Int. J. Mech, Sci. Vol.21, pp.

339-353

PergamonPress Ltd,, 1979. Printedin Great Britain

INTENSITY, SLOPE AND CURVATURE DISCONTINUITIES IN LOADING DISTRIBUTIONS AT THE CONTACT OF TWO PLANE BODIES P. S. THEOCARISand C. I. RAZEM
Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, The National Technical University, Athens (625), Greece
(Received 27 July 1978; in revised form 30 December 1978)

Summary--The optical method of caustics was used for the evaluation of intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities of the most general load distribution along a straight boundary in a semi-infinite plane simulating the elastic contact of two bodies under conditions of generalized plane stress. The load distribution was assumed as composed of normal as well as tangential loads. A simple procedure based on the geometric properties of caustics formed at the vicinity of such discontinuities in loading was developed, which yielded all the necessary information for the evaluation of such discontinuities. Interesting properties related to the shape, position and orientation of the caustics were established. Thus, a simple experimental procedure was developed for measuring the influence of friction along the contact area of two bodies.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

While much effort has been expended in studying theoretically the contact problem of two elastic bodies, there appears to be a relatively small amount of papers related with the experimental verification of the theory of contact. The difficulties arise from the fact that the length of contact is generally small in comparison with the dimensions of the two bodies. Due to this fact, in the close vicinity of the contact area, a high gradient of the stress field appears producing dense Moir6 patterns or isochromatic fringes when the problem is attacked by these experimental methods. The first significant work for the study of the elastic contact of two bodies was made by Hertz[l]. In this paper the form and the dimensions of the contact area were determined by a practical method which was partially verified by the theory developed. Some years later, Dinnik[2] subjected the Hertz solution to a comprehensive theoretical and experimental scrutiny. Dinnik's experimental verification of the Hertz theory was of a special importance, since he had shown its general validity. It was also found that the Hertz theory is applicable only in a restrained number of practical applications. Further studies on the contact problem, theoretical and experimental, which became classical, are included in a review contained in a paper by one of the authors[3]. Here we present some further investigations of the Hertz theory and its applications, carried out by various approaches. As regards the distribution of pressure and displacement between the two bodies in contact, an experimental verification of the internal contact between circular cylinders, has been made by Romalis and Tomin[4]. They have shown that the values for the radial displacements along the contact boundary lie close to the corresponding theoretical curve, and deviations between these curves are appreciable only for the case of very small displacements. The pressure distribution in the contact zone of two cylinders, which are hydrodynamically lubricated, was measured by photoelasticity[5]. Haines and Ollerton[17] in an interesting paper introduced an approximate theoretical solution and they run a series of experiments using photoelastic frozen stress and relative creep techniques in order to determine the distribution of shear stress on a flat contact area, which has an elliptical boundary, as defined by Hertz's theory.
339

340

P.S.

THEOCARIS a n d C. I. RAZEM

Special attention has been given to forces tangent to the contact surface that is to frictional forces also by Galin [6], Bowden and Tabor [7], Spence [8] and especially by Kalker[16]. Francavilla and Zienkiewicz[9] gave a simple numerical procedure to solve contact problems by the finite-element method. The examples contained in Ref. [9] indicate the drawbacks in extending Hertz's theory to real situations, which frequently occur in problems of machine design. From this brief review it can be concluded that an effective experimental method for determining the load distribution along the contact zone of two arbitrary bodies is needed. The authors have already presented the method of pseudocaustics[10] which proved to be very suitable for evaluating the pressure and shear distribution along the contact zone outside singularities. In this paper the above method is complemented with an exhaustive study of the properties of the caustics created by intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities of the load distribution along the contact area. As it is well known, in the contact problems, the above types of discontinuities appear at the extremities of load distribution at the contact area of two bodies. Usually, the size of the area of contact is small in comparison with the radius of curvature of the bodies in contact. Therefore, it is supposed[6, 11] that one of the bodies can be replaced by an elastic semi-infinite plane. Based on this assumption the theory developed in the present paper extends and complements the previous method[10] and yields all the necessary informations for the complete evaluation of the state of forces along the contact area of two bodies.
2. T H E HALF-PLANE UNDER LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS VARIOUS

Consider a half plane of an elastic homogeneous and isotropic material under conditions of generalized plane stress subjected to an arbitrary distribution of inplane loads along its straight boundary (Fig. 1). The plane is loaded along its boundary A B ( - a < t < a) by the distribution:
P(t) = T(t) + iN(t)
(!)

which presents at least one discontinuity up to nth degree at some point t = c, so that it is valid that:
A P (n) = P(n)(c - O) - P(~}(c + O) # 0 (2)

where P ( c -+0) represents the limiting values of load P ( t ) as t --* c from the right or the left respectively. In relation (1) N ( t ) a n d T ( t ) represent the normal and tangential components of the load. A generic point M ( x , y) (Fig. 1) at distances r, rA, rs and rc from points 0, A, B a n d C respectively is in a state of stress defined by the function (1)(z) of the complex variable z = (x + iy) given by [ 1 I]:
J-s t - z (3)

with
f(t)
=

N ( t ) + iT(t)

where the positive sign for N ( t ) and T(t) is shown in Fig. I. If a monochromatic and coherent light beam, emitted from a laser, impinges on the lateral faces near the loaded area of a semi-infinite plate made of a Y
b=a

~-~ o / ,A
t~x

T ( t ~

'Y,

FIG. 1. Geometry of semi-infinite plate under an arbitrarily distributed loading along a part of

its straight boundary and the related reference system.

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

341

transparent and optically-isotropic material (such as plexiglas), it is partially reflected from the front and rear faces of the plate. The reflected-light rays form on a screen placed at some distance D, from the specimen at least a pseudocaustic and two caustics at its extremities from either reflexion[10]. The equations of the caustics are given by[12]: W = Amz+ 4CO'(z)
4lc"(z)l = x.

(4)

is)
"x

with

C = C, = -D,c,d (for the reflected light rays from |

the rear face)

C = Cr = - D , cld (for the reflected light rays from

the front face)

(6)

An. = DJ(D, + D,).

In relations (5) and (6), d is the thickness of the specimen and the optical constants c,, c! depend on Neumann's optical constants, the refractive index of the material when unloaded, and its elastic constants E and v[12]. Furthermore, the quantity Am is the magnification factor of the optical system, where D~ is the distance between the focus of the light beam and the specimen[12]. In order to study the influence of the particular distribution of load and of its discontinuities on the caustics, we express the stress function O(z) as a function of the jumps of the load and of its derivatives up to the 2th order, as:

rb(z)=2+~{ft(c)lnZz-+cb+f~(c)[(b+c)+(z-c)lnZz--+Cb] f'[(c) ['(z - c) 2 - (z + b) 2 ~_2(z_c)(c+b)+(z_c)21 n ~ - c ] --~[ 2 z J

in z - a ]

(7)
with

f[")( c ) = N(")( c - O) + iT(")( c - O) /,')(c) = N("~(c + O)+ iT')(c + O)

in = 0, 1,2)

(8)

where f ~ ( c ) is the value of the nth derivative of the function fit) for t = c, and P)(c)= f(c) and the indices l and r indicate approaching the singular point t = c for the function O(z) and/or its derivatives either from the left or from the right. If we put: Af~') = f[')(c) -f,(')(c) = AN (') + iAT c-) (n = 0, 1, 2) (9)

then the asymptotic behaviour of the stress function and its derivatives near the point t = c, may be expressed as [13]:

(b(z) = ~ / [ A f

In (z - c)] + ~0(z)

(Io) Ol) (12)

~P'(z) = 2+l [Af z--l--c+ hf' ln (z - c ) ] + dP,(z) cb"(z)=2+l [ - A f (z l--I~c)c)c) Af'z l~c+ Af"in ( z - c ) J +~P2(z) +

where (I)0(z), O~(z), O2(z) are analytic functions bounded near the point z = c. It is well established[14] that a singular behaviour of the stress field (rx,~ry,0%) occurs generally in the case when the shear component T(t) of the loading acting along the boundary presents some discontinuity. On the other hand, the stress-function O(z) and its derivatives present an asymptotic behaviour near a generic point t = c on the boundary if either a jump Af of the load, or of its derivatives, takes place at this point. It can be readily derived from relations (10) to (12) that the strongest singularity is created by a jump in the load Af and further that: (a) A jump Af" in the second derivative of the load creates a logarithmic singularity only in the second derivative (l,"(z) of the stress function. (b) A jump Af' in the first derivative of the load creates a singularity of order ( - I ) in the second derivative, and a logarithmic singularity in the first derivative of the stress function O(z). (c) A jump Af in the intensity of load creates a singularity of order ( - 2) in the second derivative O"(z), a singularity of order ( - 1) in the first derivative O'(z), and a logarithmic singularity in the stress-function (I,(z) itself. The above rules indicate that as the jumps are progressing from the function Af to its first and second derivatives the strength of the singularities is reduced by one degree. In our investigation we are limited to the study of the asymptotic behaviour of the complex function

342

P . S . THEOCARIS and C. I. RAZEM

O(z) and its derivatives up to the second order since, as it can be readily derived from relations (4) and (5) the expressions for the caustics and their initial curves depend only on these orders of derivatives which, in turn, depend on the respective jumps in the load intensity (Af) in the jumps in their tangent (A/'), as well as in the jumps of their curvatures (A/'3. It is important to note that as z ~ c. the influence of Af" In ( t - c) on the initial curve of the caustic (relation 12) is negligible in comparison with A f ' l ( z - c) and A f / ( z - c) 2. By a convenient choice of the experimental arrangement, as it will be shown in the numerical and experimental results, it is possible to neglect the A f " In (z - c), if Af and A f ' appear. Similarly for the case of the caustic itself (relation 1 I) the influence of Af' In (z - c) may be considered as negligible when compared to the influence of the other term A f l ( z - c). Now, returning to relations (4) and (5), and making use of equations (1 I) and (12), the equations of the caustic and its initial curve may be written as:
W ~ = X ~ + i Y ~ : rc e ic + g

Ic*l
rc

e,./2-O+Oc, + giC*[ e"=l:-~)(In rc _ iOc) ! \ r8

c o s ( ~ - v - oc) - r 4 = 0

(13) (14)

IC*l ~ + rc21c*l 2 - 2rclC*llcTI

where

ra2 = rc2 + (a + c) 2 + 2(a + c)rc cos Oc

(15)

sin Oa = rc sin Oc.

ra

In these relations the various symbols denote the following quantities:

C* = C~ + iC'~ = 2CAf = ~-~-(AN + i A T ) = IC*J e ia

rrA,n

(16a)

tanl3

C~
cI~

AT
arc'

~r<fl
~-

7r2_

2CAf' 2C . . . . . C'~ = C*.R + i C * , = ~rX. = - ~ ( a N

+ i A T ' ) = Ic*l e '~

(16b)

C'1
t a f t Y = ~--'*- -

AT'
AN,"

~r
2
~<7

7r
~<2"

Ci,r

and
x ~ = ( x - c)lXm Y~= YclA.

- Tr ~ Oc ~ O

(17)

where
g = sign C = ! (17a)

corresponds to reflected-light rays from the rear and the front face of the specimen, respectively. It can be derived from the above relations that the geometry of the caustic and of its initial curve, is closely related to the jumps in the load Af = AN + i A T and in its slope Af' = A N ' + i A T ' . For the determination of the components of the load jump and its slope AN, AN', AT, AT', from the above-mentioned equations, the coordinates of two characteristic points of the caustics will be used. As such points the points M and N were selected (Fig. 2), determined by the system of equations (13) and (14), for Oc = 0 and for Oc = - ~, respectively. We have for these points that: Y M

~X

%)

Initial curve (I) o Caustic (C)

+

FIG. 2. Geometry of the caustic at points of discontinuities for an arbitrarily distributed load applied along a part of a straight boundary.

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities

in loading distributions

343

(18)

(19)

+ANln(-)+ATr AT r,(- ?r)

(20)

(21)

where X&, Y&, Xt Y% are the coordinates corresponding to the coordinate system Oxy, where the origin 0 is coinciding with the jump point C without loss of generality and r&O) or rc(- a) represent the values of rc for gc = 0 or & = - P respectively (Fig. 2). In passing from relations (13) and (14) to relations (18) to (21) we have approximated the quantities In [rJO)/(a + c + r&O))] and In [rJ- w)/(a + c - rc(- rr))] by the quantities In [rc(O)/(a + c)] and In [rc(- ~)/(a + c)] respectively. This is justified by the fact that the value of rc is negligible in comparison with the length (a + c) (Fig. 1). From the system of linear equations (18) and (20) the unknown quantities AN, AN, AT and AT can be expressed as functions of r=(O) and rc(- a), and after their introduction in relations (19) and (21) we can obtain the values r&O) and rc(- P) from the system of the resulting two non-linear equations. The values of AN, AN, AT, AT can be derived now from the system of the linear equations (18) and (20). 3. PARTICULAR CASES The numerical solution of the above-mentioned system of the equations (18H21) may be simplified for the particular cases of complex stress functions a(z) where either only a jump in the load intensity (Af = 0) is assumed, or a jump in its derivative (Af = 0). We shall consider these cases separately since they present a particular interest. 3. I
Caustics created at points of discontinuities of the bad-intensity

The purpose of this paragraph is to examine the geometry of the caustics for the case when Af' 0. = Before proceeding with the analysis of the geometry of the caustic at the point t = c, where Af' 0,it is = convenient to rewrite equations (13) and (14) taking into account equations (16), in the following form:
WY. = rc eiac + g
c

lc*l ei(n/2-B+dc)

rc= Jc*p = (~)"2[t~~~z (AT)']"'. +

Relation (23) indicates that the initial curve is a circle having a radius proportional to the square root of the absolute value of the loading discontinuity, Af. Both discontinuities in the intensity of the normal load AN and of the tangential load AT,have the same order of influence on the initial curve (relation 23), but a different influence on the geometry of the caustic itself (relation 22). From relations (22) and (23) it can be derived that: WE = rc ,iSC[1+ g ei(d*-L3q

(24

which proves that in the case of pure shear loading (r3 = ?r/2, AN = 0) one caustic surrounding the point C (Fig. 1) is generated by the light rays reflected from the rear face of the specimen (g = I) so that it is valid that:
WF = 2rc e= (25)

and no caustic is generated from the front face (g = - I and W* = 0). Since in relation (24) we have neglected the function @i(z) in the exact expression of the @(z) (relation I l), an error occurs in the expression of the caustic (relation 24) formed at the discontinuity point of the load-intensity. An estimation of this error is possible by using the exact expression for 0(z), which is determined from equation (7). Then, the equations of the corresponding caustic take the form:

where re. Sa (Fig. 1) are determined by the equations (IS). According to relations (26) and (24) the neglected quantity is given by:
wz = _ g

ei(r/2-B+4sl

(27)

344

P . S . THEOCARIS and C. I. RAZEM

which represents a caustic of negligible dimensions, coinciding with the image of the point C on the screen (Fig. 2). Also, for the pure shear loading (/3 = _+r/2) we can readily s h o w that the caustic h a s its e x t r e m e points M and N (Fig. 2) on the corresponding image of the n o n d e f o r m e d b o u n d a r y on the screen. For this purpose we introduce in the exact relations (26), the v a l u e s / 3 = +- ~r/2 and Oc = 0 or Oc = - w and we get: Im W~ = Y~- =- 0. (28)

Following the approximate relations (24) and (23) (or (18)-(21)) the determination of the loading discontinuity A / = IAII e ~ is also possible by the relations: g cos/3
I + g sin-------~ tan a =

(29) (30) (31)

D = [MN] = 2~/2rc(I + g sin/3),/2

A" -

~r)tsD2

I - i61cl(i ~ g sin/3)

where D is a diameter M N of the caustic (Fig. 2) and a is its angle with the image of the n o n d e f o r m e d boundary. It can be derived from relation (29) that the loci of the extremities M and N (Fig. 2) of the caustic formed at point C -= O where AT = 0 (/3 = 0), is a straight line making an angle a = -+45 with the image of the n o n d e f o r m e d boundary, and passing through the image of this point. In the last two cases, that is w h e n / 3 = 0 o r / 3 = -+ r/2, the corresponding j u m p s in the intensity of the normal or tangential loads respectively m a y be determined by the simple approximate relation: [AN[ = rD: 16CA,, for/3 = 0 (32)

7rD 2 [AT[ = 32CA,,

for/3 = -+ ~r/2

(33)

where D the diameter of the corresponding caustic, and C, Am are determined by relation (6). Also, following relations (26) and (15) the coordinates of the points M and N (Fig. 2) are determined by:
W ~ = rc g A e "~t2-~ W ~ = - rc - g B e i(~12-0)

(34) (35)

where (Fig. 2)
A = ]MIM[ = r c ( I rc a + c + rc )

(36)

B = I N ' N I = r c ( I + a + c -c rc)" r

(37)

It can be concluded f r o m the geometric representation of W ~ and W~ (Fig. 2) that f o r / 3 = 0 (i.e. for a normal loading) the line M N does not pass through the image of point C and m a k e s an angle a =-+45 because A ~ B. T h u s an error, which d e p e n d s on the ratios r d ( a + c + rc) and rel(a + c - rc), occurs in the practical evaluation of the angle a and of the diameter D = IMNI. The errors ea and en are given by
~a = ( ( a - w14)lOr14) x I 0 0 = ~ a ( P )

eD = ( ( D - D45.)ID4s.) x I00 = ~:D(P)~

(38)

where D45. is given by the relation (30) for/3 = 0, and a and D are the exact values obtained from relations (34) + (37), as follows: tana g cos/3 I - p Z + g sin/3 / 2g .

)
1 | \m].

D = 2rc~l + ---:'-~ sm/3 + ~ ) 1 with

_ lC ,1/2 I _ rc

(39)

P-

a+c

a+c"

(40)

It should be noted that a normal value for p which is less than 0.1 gives f r o m relations (39) and (38) (for/3 = 0), the values o ~<0.7% and 6o ~<0.5%. 3.2 Caustics at points o f discontinuity o f the loading derivative The case of a j u m p A f ' = A N ' + i A T ' in the derivative of load can be treated with the aid of equations (13)-(17) or (18)-(21), by putting in relations (13) and (14) C* = 2CAll(wArn)= 0. If A f = A N + i A T = 0, then it is valid that:

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

345 (41)

W~= X ~ + iY~= rc e'eC+ glC*l e'('12-~'(ln a-~c - iOc)

and

r~ =

Ic*l

= ~(AN':

+ AT'2) '~.

(42)

We o b s e r v e from relation (42) that the initial c u r v e is a circle of radius re, which d e p e n d s in the s a m e w a y on the j u m p s in the derivative o f the normal (AN') and the tangential (AT') loading acting separately. Following a similar analysis as in the case of a discontinuity in the intensity of load, it can be derived from relation (41) and for Oc = 0 and Oc = - lr that the angle a and the diameter D = ]MNI (Fig. 2) of the caustic surrounding the discontinuity point of the first derivative of load are e x p r e s s e d by: tan a gcr sin y (43) (44)

2 + g~r cos y

D = [MN[ = rc[(2 + gcr cos y)2 + g21r2 sin z y]u2.

T h u s , the j u m p Af', e x p r e s s e d by:

AI' = IM'I e"

(45)

can be obtained from relations (43), (44) and (42) by measuring the diameter D of the caustic and its angle a, with the direction of non-deformed boundary. In the particular cases of a discontinuity in the derivative of either the normal (y = 0) or the tangential (y =-+ ~r12) load, (relation 16b), the jump m a y be obtained from relations (44) and (42) by the following simple formulas:

IAN, I = .2 C (2 +o g~r) for y = 0, X.

(AT') = r;t~ D 2 C (4 + gZlr~)U2 for y = + 1r/2.

(46) (47)

It can be derived from equation (43) that in the last two c a s e s the caustic has as geometrical characteristic the values of angle a (Fig. 2) given by: a = 0 for 3' = 0 and g = + I and a = --+57.5 for y = -+It/2 and g = -+ I. (49) (48)

Therefore, in the case where y = 0 the caustic h a s its extreme points M a n d N (Fig. 2) on a line parallel to the image of the n o n d e f o r m e d boundary and for y = -+ ~r/2, the diameter of the caustic m a k e s an angle a = ---57.5 with the above m e n t i o n e d image. It should be noted that for a pure tangential loading, i.e. for fl = -+ r/2 and y = -+ d2, it can be derived from relation (13) that the coordinate YN of point N (Oc = - T r ) of the caustic is proportional to the discontinuity in the first derivative o f this loading, and it does not depend on the intensity of loading itself at the discontinuity since it is valid that: Y~ = ~'g,[CTI = ~-CCg,IAT'I

(50)

where gm= g sign y, and y = -+~r12. W h e n a pure tangential loading is acting on the boundary of the half-plane and presents a discontinuity of order two (n = 0, I, relation 9), then the value of the discontinuity AT' in the first derivative of this loading m a y be determined by a simple formula which results from equation (50). All the above, properties of the geometrical shape of caustics were deduced under the assumption that for eO'(z)the non-singular terms Ore(z),relation (I I) were neglected and therefore an error is introduced by this a s s u m p t i o n in the evaluation of A N ' and AT'. To estimate this error the e x a c t f o r m u l a (7) will be used for the determination of O'(z), and then the coordinates of points M and N (Fig. 2) can be derived as: W~=X~+iY~=rc(O)+[C*[ _,,/2-,~ rc(O)_ rc(O)'~ c ( m r--~ + I - ra(0)j for Pc = 0
rB(O) = a + c +

(51)

re(O)

rc(O)[a + c + re(0)] 2 = 4fC*la 2

W ~ = X ~ + iY~ = - rc(- ~r)+ IC~[ e''12-v)(In rc(- It). I + ilr+ rc:- ~
for ~c = - ,/r

(52)

346

P . S . THEOCARIS and C. I. RAZEM

r n ( - Ir) = a + c - r c ( - Cr) r c ( - 7r)[a + c - r c ( - 7)12 = 4iC*la:.

Relations (52).give the exact values for YN in the case of pure shear loading, i.e. /3 = 3' = -+ ir]2. This value of YN coincides with the one obtained from the approximate relation (50). In the process of calculating the value of the Af' = IAf'] e i~ by employing relations (43) and (44) instead of (51) and (52), the errors ea and co, which are analogous to e= and eo given by relations (38) and (40), are introduced. These errors can be easily evaluated for 3' = + lr/2 (or 3' = 0). In the diagram of Fig. 3, the variation of ~ , eD is represented as a function of p = rcl(a + c), for 3' = +-w/2, (tangential distributed loading) at the extreme point c = + a. 4. CAUSTICS AT A DISCONTINUITY POINT IN A HIGHERORDER DERIVATIVE O F A DISTRIBUTED LOAD It has already been shown in Section 2, that a jump in the second derivative A[" of the loading distribution acting on the boundary, produces a logarithmic singularity only in the second derivative ~"(z) of the stress function ~(z), and no singularity is produced in the first derivative ~'(z) or in the stress function itself. A general theoretical analysis of the caustic created by a discontinuity A/" is difficult, because in the equation of the caustic the function ~'(z) (relation 4) contains terms of the same order of magnitude, which cannot be separated as it was happened in the case of the existence of a singularity in Af or AI'. However, from relations (5) and (7) it may be derived for the point c = - a that: ~C(l)"(z) = 2 C ~ ; { - ~ + ~ -z - - ~+ cI .In-2 ) c - ~ ~/ c z

where, in an analogous way of defining the constants C* and C* (relations 16a, b), the constant C* is given by:
C* =

2CAf"
,;,rAm

which for the singular point z = c = -+a becomes: ~Ctb"(z) = C~ In (z - C). Putting (z - c) = r e Ie ( - r ~< Pc ~<0) we can readily find that:

~C d)"(z) I = IC*l In r.
Therefore the equation of the initial curve (relation 5) becomes (for r "~ I):

Ic*l In I
from which it may be concluded that

= l

r = exp (-

a/Ic*l).

This relation indicates that for r - , 0 and C*--,0 there exists an initial curve of the caustic at the point of discontinuity of the second derivative of the Af", which may be approximated by a circle around the point of discontinuity of A[". However, since A f ' = 0 and A[ = 0 and taking into consideration relation (4) expressing the caustic created by the above defined initial curve it can be readily indicated that the caustic must degenerate into a point. In order to prove the above results a series of computations were made under the abovementioned assumptions, in which the exact expression based on relation (7) have been used for (b(z) and its derivatives. These numerical calculations have shown that the caustics created by such initial curves

40%

~20 /,
O. 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
~r~/( a*c) =

FIG. 3. Variation of relative errors e=, eD between the exact value of angle a and dia. D (Fig. 2, relations 51 and 52) and their corresponding approximate values (relations 43 and 44) vs p, for a discontinuity in a slope of tangential distributed loading.

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

347

N3(t)

T,(t)

r-J Specimen I J Specimen J

Yl
A Screen

//

I
(a)

Screen
(b)

Fmo. 4. Loci of the extremities of caustics corresponding to various values of discontinuity in the intensities of normal (a) and tangential distributed loading (b). (AN~= A T e = 0, for all cases). degenerate always to a point which coincides with the image of the point t = c, on the pseudocaustic. It should be noted that in all the cases when a singularity produced by a jump in Af or Af' (relation 9) appears in the expression of O'(z), a caustic which separates the adjoining branches of the respective pseudocaustic, is always apparent. The condition governing the existence of a caustic at a point t = c of a distributed loading, is the existence of a discontinuity in the intensity and/or in the first derivative of the loading. A degenerated caustic at a point is produced by a discontinuity in the second derivative of the loading, and no caustic is produced by a higher-order discontinuity of this loading. 5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES A series of computations were undertaken to define the shape of the initial curves and the corresponding caustics for the cases when both discontinuities Af and Af' act simultaneously or separately at the point t = c on the boundary of the elastic half-plane. For the numerical computation it was taken C = 0-00019082 (for relation 6) which corresponds to a specimen of plexiglas situated at distance Ds = 60 cm from the reference-screen. In Figs. 5-9 a series of caustics noted by C and pseudocaustics[10] noted by P and their

I~ANkO)

t~

~--~"- ' o - ' ~ i

Ls.....
(a)
* Initial curve (I) {b)

o Caustic Pseudocaustic Tangential load Normal toad

(C) (P) (T) (N)

F~G. 5. Evolution of caustics for various values of discontinuities in the first derivative of the normal distributed loading.

348

P. S. THEOCARIS and C. I. RAZEM

'

I
p
i

I
Y P
'

\\>,

)~

tso,-o
(a)
|nitial curve o Caustic Pseudocaustic Tangentiat toad Normal load (I) (C) (P) (T) (N)

ts .....
(b)

FIG. 6. Evolution of caustics for various values of discontinuities in the first derivative of the

tangential distributed loading. initial curves noted by I, were plotted together with the type of distributed load applied on the boundary. It is well known[12], the initial curve (I) of the caustic is the generatrix curve of the caustic on the specimens which does not appear on the specimen or screen, while the caustic itself and the pseudocaustics are formed on the screen as bright continuous curves which separate the field of view on the screen in an illuminated part and a dark part as it can be seen in Figs. 10 and 11. Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) show the evolution of the shape and the dimensions of the caustics in the case of a discontinuity either in the intensity of the normal AN or of the tangential AT loading, respectively. For a discontinuity in the intensity of load the caustic has its diameter D = IMNI (Fig. 2) proportional to the square root of the load intensity IANI or [ATI (relations 32 and 33), as they can be seen in Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) respectively. Another geometrical characteristic of this caustic is the angle a subtended by the diameter connecting the extremities of the caustic and the image of the deformed boundary. This angle takes the values a = -+45 (Fig. 4a) or a = 0 (Fig. 4b) for a discontinuity in the intensity of the normal or of the tangential loading, respectively.

Specimen

I i "--< I [ 0.om.o

I I

A//w-L.
c I

(a} Initial curve (I)

(b)

"

o Caustic (C) Pseudocaustic (P) T a n g e n t i a l t o a d (T) Normat toad (N)

FIO. 7. (a) Shape of caustic generated at a discontinuity of the normal load when a normal and distributed tangential loading act simultaneously along a part of the boundary. (b) Shape of caustic generated by a discontinuity in the normal loading acting along the part of boundary.

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

349

T~O

I: [

" i
Specimen YA iI SPecimen ', D yJi Specimen ~ Y8 j

(a)
+ Initial curve o Caustic (1) (C)

(b)
6 Pseudocaustic (P) Tangential load (T)

(c)
Norma[ load (N)

FIG. 8. Geometry of caustics for three different values in discontinuities of slope of the distributed tangential loading AT' for a constant value in the intensity discontinuity AT at the same point. The shape and the dimensions of the caustics take a particular form in the case when a discontinuity only in the first derivative of load distribution Af' acts on the boundary. This particular form is characterized by the diameter D (relations 46 and 47) which is proportional to IAN'[ or [AT'[ and by the angle a, which takes the corresponding values a = 0 or a = -+57 (relations 48 and 49) as it is shown in Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) and 6(a) and 6(b) respectively. We can remark from relations (18)--(21) that the values of the angle a (a = 0 , -+45, -+57) and the length of the diameter D (Fig. 2) remain unchanged, if a continuously varying load P ( t ) = N ( t ) + i T ( t ) is superposed on the discontinuities A f = A N + t A T and/or Af' = A N ' + t A T ' which act on the boundary. This is illustrated by measuring the angle a and the diameter D in Fig. 7(a) where, with the exception of the discontinuities AN and AN' a tangential and a normal continuous load act simultaneously on the boundary, and in Fig. 7(b), where only the same discontinuities AN and AN' are operative. The small differences between the corresponding values of a and D in the two figures 7(a) and 7(b) are due to the fact that the caustic were drawn by using the exact expression for O(z) (relation 7), which differs from the approximate one (relation 13) by the neglected term ~ d z ) (relation 7). If a pure tangential load has a double discontinuity, in its intensity AT and in its first derivative AT', then the coordinate YN (Fig. 2) is proportional (relation 50) only to the discontinuity of the first derivative AT' and does not depend on the value of the discontinuity AT, as it is shown in Figs. 8(a)-(c). The discontinuity in the intensity AT is determined by the system of equations (18)-(21). Finally, Figs. 9(a)--(c) show a series of pseudocaustics obtained from a normal or tangential distributed load having only a second order discontinuity AN" or AT" at the point t = 0. We can remark that the caustic reduces to a point C which represents a discontinuity point in the curvature of the two adjacent parts of the pseudoeaustic P.
AT=AT" o ~ T T(t)

AN 1 ,Io "I" I I01 il

j

I
i. Sp~c,men J

Specimen

Spec,meo

il

iL S~een
(a) + initial, curve o Caustic Pseudocaustic
(1) (C) (P)

t! L screen
(b) Tangential load (T) Normal load (N)

!i [Scne,,n I
(c)

iI

FIG. 9. Pseudocaustic and caustic produced by a discontinuity in the second derivative of a distributed tangential (a) and normal loading (b, c).
MS Vol.21,No. 6-==C

350

P. S. THEOCARIS and C. I. RAZEM

6. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE For the experimental verification of the foregoing developed theory a series of experiments was undertaken. In order to simulate the elastic contact of two bodies under conditions of generalized plane stress, a distributed compressive loading was applied along the boundary of a half plane. The specimens used were prepared from thin plexiglas shells of a width of 150 mm and a depth of 100mm. Their thickness was of 3 ram. Special jigs were constructed for supporting the specimens eliminating any amount of lateral buckling. Furthermore, a specially designed loading frame was used, which was suitable to apply along the contact area any type of load distribution. This frame consisted of a series of parallel thin lamellas pivoted along a common axis parallel to the midplane of the specimen. The one extremity of each lamella could be displaced by an individual screw, while the other extremity was in contact with a thin transverse strip of the contact area of the specimen. The array of these contacting strips was forming the whole contact area of the specimen. Each lamella was equipped with a series of strain-gauges arranged in individual Wheatstone bridges, so that the applied bending moment to each lamella could be measured by a central measuring unit. In this way it was always possible by fixing the bending moment of each lamella to exert along the contact area of the compressed specimen any arbitrary loading distribution. A He-Ne gas-laser light beam, after passing through a suitable lens systeml4], was impinging on the specimen with the desired magnification ratio Am. The light rays reflected from either the front or the rear faces of the specimen were received on a reference screen at some distance Zo from the specimen. Fig. 10(a) shows the caustic formed by a discontinuity of order two in a normal, arbitrarily distributed load along a part of the boundary of the specimen. In this case at the point considered a discontinuity in intensity AN and in slope AN' of the normal load simultaneously appear. The experimentally obtained caustic in Fig. 10(a) corresponds to the type of loading of Fig. 7(a). In the same figure, the theoretically obtained caustic (curve C) is also represented. The coordinates of the extreme points of the caustic in Fig. 10(a) were used as input data in the system of equations (18)-(21) in order to determine the values AN and AN', under the assumption that AT and AT' vanished all over the contact area. The mean-square value of the errors evaluated between theory and experiment for various loading steps did not exceed 5% in all
cases.

Fig. 10(b) represents the caustic for a negative value of a slope discontinuity A N ' ~ 0 in the normal loading of a specimen corresponding to the theoretically traced caustic represented by curve C in Fig. 5(a). Fig. 10(c) presents the caustic for a positive value of a slope discontinuity AN' > 0 in the normal loading of a specimen corresponding to the theoretically traced caustic represented by curve PCP in Fig. 5(a). A superposition of the curve PCP of Fig. 5(a) on the experimentally obtained caustic given in Fig. 10(c) where the reproduction scale was kept 1.5 times larger than the theoretical case gives a coincidence between the respective curves. By comparing Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) or the corresponding experimentally obtained caustics of Figs. 10(c) and 10(b), we can remark that the caustic changes its form with the sign of the slope discontinuity of the normal loading AN' and its dimensions D, in terms with the value of this discontinuity. An analogous remark is valid for a discontinuity AT' in the slope of the tangentially distributed load, as it is shown in Figs. 6(a) and (b). It can be derived from all these examples treated experimentally that the caustics obtained yield through their shape and dimensions the nature of a loading discontinuity. Finally, Fig. l I represents an experimental caustic corresponding at a discontinuity in the intensity of a uniformly distributed pure shear load AT, as is theoretically represented by the curve PCP in Fig. 8(b). One can state in Fig. 11 that the extreme points of the caustic are situated on the line of undeformed boundary as it was already theoretically predicted.

7. CONCLUSIONS The optical method of caustics was successfully used for the evaluation of the intensity and slope of a distributed load applied along a straight boundary. The equations of the caustic formed by loading an elastic half plane by an arbitrarily distributed load (normal and tangential) were determined and simple relations were established relating the values of the intensity and slope discontinuities of loading with the shape and dimensions of the corresponding caustic. E x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e s h o w e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in s l o p e and/or intensity of the distributed load (normal and/or tangential) can be determined w i t h a s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c u r a c y , t h e e r r o r n o t e x c e e d i n g in u s u a l c a s e s 5%. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n at its d i s c o n t i n u i t y p o i n t s is o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a n d e s p e c i a l l y in c o n t a c t p r o b l e m s . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t n o o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d c a n d e t e r m i n e , w i t h s u c h a h i g h a c c u r a c y , d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in l o a d i n g a n d its s l o p e a p p e a r i n g in c o n t a c t p r o b l e m s w i t h rough surfaces.

Acknowledgements--The research work contained in this paper is partly supported by University funds, One of the authors (C.I.R.) gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Hercules Cement Company of

Greece for allocating him a fellowship which enabled him to participate in the research programme.

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

351

j i i

(a)

(b)

(c)
FIG. 10. Experimentally obtained caustics for the loading case of Fig. 7(b), and for the two cases of Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) respectively.

FIG. 11. Experimentally obtained caustic for the loading case of Fig. 8(b).

Intensity, slope and curvature discontinuities in loading distributions

353

REFERENCES I. H. HERTZ, Gesammdte Werke. Bd. l, Leipzig 0895). 2. A. N. DINN1K, Selected Works, p. I. Izdvo AN UkrSSR, Kiev (1952) (In Russian). 3. P. S. TBEOCARIS, Proc. 3rd Bulgarian Natl Cong. of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Varna, Vol, I, 263 (1977). 4. B. L. ROMALIS and V. F. TOMIN, Prikladnaya Mekhanika 10, 120 (1974). 5. J. STUPNICKI, E. KWASNIAK and W. MIRSK, Archiwum Budowy Maszyn Warszawa 1, 57 (1974). 6. L. A. GALIN, Contact Problems in the Theory of Elasticity (Edited by I. N. SNEDDON), North Carolina State College Dep. Math. Rep. (1961). 7. F. P. BOWDEN and D. TAaOR, The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Part II. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1964). 8. D. A. SPENCE, Z Elasticity 5, 297 (1975). 9. A. FRANCAVILLAand O. C. ZIENKIEWICZ, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng 9, 913 (1975). 10. P. S. THEOCAmS and C. RAZEM, .I. Strain Anal. 12, 223 0977). I I. N. I. MUSKHELISHVILJ, Some Basic Problems of Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Noordhoff, Leyden ( ! 953). 12. P. S. THEOCAmS, Appl. Optics 10, 2240 (1971). 13. N. I. MUSKHELlSHVlLI, Singular Integral Equations. Noordhoff, Groningen (1953). 14. S. THIMOSHENKO and J. N. GOODIES, Theory of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill, New York (1951). 15. P. S. THEOCAmS and C. I. RAZEM, J. Appl. Mech. 45, 313 (1978). 16. J.J. KALKER, Wear 9, 20 (1966); Thesis, Delft (1967); Wear l l , 421 (1968); Z Appl. Mech. 38, 875 (1971); J. Appl. Mech. 39, 1125 (1972). 17. D. J. HAINES and E. OLLERTON,Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs 177(4), 95 (1963).