to read? Is there any front and/or back cover information? What is it about? Describe the literary work in few words. Exercise 7 Fill in this information about 3 textbooks from another class or subject. What is the title of the textbook? Who is (are) the author(s)? What is its date of publication? How many pages does the textbook have? The textbook is going to be used in: subject or course. Does the textbook have a preface, prologue or introduction? How many parts, units, or chapters does the textbook have? Does the textbook have the following issues? Table of contents Index Glossary Bibliography Questions, assignments, short readings, drills, examples, etc. Figures, charts, graphs, tables, illustrations, etc. Exercise 8 Using the technique of prediction, fill in the blanks. Chemistry is the _______________concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of__________________, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical ______________. It is a _____________ science for studies of various atoms, ____________, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of ________________and entropy in relation to the spontaneity of __________________ processes.

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UNIT III Applications of Technical Writing Technical Writing Definition Key words
essays research composition instructions research articles journal drug reviews reports

What is technical writing? Technical writing is the compact, precise, and detailed presentation of factual information intended for practical uses or applications. Such applications may include, for example, performing an experiment, solving a problem in mathematics, writing a computer program, or operating a fax machine. Examples of technical writing can be short compositions, essays, articles, book reviews, etc. that can be found in journals or other specialized written publications. Lets begin with a definition of what a composition is. The term composition, in written language, refers to the process and study of creating written works or pieces of literature. This can be in the form of poetry, drama, essays or prose. Lets continue with the definition of what an essay is. An essay is a short formal piece of writing, usually one dealing with a single subject. An essay is a written composition that varies in length depending on the development and the level of research reached about one single topic, in essay priors the writers opinion. An essay is a piece of writing, usually from an author's personal point of view. Essays are non-fictional but often subjective; while expository, they can also include narrative. Essays can be literary criticism, political manifestos, and learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Parts of an Essay Introductory paragraph: aimed to attract the reader's attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus. Supporting paragraphs: the topic of the essay must be explained, described, or argued. Concluding paragraph: the conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up the points or providing a final perspective on the topic.

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Types of Essays Definition Essay: in a definition essay, you take a term or an idea and write about what it is; often, definitions are combined with classification or other forms of organization in the essay. It is necessary to give a careful definition of the key term before going on to discuss different types or examples. Classification Essay: in a classification essay, things or ideas are separated into specific categories and each of them is discussed. The essay is organized by defining each classification and by giving examples of each type. Descriptive Essay: in a descriptive essay, you write about what a person, place, or thing is like. The essay is organized by describing different parts or aspects of the main subject. Comparison and Contrast Essay: in a comparison and contrast essay, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, or things. The essay is organized by writing about one subject first and then comparing it with the second subject; a more effective way is to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category. Cause and Effect Essay: cause-and-effect writing gives reasons and explanations for events, conditions, or behavior. It answers the need most of us have to understand the world around us. Exercise 9 In the following essays excerpts identify the dominant pattern of organization. A history of computer viruses In the following report, computer viruses will be explained in detail. A lengthy and informative description of the evolution and history on microcomputer viruses will be given, to give you a background of their origin for some understanding of how they came to be. The next segment in the report is on how to combat computer viruses with the development of anti-virus applications. The current status of microcomputer viruses will also be discussed, naming the most common types of viruses and the most harmful type at this present point in time. Details of the most recent outbreaks of computer viruses, such as the Melissa, I Love You and the most recent Anna Kournikova viruses will be explained, and why they are so harmful. I will also give you my recommendations on how to combat this threat of computer viruses, what Anti-virus Applications that I believe should be used, and why updating your virus definitions for these programs on a regular basis is so vital and important in your quest to have a happy and uninfected computer. And finally, I give you my conclusion in which I can only hope that you will find helpful. . .

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Chemistry Chemistry in society focuses on the problems that humans perform against the ecosystem. This essay will discuss direct problems with the environment and ways in which I personally can help solve these problems through making different decisions in my life. The issues on hand will include air pollution, ozone depletion, and global warming. The solutions to these problems combine my ideas as well as those discussed in class. Air pollution, as mentioned in class, is mainly due to four major gaseous pollutants in our troposphere. The four pollutants consist of carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. Carbon monoxide which is released from cars and furnaces can be the most deadly out of all four pollutants. Small amounts of carbon monoxide that are inhaled cause learning disabilities where large amounts can lead to death. Ozone is a special form of oxygen that has an odor and can cause a reduction in the function of your lungs. Sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide both affect breathing which create lower resistance to respiratory infection and tend to mostly target children and the elderly. Some solutions that I have come up with to fight the problems of air pollution in . . .

Endangered species In 1973 a law was passed that allowed endangered animals to be protected from poachers. It is called the Endangered Species Act. The endangered species act still helps animals who are endangered or threatened to become endangered today. Currently, there are some problems with the act. For example, if a farmer has an endangered species on his land that is destroying his crops or eating his herds, he can not do anything about it because if he did, he would get in trouble with the law. He could possibly go to jail and/or get a fine. Another problem is that we are protecting animals that the public does not know are endangered. If we are protecting these rare and endangered species, then why don't we know more about them? So we can know what they look like in case a problem arises that causes the need for action to be taken. This is just a couple of the many problems that people have with the Endangered Species Act. What can people do to help them in these situations? Some solutions to these problems mentioned above, for instance, the farmer, is that if he is having problems with this animal then he should call the right authorities to come and help him take this animal off his property. Some farmers would take extreme measures. . .

Chinese Book Report The book China Since 1945 written by author Stewart Ross opens in a description of the Chinese Empire in the 1900s. There it describes the terrain of the Chinese lands and thoroughly states the fact of having the Great Wall of China to keep out the barbarians at 221 B.C. The author uses a very admiring tone of the Chinese Empire and seems to think it is one of the very few best empires that have ever formed. In fact, Rozman states, the cultural and scientific achievements of the Chinese had been immense, including the invention of paper, printing and gunpowder, and the creation of the most exquisite paintings and by most Empire Critics China was one

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of the best Civilizations around. The author starts the book by Revolution and disintegration incident that happened in 1911, where the British . . .

Career choices What is a pediatrician? A pediatrician is a physician who treats children. The choice to care for children should be based on a love for children and a belief that it is a significant accomplishment to make a difference in a child's life. As a bonus, a pediatrician gets to hold his patients in his arms, to see them grow and change, and years later, to see the adults they have become. Three responsibilities a pediatrician assumes: conducting yearly health history survey, with care plans and intervention guides as appropriate, monitoring immunization compliance and tuberculin skin testing, and developing and implementing the health component of Individual Education Plans. I chose to be a pediatrician because I have a love for children. I have been around children my whole life; whenever I had my little cousins I could not resist just picking they up and they have always brought joy to my day. To become a pediatrician, after high school I need four years of undergraduate courses at a college or university, which will get me a BS, BA, or other Bachelor degrees. After that I need four years of medical school, which will get me a MD or DO degree. Then after completing that I become a general doctor and have three more years of . . .

A biography of Alexander the Great Alexander the Great is said to be one of the greatest conquerors of all time, and yet, his significance in battle showed up late in his life. His early years were spent in poverty, and as the years progressed, his dream of being a war hero grew dimmer and dimmer. Ironically, while he was later known as a war hero, he was still feared by all because of his reputation as a drinker and murderer, but first, his background. He was born in 356 BC. His parents were Philip, the brother of King Perdiccas III of Macedon, in Northern Greece. His mother was Olympias, daughter of King Neoptolemus I of Epirus, in modern Albania. He also had a younger sister, Cleopatra (not the famous Egyptian queen). However, this family was not as ordinary as one might think. In fact, his parents absolutely hated each other. Philip had complied with Macedonian tradition and had a few wives. Soon, one of his wives had a baby which had mysteriously become disabled after birth. It was said that the disability was due to poisoning from Olympias. Olympias sometimes told Alexander that Philip was not his real father, but this probably was not true. After all, Philip certainly did seem to care for Alexander as if he was his real son. He even appointed Aristotle himself . . .

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A Clockwork Orange "A Clockwork Orange" is a very different movie. It has everything a movie should have, but the plot is quite disturbing, especially for the time it came out. I have personally watched this film several times to find the meaning, and every time I watch it I come up with a different one. I am going to try to explain what this film contains as well as try to explain the plot. "A Clockwork Orange" is a story of a young man whose principle interests are rape, ultra-violence, and Beethoven. It's about a teen named Alex (Malcolm McDowell) who torments people in Britain in the near future. He is then betrayed by his friends and caught by the police, after he had murdered somebody. He was sent to live in a Juvenile Facility where he had to endure a strange torture of being forced to watch horrific movies. When Alex gets home, all the people that had done him wrong had their revenge on a weak, recuperating Alex. I'll let you find out what happened at the end. "A Clockwork Orange" is a cult classic. It was Stanley Kubrick's 2nd critically acclaimed film (the first being "Spartacus"). I was first interested in the book by Anthony Burgess (which in my opinion is equally as good as the movie). . .

Pollution Is the air that we are breathing killing us? The average person takes about twenty thousand breaths a day; obviously air is essential to life. Well imagine that the air that you are breathing may be killing you, many diseases are aggravated by air pollution. Scientists believe that all cities with populations exceeding 50,000 have some degree of air pollution. Burning garbage in open dumps causes air pollution, and also it smells pretty bad. Air pollution comes from many different sources. One of the major sources is carbon monoxide which mainly comes from automobiles, but also burning of fossil fuels, CFCs etc. Air pollution does not leave the Earth it all gets trapped up in the atmosphere. This does not bother most people, and they think that it will not harm them. People are burning down forests and fossil fuels, and CFCs from aerosols. Every bit of this harms our atmosphere. Factories and transportation depend on huge amounts of fuel billions of tons of coal and oil are consumed around . . .

A brief history of robots A robot can be defined as a programmable, self controlled device consisting of electronic, electrical, or mechanical units. The notion of robots or robot-like automates can be traced back to medieval times. Although people of that era did not have a term to describe what we would eventually call a robot, they were nevertheless imagining mechanisms that could perform human-like tasks. As early as 270 BC an ancient engineer named Ctesibus made organs and water clocks with moveable figures. In medieval times, automatons, human-like figures run by hidden mechanisms, were used to impress peasant worshipers in church into believing in a higher power. The automatons, like the Clock Jack, created the illusion of selfmotion (moving without assistance). The Clock Jack was a mechanical figure that could strike time on a bell with its axe. This technology was virtually unheard of in

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the 13th century. By the 18th century, miniature automatons became more popular as toys for the very rich. They were made to look and move like humans or small animals. Automatons like The Pretty Musician, built around 1890, were able to turn their head from side to side while playing an instrument with their hands and keeping time with their . . .

Alice in Wonderland Lewis Carrolls works Alices Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking Glass and What Alice Found There are by many people considered nonsense books for children. Of course, they are, but they are also much more. Lewis Carroll had a great talent of intertwining nonsense and logic, and therefore creating sense within nonsense. If you look past the nonsense you can find a new meaning other than the one you found completing your third grade book report. You find that the books are full of references and parallel aspects of Victorian Society such as topics of etiquette, education, and prejudice, and through these topics are shown a childs ability to survive in a hostile world. By this last statement I am referring to Cohens comment that Wonderland (published in1865) captures the disappointments, fears, and bewilderment that all children encounter in their dealings with authoritarian, pompous and mystifying adults which Wonderland seems to have no deficiency of. Throughout the story Carroll portrays his views on the education of the times. He makes morals and tales of obedience (Brown, May Lee) seem nonsensical by the character of the Duchess and Alices preoccupation with her lessons. The Duchess keeps insisting to Al. . . . Exercise 10 Download an essay about a topic of your selection and classify it according to its structure. Exercise 11 Download a drug label of your choice and identify its parts.

UNIT IV
Intermediate Reading Techniques (I) Understanding Drug Reviews Understanding Research Articles In terms of scientific literature, reviews are a category of scientific paper, which provides a synthesis of research on a topic at that moment in time. A compilation of these reviews forms the core content of a 'tertiary' scientific journal, with examples including Annual Reviews, the Nature Reviews series of journals and Trends. A drug review is a series of information about a specific drug.

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GENERIC NAME: acetaminophen BRAND NAME: Tylenol and many other DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Acetaminophen belongs to a class of drugs called analgesics (pain relievers) and antipyretics (fever reducers). The exact mechanism of action of acetaminophen is not known. Acetaminophen relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold, that is, by requiring a greater amount of pain to develop before it is felt by a person. It reduces fever through its action on the heatregulating center of the brain. Specifically, it tells the center to lower the body's temperature when the temperature is elevated. Acetaminophen was approved by the FDA in 1951. PRESCRIPTION: no GENERIC AVAILABLE: yes PREPARATIONS: Liquid suspension, chewable tablets, coated caplets, gel caps, gel tabs, and suppositories. Common dosages are 325, 500 and 650 mg. STORAGE: Store tablets and solutions at room temperature 15-30C (59-86F). Suppositories should be refrigerated below 27C (80F). PRESCRIBED FOR: Acetaminophen is used for the relief of fever as well as aches and pains associated with many conditions; acetaminophen relieves pain in mild arthritis but has no effect on the underlying inflammation, redness and swelling of the joint. If the pain is not due to inflammation, acetaminophen is as effective as aspirin. It is as effective as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen (Motrin) in relieving the pain of osteoarthritis of the knee. DOSING: The oral dose for adults is 325 to 650 mg every 4-6 hours. The maximum daily dose is 4 grams. The oral dose for a child is based on the child's age, and the range is 40-650 mg every 4 hours. When administered as a suppository, the adult dose is 650 mg every 4-6 hours. For children, the dose is 80-325 mg every 4-6 hours depending on age. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Acetaminophen is metabolized (eliminated by conversion to other chemicals) by the liver. Therefore drugs that increase the action of liver enzymes that metabolize acetaminophen (e.g. carbamazepine, isoniazid, and rifampin) may decrease the action of acetaminophen. The potential for acetaminophen to harm the liver is increased when it is combined with alcohol or drugs that also harm the liver. PREGNANCY: Acetaminophen is used in all stages of pregnancy. NURSING MOTHERS: Acetaminophen is excreted in breast milk in small quantities. However, acetaminophen use by the nursing mother appears to be safe. SIDE EFFECTS: When used appropriately, side effects are rare. The most serious side effect is liver damage due to large doses, chronic use or concomitant use with alcohol or other drugs that also damage the liver.

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Research articles ACTIVE COMMUNICATION OF A PHARMACY DISCHARGE PLAN FOR PATIENTS WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASES: A PILOT STUDY Marie-France Beauchesne, Laura M Nenciu, Thanh-Ha Dinh, Michel Tass, Anne Fillion, Manon Labrecque, and Lucie Blais BACKGROUND: Drug-related problems (DRPs) are common following hospital discharge. Active communication of a written pharmacy discharge plan may increase the number of community pharmacists interventions. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of the active communication of a written pharmacy discharge plan. METHODS: This was a pilot study comparing 2 groups of pharmacists over a period of 6 weeks. Participating community pharmacists were assigned to either the control group (those who provided usual patient care during hospital stay and transmission of a standard written pharmacy discharge plan) or the active communication group (those who, in addition to the usual care provided in the control group and the written pharmacy discharge plan, included a list of up to 3 DRPs with proposed interventions to resolve them and a telephone call from the hospital pharmacist to the community pharmacist to facilitate the transfer of information). The patients enrolled were adults admitted to the respiratory unit of our hospital who were returning home following their discharge. Patients were assigned to the control or the active communication group based on the community pharmacy where they usually filled their prescriptions. RESULTS: Overall, 36 community pharmacists were included in the study and assigned to either the active communication (n = 17) or control group (n = 19). A total of 22 patients were assigned to either the control group (n = 8) or the active communication group (n = 14). The mean number of community pharmacist interventions per patient was 4.2 in the active communication group and 0.9 in the control group (p = 0.0004). The mean number of DRPs per patient for which there was at least one intervention made by the community pharmacist was 2.8 in the active communication group and 0.6 in the control group (p = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Results of this pilot study demonstrate that the active communication of a written discharge plan may increase the number of interventions by community pharmacists. J Pharm Technol 2007; 23:67-74. Exercise 12 Download a drug review on your own. Exercise 13 Download a research article on your own.

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UNIT V Laboratory Experiments Key words

Glassware boiling point freezing point melting point Acidity starch distilled water stopper Mass volume ruler density dimensions balance reagent

Density is a property of matter that is defined as the ratio of an object's mass to its volume. Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object and is commonly measured in units of grams (g). Volume is the amount of space taken up by a quantity of matter and is commonly expressed in cubic centimeters (cm3) or in milliliters (ml) (1cm3 = 1 ml). In other words, density is the mass of a substance 3 3 divided by its volume; symbol , units kg/m . The density of water is 1000 kg/m . An object placed in a liquid denser than itself will float, whereas an object denser than the liquid will sink. Let us see an example: a typical brick has a mass of 2,268 g and occupies a volume of 1,230 cm3. The density of the brick is therefore: 2,268 g/1,230 cm3 = 1.84 g/cm3. Calculating the density of a regular piece of metal First of all, we will need a balance, a ruler, and a rectangular metal block. a) We measure the dimensions of the block using the ruler. b) We calculate the volume of the block with the formula lwh (length x width x height). c) Next we weigh the block on the balance. d) Then we calculate the density with the equation m/v. Exercise 14 Calculate the density of a piece of lead. Mass 113.4 g. Volume 2 cm x 2 cm x 2.5 cm. Use the former example. Calculating the density of an irregular piece of metal In order to calculate the density of an irregular piece of metal we will use a length of thread, a balance, a displacement vessel, a measuring cylinder, a tooth brush, an irregular piece of metal, and some water. a) We clean carefully the irregular piece of solid with the tooth brush. b) We put the irregular piece of solid on the balance. c) We weigh accurately its mass. d) We fill the displacement vessel with water. e) We attach the cotton of thread to the solid. f) We put the measuring cylinder under the displacement vessel. g) We lower gently the solid into the displacement vessel. h) We note the volume of water. i) We calculate the density of the solid with the equation m/v. En ingls tcnico tienes que diferenciar entre demostraciones, instrucciones, descripciones y reportes. En una demostracin utilizas la siguiente estructura: Sujeto predicado: We measure mass with a balance. En una instruccin se utiliza la siguiente estructura: sujeto (en forma tcita) predicado, e.g.: Measure mass with a balance. En una descripcin utilizas la voz pasiva en presente: sujeto predicado en voz pasiva, e.g.: Mass is measured with a balance.

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En un informe siempre utilizas la voz pasiva nada ms que en pasado: sujeto predicado en voz pasiva, e.g.: Mass was measured with a balance. Some important definitions Melting point: the temperature at which a particular substance (usually one that is solid at room temperature, e.g. a metal) changes from a solid to a liquid. Boiling point: the temperature at which a particular substance changes from a liquid to a vapour, and which varies according to the air pressure. Freezing point: the temperature at which the liquid form of a particular substance turns into a solid. Following there are some tables that show different melting points (m.p.), boiling points (b.p) and freezing points (f.p.) of some metals, liquids, and gases. Gas Fluorine (F) Chlorine (Cl) Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H) Metal Copper (Cu) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Silver (Ag) m.p. -219.62C -101.5C -218.79C -259.14C m.p 1084.62C 660.32C 1538C 961.78C b.p. -188.12C -34.04C -182.95 -252.87C b.p. 2562C 2519C 2861C 2162C

Liquid Water (H2O) Benzene (C6H6) Ethanol (C2H6O) Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)

f.p. 0C 5.5C -114.3C -22.92C

b.p. 100C 80.1C 78.4C 76.72C

Exercise 15 Corrige las siguientes instrucciones y transcrbelas al ingls. 1) Limpiar el platillo de la balanza y revisar que las pesas estn en cero. 2) Revisar que la balanza est equilibrada, esto significa que el fiel coincida con el cero. 3) Pesar una probeta limpia y seca que se usar como porta muestra. Anote el peso. 4) Regresar las pesas a cero (de mayor a menor) y retirar la probeta. (No invierta el proceso). 5) Agregar en un vaso de precipitados de 100 ml de agua destilada hasta la mitad introducir el bulbo del termmetro y anotar la temperatura del agua. 6) Pipetear 10.0 mL de agua destilada y agregarlo a la probeta que recin ha pesado. 7) Pesar la probeta conteniendo los 10.0 mL de agua destilada. Anotar el peso, regresar las pesas a cero y retirar la probeta. 8) Repetir el procedimiento una vez ms.

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The most common reagents used in Chemistry and Pharmacy Acetic acid (C2H4O2) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) aq Formic acid (CH2O2) Copper chloride (CuCl) Ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) Potassium bromide (KBr) Potassium chlorate (KClO3) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) Silver nitrate (AgNO3) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (baking soda) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) (washing soda) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium cyanamide (Na2CN2) Sodium cyanide (NaCN) Sodium fluoride (NaF) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (caustic soda, lye) Sodium iodide (NaI)

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A continuacin se te presenta un modelo de cmo escribir en ingls un informe sobre un experimento. Experiment 1 Date: Aim To determine the composition of an irregular piece of unknown metal Equipment a tooth brush a balance a length of thread a displacement vessel a measuring cylinder some water

Procedure 1 2 3 4 5 The metal was first cleaned with the tooth brush. All the oxides and dirt were removed. Then the metal was accurately weighed on the balance. Its mass was 212.5 g. The displacement vessel was filled with water and the excess water was allowed to overflow. Next the thread was attached to the piece of metal and it was gently lowered into the displacement vessel. The displaced water was allowed to overflow into the cylinder and its volume was carefully noted. The volume of the displaced water was approximately 25 cm3. Finally the density of the metal was calculated with the equation:

m/v

212.5/25 8.5 g/cm3

Conclusion The density of brass is normally 8.4 8.7 g/cm3 and the density of bronze is normally 8.8 8.9 g/cm3. Therefore, this piece of metal is probably brass.

Exercise 16 Write a report of Experiment X in the same way. Mass of the piece of metal 722 g Volume of displaced water 95 cm3 Density of some common ferrous metals Steels: 7.4 7.55 g/cm3 Cast iron: approximately 7.6 g/cm3 Wrought iron: approximately 7.85 g/cm3

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Exercise 17 Write a report of the exercise 10. Homework assignment Study carefully the following experiment and submit a report about it. Make all the necessary changes. Materiales y reactivos 1 mechero Bunsen fsforo rojo (P4) 1 probeta de 25 mL 1 frasco de boca ancha 1 caja de fsforos 1 cuchara de deflagracin 1 pieza de papel tornasol 15 mL de agua destilada Formacin de xidos cidos o anhdridos Medir 10 mL de agua destilada en una probeta de 25 mL. Transferir el agua a un frasco de boca ancha. Agregar inmediatamente un pedacito de papel tornasol azul. Encender el mechero Bunsen. Colocar una pequea muestra de fsforo en una cuchara de deflagracin y someterla a ignicin en la llama del mechero. Introducir la cuchara de deflagracin con el fsforo en ignicin dentro del frasco de boca ancha, asegurndose que no haga contacto el agua con el fondo de la cuchara. Tapar el frasco y rotarlo suavemente sobre la mesa de trabajo. Observar el color del papel tornasol. Hacer anotaciones. Lavar el frasco y la cuchara de deflagracin cuando ya no se observen vapores. Using the dictionary What is the dictionary? The dictionary is a reference book that contains the words of a language arranged alphabetically with their meanings, and sometimes also their pronunciation, grammatical labels, inflections, etymologies, etc. An entry word is each word, abbreviation, prefix, suffix or set of words that the dictionary explains. A dictionary can be divided into the following parts: Guide Words: the first and last entry words on a dictionary page. Syllabication: it shows how words are divided into syllables. Part of Speech: the function of a word in a sentence. Definition: the meaning of a word or term; words may have more than one meaning. Respelling: it shows in parentheses how to pronounce a word. Etymology: it is the study of the origin and development of words and their meanings. Idioms: the syntax, grammar and forms of expression peculiar to a language or a variety of language; an expression with a meaning which cannot be guessed at or derived from the meanings of the individual words which form it.

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Following a page of The Merriam-Webster Dictionary is shown. If you have your own dictionary read carefully the questions you are asked and answer them. 1. What are the guide words for this page? 2. What is the origin of the word able?

3. What is the eighteenth entry word on this page? 4. What is the difference between the word entries able and able?

5. What does ABM stand for? 6. How would you divide the word abortionist into syllables?

7. What are the functions of the word above? 8. What is the definition of the word abrasive?

9. What is the origin of the word abominate? 10. To what word does the following definition correspond? A mysterious creature with human or apelike characteristics reported to exist in the High Himalayas. 11. What is the past participle of the verb abrade?

12. How the word archbishop is abbreviated?

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UNIT VI Intermediate Reading Techniques (II) Guessing Word Meaning Guessing word meaning is a reading technique that has as a purpose to make people efficient in reading. When you are reading any kind of written material you must be able to understand the text without consulting a dictionary, asking a classmate or your professor if you find some word or words you do not know the meaning. This technique is aided by four subtechniques: cognates, context, word formation, and definition. Cognates: words that have similar pronunciations and spellings in both languages, and frequently have the same meaning. They can be divided into true cognates and false cognates. E.g.: university, traduce, abate, hospital, compose. Exercise 18 Following there is a list of some words. Using your English-Spanish dictionary identify them if they are true or false cognates. Drug Approach Administration Bottom Facility casualty traduce absorbance familiar gripe pastel parent exit syringe dose

Exercise 19 Identify all the cognates in the following texts. Powder injection is an innovative drug delivery technique that provides needle-free and pain-free delivery of traditional pharmaceuticals. Drug-containing particles are speeded up to high velocities using the energy of a transient helium gas jet in a cheap hand-held device, and delivered directly into skin or other tissues. Iontophoresis is a non-invasive technique that uses a mild electric current to deliver drugs through the skin into the bloodstream. Iontophoretic systems consist of a drug-filled patch and a miniaturised, battery-powered unit with integrated microcomputers controls, which is worn in the same way as existing passive transdermal patches. Context: the environment in a written text which surround a particular word, phrase, etc., and which contributes to the full meaning of the word, phrase, etc., in question. Exercise 20 Try to guess the meaning of the highlighted words in the following passage. The federal government, displaying even less sense than usual, has yielded to the French fry industry. Frozen French friessliced, fried in oil, and then packaged are now approved as fresh vegetables by the US Department of Agriculture. The French fry industry has been petitioning the USDA for years to get this approval. They say that their product is similar to cucumbers that have a wax coating. They argue that they use 100 percent vegetable oil, which is much healthier for consumers than plain wax. Most consumers, of course, beg to differ. You must be joking, said Annie, 50. How can you consider a product that is deep-fried in oil to be a fresh vegetable? Even if I steamed broccoli, I could no longer call it fresh broccoliit is cooked! I wish I were a lobbyist, so my congressman would help me. Unfortunately, Im only a tax-paying citizen. The USDA defends its decision, saying that potatoes undeniably are vegetables. Although French fries are fried in oil, they are still potatoes. If you let them sit on your countertop for a couple of weeks, a USDA

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spokesman said, the fries will rot just like all other fresh vegetables. Consumer advocates say the USDA has totally lost touch with the consumers. They would probably declare that eggshells are nutritious if a lobbyist asked them to, said one advocate. Exercise 21 Paying attention to the context try to guess the meaning of the highlighted words. The crowd gathered at the city gates and at ten o clock it began to move. Reaching the church a half hour later, the throng stopped and waited patiently for the priests. Before the meeting the President appeared calm, yet we all knew he was extremely agitated. They marveled at our dishwasher and dish-dryer. They fell in love with the automatic coffee maker, the microwave oven, and the food blender. They wanted to take our rice cooker and toaster home with them. They had never seen such appliances before. The Federal Aviation Administration concluded yesterday that the DC-10 pylon, the structure that attaches the engine to the wings, is fundamentally sound and does not need any major design changes. The enemy soldiers were able to cow the villagers by threatening to shoot anyone who refused to give them food. By the time the boy reached the hospital, he was suffering from hypothermia. In El Salvador and in many Central America countries, there is a serious problem. What should be done with the garbage? There is no more room for garbage dumps. It is not possible to burn garbage, because that pollutes the air. So the governments are looking for ways to reduce the amount of garbage that is produced. One way to do this is to zep as much as possible. Not all kinds of garbage can be zepped, of course. The easiest things to zep are probably glass and paper. However, one can also zep many kinds of metal and plastic. Many cities now require people to zep these materials. The people must put them separately from the regular garbage. Then, special trucks take them away and bring them to private companies. These companies will buy them and use them again. Word formation: the creation of a new word. This can be achieved by: agglutination, back-formation, blending, acronym, clipping, calque, etc. Agglutination: the morphological process of adding affixes (prefix/suffix) to the base of a word. E.g.: homeless, unable, goodness, impossible, analgesic, chemotherapy, adrenergic, hypnogenic, antihelminthic, iatrogenic, prophylaxis, sympathomimetic, bactericidal, etc. Medical terminology contains roots based both in Latin and Ancient Greek. Following there is a Table of Medical Roots containing some prefixes and suffixes used in medicine and pharmacy.

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Prefix a-, anabdomin(o)aden(o)-, aden(i)-

Prefix Meaning denotes an absence of of or relating to the abdomen

Example(s) apathy abdomen

of or relating to a gland

adenology

ante-

describing something as positioned in front of another thing

antepartum

anti-

describing something as 'against' another

antibody, antipsychotic blepharoplast brachium

blephar(o)brachi(o)-

of or pertaining to the eyelid of or relating to the arm indicating something as 'short' or less commonly 'little' of or pertaining to the eyelid indicating something as 'slow' of or pertaining to the cheek of or pertaining to hair pertaining to the head (as a whole) of or pertaining to the heart of or pertaining to the wrist

brachy-

brachycephalic

blephar(o)bradybucc(o)capillcapitcardi(o)carp(o)-

blepharoplast bradycardia buccolabial capillus capitation cardiology carpopedal

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cephal(o)cerat(o)cerebell(o)cerebr(o)cervic(o)chir(o)-, cheir(o)chlor(o)dentdermat-, derm-

of or pertaining to the head (as a whole) of or pertaining to the cornu; a horn of or pertaining to the cerebellum of or pertaining to the brain of or pertaining to the neck, the cervix

cephalalgy ceratioid cerebellum cerebrology cervicodorsal

of or pertaining to the hand

chiropractor

denoting a green color of or pertaining to teeth

chlorophyll dentist

of or pertaining to the skin

dermatology

dia-

denoting through, across, during, composed of of or pertaining to the finger

diacetyl

digitdors(o)-, dors(i)encephal(o)endoenter(o)epiep-

digit

of or pertaining to the back

dorsocephalad

of or pertaining to the brain denotes something as 'inside' or 'within' of or pertaining to the intestine

encephalogram endocrinology enterology

above, over or upon, in addition, after, close to; near

epidermis

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Suffix

Suffix Meaning denotes a surgical operation or removal of a body part used to form adjectives indicating 'having the form of' denotes the sense 'born in, from' or the sense 'of a certain kind' denotes a written, drawn, or graphic interpretation denotes a field in medicine of a certain body component denotes the academic study or practice of a certain field

Example(s)

-ectomy

mastectomy

-form, -iform

cuneiform

-gen

endogen, heterogenous

-graph

cardiograph

-iatry

podiatry, psychiatry hematology, urology oncologist, pathologist sociopathy, neuropathy

-logy

-logist

denotes someone who studies a certain field

-pathy

denotes (with a negative sense) a disease, or disorder denotes something relating to digestion, or the digestive tract forms terms denoting conditions relating to eating or ingestion forms nouns that denotes 'feeding on' the first element or part of the word forms nouns that denote a person who 'feeds on' the first element or part of the word

-pepsia

dyspepsia

-phagia

sarcophagia

- phagy

anthropophagy

-phagist

anthropophagist

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Back-formation: the process of creating a new word by removing actual or supposed affixes. E.g.: resurrection (noun) resurrect (verb). Blend: a word formed from parts of two other words. E.g.: smoke and fog result in smog. Acronyms: abbreviations that are formed using the initial components in a phrase or name. E.g.: LASER (Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). Clipping: it is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts. E.g.: exam (ination), math (ematic), and lab (oratory). Exercise 22 In the following readings identify all the words formed by agglutination, backformation, blend, acronyms, clipping, etc. Balloon angioplasty Balloon angioplasty of the coronary artery, or percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), was introduced in the late 1970's. PTCA is a nonsurgical procedure that relieves narrowing and obstruction of the arteries to the muscle of the heart (coronary arteries). This allows more blood and oxygen to be delivered to the heart muscle. PTCA is now referred to as percutaneous coronary intervention, or PCI, as this term includes the use of balloons, stents, and atherectomy devices. PCI is accomplished with a small balloon catheter inserted into an artery in the groin or arm, and advanced to the narrowing in the coronary artery. The balloon is then inflated to enlarge the narrowing in the artery. When successful, PCI can relieve chest pain of angina, improve the prognosis of patients with unstable angina, and minimize or stop a heart attack without having the patient undergo open heart coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. What is tuberculosis? Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria whose scientific name is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TB most commonly affects the lungs but also can involve almost any organ of the body. Many years ago, this disease used to be called "consumption" because without effective treatment, these patients often would waste away. Today, of course, tuberculosis usually can be treated successfully with antibiotics.There is also a group of organisms referred to as atypical tuberculosis. These involve other types of bacteria that are in the Mycobacterium family. Often, these organisms do not cause disease and are referred to a "colonizers," because they simply live alongside other bacteria in our bodies without causing damage. At times, these bacteria can cause an infection that sometimes appears as typical tuberculosis. Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. It causes disease in approximately 400 million people every year and kills between one and three million people every year, mostly young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly-associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to development. Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and an enormous public-health problem. The disease is caused by protozoan

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parasites of the genus Plasmodium. The most serious forms of the disease are caused by Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, but other related species (Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malariae, and sometimes Plasmodium knowlesi) can also infect humans. This group of human-pathogenic Plasmodium species is usually referred to as malaria parasites. Malaria parasites are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasites multiply within red blood cells, causing symptoms that include symptoms of anemia (light headedness, shortness of breath, tachycardia etc.), as well as other general symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, flulike illness, and in severe cases, coma and death. Malaria transmission can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites with mosquito nets and insect repellents or by mosquito control by spraying insecticides inside houses and draining standing water where mosquitoes lay their eggs. Unfortunately, no vaccine is currently available for malaria. Instead preventative drugs must be taken continuously to reduce the risk of infection. These prophylactic drug treatments are simply too expensive for most people living in endemic areas. Most adults from endemic areas have a degree of long-term recurrent infection and also of partial resistance; the resistance reduces with time and such adults may become susceptible to severe malaria if they have spent a significant amount of time in non-endemic areas. They are strongly recommended to take full precautions if they return to an endemic area. Malaria infections are treated through the use of antimalarial drugs, such as quinine or artemisinin derivatives, although drug resistance is increasingly common. Definition: a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. (A pharmacist is someone who is trained and licensed to prepare and dispense drugs and medicines). Chemistry is the study of the composition of substances and the changes that they undergo. Amnesia is the loss or impairment of memory, caused by physical injury, disease, drugs or emotional trauma. Exercise 23 Following you have a series of definitions; try to guess the word they are referring to. It is a system of terms or symbols used in biology, where New Latin names are given to kinds and groups of animals and plants. It is a total or partial paralysis of one side of the body that results from disease of or injury to the motor centers of the brain. It is a mental acceptance of something as true or real; belief. It is said of somebody who is meat-eating or flesh-eating. One of two or more words pronounced and/or spelled alike but different in meaning. Exercise 24 Following there is a series of short passages. Use all the former techniques in order to understand them. Biology is the study of living organisms and systems. The beginnings of biology as a science are the natural history observations made by curious amateurs, travellers, farmers, and all those in contact with the natural world. Its rapid development during the 20th-c led to the increasing subdivision of

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biology into a variety of specialized disciplines, although the most recent trend is towards more integrated interdisciplinary studies. Pharmacy was originally the science of preparing, compounding, and dispensing medicines. Since more potent drugs have become available (mid1940s), the scope of pharmacy has become increasingly concerned with more clinical functions, such as the checking of doses and drug interactions. In most countries, apothecary is an old term for a pharmacist at a time when drugs were crude and mostly derived from plants. In England, apothecaries were general medical practitioners; the Society of Apothecaries was founded by James I in 1617 and gained further powers over the next two centuries. Antibiotics are substances derived from one micro-organism which can selectively destroy other (infectious) organisms without harming the host. The antibiotic effect has been known for at least 2500 years: the Chinese applied mouldy soybean curd to boils and similar infections. Pasteur recorded that anthrax bacilli grew rapidly in sterile (but not non-sterile) urine (1877). The development of penicillin (1941) was the start of the era of safe and effective antibiotics. Many new antibiotics have since been discovered (nearly 100), each with a slightly different range of activities. Several are now synthesized. Arsenicals are drugs developed in the early 20th-c by German scientist Paul Ehrlich, who systematically screened a series of organic arsenic-containing substances in the search for a drug effective in trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Syphilis is a chronic infection caused by Treponema pallidum; a sexually transmitted disease in which a primary lesion (a chancre) appears on the genitalia or anus. Over-the-counter drugs (OTCs) are drugs which may be purchased directly from a pharmacy without a prescription, such as aspirin. Some problems arise with OTCs, such as their inappropriate use (e.g. an overdose) and their dangerous interactions with some prescription drugs. Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid is a very widely used drug effective against many types of minor pain (headache, menstruation, neuralgia), inflammation (it is frequently prescribed for rheumatoid diseases), and fever. It has more recently been discovered to prevent the formation of blood clots, and therefore to reduce the incidence of coronary and cerebral thrombosis. The barks of the willow and certain other plants have been used for centuries in the cure of agues (fever). The active ingredient salicin is the chemical precursor of aspirin. It owes all its medicinal effects to its ability to prevent the synthesis of prostaglandins, a family of biologically active chemicals found throughout the body. A side-effect of taking aspirin may be gastric bleeding. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of green plants, divided into a blade (lamina) and a stalk (petiole); the lamina is usually broad and thin, to present maximum surface area to sunlight and allows easy diffusion of gases and water vapour to and from the leaf. It is composed of several distinct layers of tissues: the epidermis protects the inner tissues - the palisade layer, which is the primary site of photosynthesis, and the spongy mesophyll, which has large air spaces and is the primary site of gas exchange; a network of vascular tissue, the veins, transports water and sap to and from the leaf. The epidermis secretes a waxy cuticle, mostly impervious to water and gases which enter and leave via pores (stomata) concentrated in the lower surface of the leaf. The main source 50

of water loss for a plant is due to transpiration via the leaves. This is minimized by the waxy cuticle, and by the opening and closing of the stomata in response to changes in humidity. Other modifications to reduce water-loss are found particularly in plants from dry or cold regions, including reduction in leaf size, in rolled margins to protect stomata, and regular shedding of leaves during unfavourable seasons. Some plants have replaced their leaves entirely with less vulnerable photosynthetic organs, such as green stems. Leaves range from a few mm to 20 m/65 ft in length, exhibit a great variety of shapes, and may be entire, toothed, lobed, or completely divided into separate leaflets. These characters and the arrangement of the leaves on the stem are diagnostic for many plant groups. Leaves may also have specialized functions, such as water-storage in succulents, traps in carnivorous plants, and tendrils in climbers.

Making better use of the newspaper What is a newspaper? A newspaper is a daily or weekly publication composed of folded sheets, containing news, advertisements, topical articles, correspondence, etc. A newspaper has four basic functions: (1) to inform, (2) to interpret the news, (3) to provide a service to readers (4) to entertain. Sections of a newspaper International: this section tells you about news in different countries, regions, or continents. Business: this section deals with world business, stock markets, mutual funds, and so forth. Technology: in this section you will find news about the practical use of scientific knowledge in industry and everyday life. Science: the science section in a newspaper contains things that are happening in our medical world today. Health: in this section you can find news containing things about fitness and nutrition, new health care policies, and mental health and behavior. Sports: this section deals with basketball, professional basketball, golf, soccer, tennis, professional football, and different sports that you may be interested in. Weather: in this section you can read about warning, prediction or advance of weather and climate. Obituaries: in this section one can find a notice or announcement of a person's death, often with a short account of their life. The cover page story: in this section, you find the story that the cover page has on it. Table of contents: this is the most important section of a newspaper because it shows where to find all of these newspaper sections.

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Exercise 25 Look over your newspaper in class. Then be ready to discuss these questions: Does your newspaper include all sections in the following list? What section do you read regularly? How often? What sections do you like the best? Why? Advertisements Comics movie information news society pages television info

Editorials puzzles weather reports Exercise 26 Using your newspaper find the answers to these questions: 1. Is your paper standard size (seven or eight columns wide) or a tabloid size (five columns wide)? 2. What are the main front page headlines? 3. Does the newspaper show different sizes of type used in the headlines? 4. What color are they? 5. Are there some stories on the front page about world news? Local news? 6. What kinds of topics are discussed in the editorials? 7. Do you know what a human-interest story is? 8. Is there any on the front page? 9. What does AP or UPI stand for? 10. What columns all the regular contributions written by the same writer(s) does this paper print? 11. Are there any articles about scientific discoveries? About schools? 12. Do you find departments and special pages, such as sports, hobbies, and business, and television and radio programs, reviews of movies? 13. What cartoons and comics are there in your paper? 14. What is the difference between comics and cartoons? 15. How much of the paper is given to advertisements? Guides to newspaper reading 1. Read your newspaper regularly (a) to develop interest in the government and in your community, and (b) to understand better world and local affairs. 2. Read your paper in a systematic manner. 3. Analyze what you read. 4. Learn to separate facts from opinions. 5. Read for entertainment and chuckles. Exercise 27 Using the same edition of your newspaper, number it from 1 to 20, and find the following items and write the numbers of the pages in the paper on which they are located. 1. Advertisements 11. Garden news 2. Article by a columnist 12. Hobbies 3. Cartoons 13. Local news

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4. Comics 5. Deaths 6. Editorials 7. Fashions 8. Feature stories 9. Financial reports 10. Food (recipes)

14. Movie reviews 15. Television and radio reviews 16. Reviews of books, plays, and concerts 17. Society news 18. Sports 19. Weather reports 20. World news

Solve the following crossword just for fun.

Across 2. Repulse (5) 4. Prolonged (9) 6. Deadlock (7) 7. Tripod (5) 9. Answer (8) 11. Rare (8) 13. Additional (5) 14. Abjure (7) 16. Unwilling (9) 17. Shinbone (5)

Down 1. Character set (8) 2. Hazards (5) 3. Lamp (7) 4. Protagonist (9) 5. Discordant (9) 6. Publication (5) 8. Demarcation (5) 10. Type of onion (7) 12. Melting pot (8) 15. Crown-like headdress (5)

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SYMBOLS Symbols are objects, characters, or other concrete representations of ideas, concepts, or other abstractions. For example, in the United States, a red octagon is a symbol for the traffic sign meaning "STOP". In more psychological and philosophical terms, every perception is symbolic, and humans often react to symbolism on a subconscious level. Common examples of symbols are the symbols used on maps to denote places of interest, such as crossed sabers to indicate a battlefield, and the numerals used to represent numbers. Common psychological symbols are the use of a gun to represent a penis or a tunnel to represent a vagina. All language is made up of symbols. The word "cat", whether spoken or written, is not a cat, but is a symbol for a cat. What do the following symbols represent?

Exercise 28 Identify and analyze the function of the following symbols:

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UNIT VII
Advanced reading techniques Skimming Scanning Skimming is a high speed reading process and involves visually searching the sentences of a page for clues to meaning. It is conducted at a higher rate (700 wpm plus) than normal reading for comprehension (around 200-230 wpm) that results in lower comprehension rates, especially with information-rich reading material. Steps in skimming 1. Read the title, subtitles and subheadings to find out what the text is about. 2. Look at the illustrations to give you further information about the topic. 3. Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. 4. Do not read every word or every sentence. Let your eyes skim over the text, taking care in key words. Exercise 29 Read the following text and answer the questions. Pulp friction Every second, 1 hectare of the world's rainforest is destroyed. That's equivalent to two football fields. An area the size of New York City is lost every day. In a year, that adds up to 31 million hectares -- more than the land area of Poland. This alarming rate of destruction has serious consequences for the environment; scientists estimate, for example, that 137 species of plant, insect or animal become extinct every day due to logging. In British Columbia, where, since 1990, thirteen rainforest valleys have been clear-cut, 142 species of salmon have already become extinct, and the habitats of grizzly bears, wolves and many other creatures are threatened. Logging, however, provides jobs, profits, taxes for the government and cheap products of all kinds for consumers, so the government is reluctant to restrict or control it. Much of Canada's forestry production goes towards making pulp and paper. According to the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association, Canada supplies 34% of the world's wood pulp and 49% of its newsprint paper. If these paper products could be produced in some other way, Canadian forests could be preserved. Recently, a possible alternative way of producing paper has been suggested by agriculturalists and environmentalists: a plant called hemp. Hemp has been cultivated by many cultures for thousands of years. It produces fibre which can be made into paper, fuel, oils, textiles, food, and rope. For centuries, it was essential to the economies of many countries because it was used to make the ropes and cables used on sailing ships; colonial expansion and the establishment of a world-wide trading network would not have been feasible without hemp. Nowadays, ships' cables are usually made from wire or synthetic fibres, but scientists are now suggesting that the cultivation of hemp should be revived for the production of paper and pulp. According to its proponents, four times as much paper can be produced 55

from land using hemp rather than trees, and many environmentalists believe that the large-scale cultivation of hemp could reduce the pressure on Canada's forests. However, there is a problem: hemp is illegal in many countries of the world. This plant, so useful for fibre, rope, oil, fuel and textiles, is a species of cannabis, related to the plant from which marijuana is produced. In the late 1930s, a movement to ban the drug marijuana began to gather force, resulting in the eventual banning of the cultivation not only of the plant used to produce the drug, but also of the commercial fibre-producing hemp plant. Although both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson grew hemp in large quantities on their own land, any American growing the plant today would soon find himself in prison -- despite the fact that marijuana cannot be produced from the hemp plant, since it contains almost no THC (the active ingredient in the drug). In recent years, two major movements for legalization have been gathering strength. One group of activists believes that ALL cannabis should be legal -- both the hemp plant and the marijuana plant -- and that the use of the drug marijuana should not be an offense. They argue that marijuana is not dangerous or addictive, and that it is used by large numbers of people who are not criminals but productive members of society. They also point out that marijuana is less toxic than alcohol or tobacco. The other legalization movement is concerned only with the hemp plant used to produce fibre; this group wants to make it legal to cultivate the plant and sell the fibre for paper and pulp production. This second group has had a major triumph recently: in 1997, Canada legalized the farming of hemp for fibre. For the first time since 1938, hundreds of farmers are planting this crop, and soon we can expect to see pulp and paper produced from this new source. What is the main idea in paragraph one? 1) 2) 3) 4) Scientists are worried about New York City Logging is destroying the rainforests Governments make money from logging Salmon are an endangered species

What is the main idea in paragraph two? 1) 2) 3) 4) Canadian forests are especially under threat Hemp is a kind of plant Canada is a major supplier of paper and pulp Canada produces a lot of hemp

What is the main idea in paragraph three? 1) 2) 3) 4) Paper could be made from hemp instead of trees Hemp is useful for fuel Hemp has been cultivated throughout history Hemp is essential for building large ships

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What is the main idea in paragraph four? 1) 2) 3) 4) Hemp is used to produce drugs Many famous people used to grow hemp It is illegal to grow hemp Hemp is useful for producing many things

What is the main idea in paragraph five? 1) 2) 3) 4) Hemp should be illegal because it is dangerous Recently, many people have been working to legalize hemp Hemp was made illegal in 1938 Marijuana is not a dangerous drug

Exercise 30 Following there are two short biographies of two personalities. Skim over them and answer the questions. (One minute). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What do they have in common? Where were they born? Were they contemporary? What were their main achievements? What was their average age?

Newton, Sir Isaac (16421727) was a physicist and mathematician, born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, EC England, UK. He studied at Cambridge. In 16656 the fall of an apple is said to have suggested the train of thought that led to the law of gravitation. He studied the nature of light, concluding that white light is a mixture of colours which can be separated by refraction, and devised the first reflecting telescope. He became professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1669, where he resumed his work on gravitation, expounded finally in his famous Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In 1696 he was appointed warden of the Mint, and was master of the Mint from 1699 until his death. He also sat in parliament on two occasions, was elected President of the Royal Society in 1703, and was knighted in 1705. During his life he was involved in many controversies, notably with Leibniz over the question of priority in the discovery of calculus. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (16461716) was a philosopher and mathematician, born in Leipzig, Germany. He studied there and at Altdorf, spent time in Paris and London, and in 1676 became librarian to the Duke of Brunswick at Hanover. He also travelled in Austria and Italy, and went in 1700 to persuade Frederick I of Prussia to found the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, of which he became the first president. A man of remarkable breadth of knowledge, he made original contributions to optics, mechanics, statistics, logic, and probability theory. He conceived the idea of calculating machines, and of a universal language. He wrote on history, law, and political theory, and his philosophy was the foundation of 18th-c Rationalism. He was involved in a

57

controversy with Isaac Newton over whether he or Newton was the inventor of integral and differential calculus; the Royal Society formally declared for Newton in 1711, but the matter was never really resolved. Unpopular with George of Hanover, he was left behind in 1714 when the Elector moved his court to London (as George I). He died in Hanover two years later, without real recognition and with almost all his work unpublished. Probably his greatest influence (eg on Bertrand Russell) was as a mathematician and a pioneer of modern symbolic logic. SCANNING What is scanning? Scanning is a very high-speed reading technique. It is useful when you read through or examine something quickly. When you scan you do not read every word, only the words that answer your question. Exercise 31 In the following reading mention the two hypotheses about zoogeography; in your dictionary look for the word vicariance. Zoogeography is the study of the past and present geographical distribution of animals and animal communities. Hypotheses which explain these distribution patterns include dispersal (by migration or accidental transport) and separation by vicariance events (the formation of natural barriers to the spread of animals, especially by geological forces such as the spreading of the plates of the Earths crust).

Exercise 32 In the following exercise, you will scan a page of TV Guide. Read each question. Then scan the listings to locate the information. You must work quickly (3 minutes or less)!

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59

1. Which channel shows a movie starring John Cusack? 2. What hours are included in the listing? 3. How many movies are given three stars? 4. What time can we watch car races? 5. How many news programs are shown from 6:00 a.m. to11:30 a.m.? 6. What is the title of the movie to be shown on Cinemax at 7:00 a.m.? 7. How many channels have numbers? Names? 8. What is the title of the oldest movie to be shown? 9. Which channels show more movies? Write the names. 10. What channels have English language programs? Exercise 33 In the following exercise, you will scan the periodic table. Read each question. Then scan the table to locate the right information. Work as quickly as you can (three minutes or less)! 1. What kind of information is given in the table? 2. What is the symbol for Cadmium? 3. What is the atomic number for Ga? 4. Which has a higher atomic weight, Nb or Tc? 5. What is the atomic weight of Berkelium? 6. Which has a higher atomic number, Fermium or Mendelevium? 7. What is the symbol for Neptunium? 8. Which has a higher atomic weight, Lanthanum or Lawrencium? 9. Which element has the highest atomic weight? 10. Find and element which was probably named for a scientist.

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Exercise 34 Following you have a series of selected readings in order to practice all the reading techniques studied in class. History of pharmacy The beginnings of pharmacy are ancient. When the first person expressed juice from a succulent leaf to apply to a wound, this art was being practiced. In the Greek legend, Asclepius, the god of the healing art, delegated to Hygieia the duty of compounding his remedies. She was his apothecary or pharmacist. The physicianpriests of Egypt were divided into two classes: those who visited the sick and those who remained in the temple and prepared remedies for the patients. In ancient Greece and Rome and during the middle Ages in Europe, the art of healing recognized a separation between the duties of the physician and those of the herbalist, who supplied the physician with the raw materials from which to make medicines. The Arabian influence in Europe during the 8th century AD, however, brought about the practice of separate duties for the pharmacist and physician. The trend toward specialization was later reinforced by a law enacted by the city council of Bruges in 1683, forbidding physicians to prepare medications for their patients. In America, Benjamin Franklin took a pivotal step in keeping the two professions separate when he appointed an apothecary to the Pennsylvania Hospital. The development of the pharmaceutical industry since World War II led to the discovery and use of new and effective drug substances. It also changed the role of the pharmacist. The scope for extemporaneous compounding of medicines was much diminished and with it the need for the manipulative skills that were previously applied by the pharmacist to the preparation of bougies, cachets, pills, plasters, and potions. The pharmacist continues, however, to fulfill the prescriber's intentions by providing advice and information; by formulating, storing, and providing correct dosage forms; and by assuring the efficacy and quality of the dispensed or supplied medicinal product. Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines from natural sources. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources. The word "Pharmacognosy" derives from the Greek words pharmakon (drug), and gnosis or knowledge. The term was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811. Originally - during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century - pharmacognosy was used to define the branch of medicine or of commodity sciences ("Warenkunde" in German), which dealt with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form. A "crude drug" means a dried unprepared natural material of plant, animal or mineral origin, which is used for medicine. The term drug derives from the Lower Saxon/Dutch "Droog", which means "dried" as in dried herbs (and has little to do with the modern pharmaceutical meaning of the term).The term "Pharmakognosie" and its discipline developed in

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German speaking areas of Europe - where it is a synonym of "Drogenkunde" ("science of the crude drugs").

Stem cell Stem cells are primal cells found in all multi-cellular organisms that retain the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. Research in the human stem cell field grew out of findings by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till in the 1960s. The three broad categories of mammalian stem cells are: embryonic stem cells, derived from blastocysts, adult stem cells, which are found in adult tissues, and cord blood stem cells, which are found in the umbilical cord. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing specialized cells. As stem cells can be readily grown and transformed into specialised cells with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture, their use in medical therapies has been proposed. In particular, embryonic cell lines, autologous embryonic stem cells generated through therapeutic cloning, and highly plastic adult stem cells from the umbilical cord blood or bone marrow are touted as promising candidates.

Pedanius Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides was an ancient Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist who practised in Rome at the times of Nero. He had the opportunity to travel extensively seeking medicinal substances from all over the Roman and Greek world. Dioscorides is famous for writing a five volume book De Materia Medica that is a precursor to all modern pharmacopeias, and is one of the most influential herbal books in history. In fact it remained in use until about CE 1600. Unlike many classical authors, his works were not "rediscovered" in the Renaissance, because his book never left circulation. The Materia Medica was often reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, often with commentary on Dioscorides' work and with minor additions from Arabic and Indian sources, though there were some advancements in herbal science among the Arabic additions. The Materia Medica is important not just for the history of herbal science; it also gives us knowledge of the herbs and remedies used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the Dacian and Thracian names for some plants, which otherwise would have been lost. The work presents about 500 plants in all, although the descriptions are obscurely phrased, and as Duane Isely puts it "numerous individuals from the Middle Ages on have struggled with the identity of the recondite kinds", and characterizes most of the identifications of Gunther et al as "educated guesses". Maya civilization The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. Initially established during the Preclassic period, many of these reached their apogee of development during the Classic period (c. 250 to 900), and continued throughout the Postclassical period until the arrival of the Spanish. At

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its peak, it was one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies in the world. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected as far as central Mexico, more than 1000 km (625 miles) from the Maya area. Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to result from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest. The Maya peoples never disappeared, neither at the time of the Classic period decline nor with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores and the subsequent Spanish colonization of the Americas. Today, the Maya and their descendants form sizable populations throughout the Maya area and maintain a distinctive set of traditions and beliefs that are the result of the merger of preColumbian and post-Conquest ideologies (and structured by the almost total adoption of Roman Catholicism). Many different Mayan languages continue to be spoken as primary languages today; the Rabinal Ach, a play written in the Q'eqchi' language, was declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2005.

Maya health and medicine Medicine among the ancient Mayas was a blend of religion and science. It was practiced by priests who inherited their position and received extensive education. The Mayas sutured wounds with human hair, reduced fractures, and used casts. They were skillful dental surgeons and made prostheses from jade and turquoise and filled teeth with iron pyrite. They described three clinical diseases: pinta, leishmaniasis, and yellow fever, and several psychiatric syndromes. According to the skeletal evidence, the first technique to be employed in skull opening was abrasion, which was combined later with drilling and cutting. Evidence for practices relating to health and medicine in the Maya civilization include several ways to heal the body.

Medicinal plants Medicinal plants, herbs, spices and herbal remedies are known to Ayurveda in India since long times. The value of medicinal plants, herbs and spices as herbal remedy is being lost due to lack of awareness, and deforestation. The result is many valuable medicinal herbs are becoming rare. Less pollution we make, more ecological balance we maintain, will add to happiness of humankind. Preserve the knowledge of medicinal plants, herbs, spices and herbal remedies, which humankind has received from the past generations, for posterity. History of herbal remedy is very old. Since old times before modern medicine, people became ill and suffered from various ailments. In absent of modern medicinal remedies people relied on herbal remedies derived from herbs and spices. There are many medicinal herbs and spices which find place in day to day uses, many of these are used as herbal remedies. Many cooked foods contain spices. Some minor ailments like common cold, cough, etc. may be cured by herbal remedies with use of medicinal properties of spices. Herbal remedies can be taken in many forms.

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Infusions are steeping herbs or spices, with parts like leaves and flowers with boiling water for some time. Filtered or unfiltered use this water extracts of spices as herbal remedies. Decoction is boiling roots, bark and hard parts of herbs and spices with water for a long time. Both infusion and decoction are known as herbal teas. Sometimes essential oil of herbs and spices are also used as herbal remedies. Action of herbal remedies may vary from human to human and care should be observed in using it. Always inform your healthcare professional while taking any of the herbal remedies or consuming large quantity of medicinal herbs or spices as medicinal product. Joseph Lister Joseph Lister is alongside the likes Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Alexander Fleming and Edward Jenner in the work he did to further medical knowledge. Joseph Lister did not discover a new drug but he did make the like between lack of cleanliness in hospitals and deaths after operations. For this reason, he is known as the Father of Antiseptic Surgery. Lister was born in 1827 and died in 1912. As Professor of Surgery at Glasgow University, he was very aware that many people survived the trauma of an operation but died afterwards of what was known as ward fever. Work on ward cleanliness and the link between germs and good post-operative health had already been studied by a Hungarian doctor called Ignaz Semmelweiss. He argued that if a doctor went from one patient to another after doing surgery, that doctor would pass on to the next visited patient a potentially life threatening disease. He insisted that those doctors who worked for him wash their hands in calcium chloride after an operation and before visiting a new patient. Deaths on the wards Semmelweiss was in charge of fell from 12% to just 1%. But despite this, he came up against the conservatism of those who dominated Hungarian medicine and his findings were ignored. Semmelweiss died in 1865 of blood poisoning. In 1865, Lister read about the work done by Louis Pasteur on how wine was soured. Lister believed that it was microbes carried in the air that caused diseases to be spread in wards. People who had been operated on were especially vulnerable as their bodies were weak and their skin had been cut open so that germs could get into the body with more ease. Lister decided that the wound itself had to be thoroughly cleaned. He then covered the wound with a piece of lint covered in carbolic acid. He used this treatment on patients who had a compound fracture. This is where the broken bone had penetrated the skin thus leaving a wound that was open to germs. Death by gangrene was common after such an accident. Lister covered the wound made with lint soaked in carbolic acid. His success rate for survival was very high. Lister then developed his idea further by devising a machine that pumped out a fine mist of carbolic acid into the air around an operation. The number of patients operated on by Lister who died fell dramatically. Hippocrates Hippocrates made such an impression on medical history that his name is still very much associated with medicine today. All newly qualified doctors take what is called the Hippocratic Oath and some see Hippocrates as the father of modern medicine even though he did most of his work some 430 years before the birth of Christ. Greek doctors had started to look at the issue of poor health and disease by using a process of reasoning and observation. The most famous of these was

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Hippocrates. He is thought to have been born in Cos in 460 BC. In fact, we know very little about Hippocrates as a person but his fame was such that Plato and Aristotle wrote about him. While Hippocrates has found fame in medical history, there were other Ancient Greek doctors who were not so lucky. Ancient Greek medical knowledge is demonstrated in what is known as the Hippocratic Collection. This is a collection of sixty medical books of which Hippocrates wrote just some. We do not know who wrote most of them but they cover a time span of 150 years so they could not have all been written by Hippocrates. Hippocrates and other Greek doctors believed that the work done by a doctor should be kept separate from the work done by a priest. They believed that observation of a patient was a vital aspect of medical care. Ancient Greek doctors did examine their patients but Hippocrates wanted a more systematic period of observation and the recording of what was observed. Today, we would call this clinical observation. Such ideas have lead to Hippocrates being called the Father of Medicine. Albert Benjamin Prescott Dr. Albert Benjamin Prescott (1832-1905), professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the University of Michigan, was born at Hastings, New York, December 12, 1832; son of Benjamin and Experience Huntley Prescott, whose ancestor emigrated from England to Massachusetts in 1640. This ancestor, James Prescott, was of the fourth generation from James Prescott, who for bravery was made Lord of the Manor of Derby in 1564 by Queen Elizabeth. When nine years old, Albert B. Prescott suffered a severe injury to his right knee which entailed long suffering and permanent disability. Albert B. Prescott was a maverick in the late 1800s because of his advocacy for an academic basis for pharmaceutical education. Founder and Dean of the College of Pharmacy at the University of Michigan, Prescott nurtured his idea for nearly 25 years before the rest of the profession caught up with his idea. This chemist, educator, and leader of pharmacists was instrumental in the founding of Phi Delta Chi at the University of Michigan in 1883, and he was the advisor to the Alpha Chapter and the first honorary brother of the Fraternity. When Dr. Albert B. Prescott launched the pharmacy course at the University of Michigan in 1868, critical attention was aroused because he abandoned the traditional requirement of pregraduation apprenticeship. At the 1871 convention of the American Pharmaceutical Association, he was denied credentials and ostracized. However, the Michigan course pioneered other major changes: laboratory pharmacy, a definite curriculum that included basic sciences, and a program that demanded students' full-time attention. During the next thirty years, Dr. Prescott had the satisfaction of seeing his once revolutionary innovations generally adopted by pharmaceutical schools. A pharmacist A pharmacist is a professional who dispenses drugs prescribed by doctors and health practitioners, and gives information to patients about medicines. Additionally, pharmacists advise physicians on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of drugs. Pharmacists understand the use, composition, and effects of drugs. In a hospital or clinic, they may also make sterile solutions and help doctors and nurses plan and monitor drug regimens. In home health-care settings, they monitor drug therapies and prepare infusions, or

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solutions that are injected into patients. Many pharmacists specialize in specific drug therapy areas, such as psychiatric disorders or intravenous nutrition. In studies a pharmacist must have a solid grounding in mathematics. Some of the math is basic and includes fractions, decimals, and percentages. Pharmacists have to understand the metric system and convert measurements such as ounces into their metric equivalents. To read and understand pharmacological research studies, they also must have a working knowledge of algebra, calculus, and especially statistics. Statistics is a crucial discipline for pharmacists; to measure the effectiveness of drugs, researchers and drug companies use statistical concepts such as population samples, significance levels, statistical errors, statistical power, and mean, standard deviation, and variance. For example, a pharmacist needs to be able to interpret a statement such as this: "The difference in outcomes between drug X and drug Y was significant with p 0.05." This means that the probability of observing this difference in outcomes would be less than 5 percent if X were no better than Y. Astronomy Astronomy is the science of celestial objects: stars, planets, comets, and galaxies and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere, among them, auroras and cosmic background radiation. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods. Since the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational astronomy and theoretical astrophysics. Observational astronomy is concerned with acquiring data, which involves building and maintaining instruments, as well as processing the results. Theoretical astrophysics is focused upon ascertaining the observational implications of computer or analytic models. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astrophysics seeking to explain the observational results. Astronomical observations can be used to test fundamental theories in physics, such as general relativity. Historically, amateur astronomers have contributed too in many important astronomical discoveries, and astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena. Modern astronomy is not to be confused with astrology, the belief system that claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects.

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