IEEE Application Guide

Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547
Resource Dynamics Corporation September 2001
September 2001
Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1 Section 1: Cooperative Distribution System Circuits ................................................................................... 3 Section 2: Meeting IEEE 1547 Technical Requirements.............................................................................. 6 Voltage Regulation ....................................................................................................................................... 6 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.1) .......................................................................................................... 6 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................... 6 Background........................................................................................................................................... 6 Impact of DR ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ................................................................................................. 8 Integration with Area Electric Power System Grounding........................................................................... 10 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.2) ........................................................................................................ 10 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 11 Background......................................................................................................................................... 11 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 14 Synchronization .......................................................................................................................................... 16 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.3) ........................................................................................................ 16 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 16 Background......................................................................................................................................... 16 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 16 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 18 Inadvertent Energizing of Area EPS........................................................................................................... 23 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.5) ........................................................................................................ 23 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 23 Background......................................................................................................................................... 23 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 23 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 24 Monitoring .................................................................................................................................................. 26 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.6) ........................................................................................................ 26 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 26 Background......................................................................................................................................... 26 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 26 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 27 Isolation Device .......................................................................................................................................... 30 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.7) ........................................................................................................ 30 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 30 Background......................................................................................................................................... 30 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 31 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 31 Voltage Disturbances .................................................................................................................................. 33 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.2.1) ........................................................................................................ 33 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 33 Background......................................................................................................................................... 33 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 35 Frequency Disturbances.............................................................................................................................. 39 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.2.2) ........................................................................................................ 39 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 39
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Background......................................................................................................................................... 39 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 39 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 40 Disconnection for Faults ............................................................................................................................. 42 P1547 Requirement................................................................................................................................. 42 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 42 Background......................................................................................................................................... 42 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 43 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 43 Loss of Synchronism................................................................................................................................... 45 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.2.4) ........................................................................................................ 45 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 45 Background......................................................................................................................................... 45 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 45 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 45 Feeder Reclosing Coordination................................................................................................................... 47 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.2.5) ........................................................................................................ 47 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 47 Background......................................................................................................................................... 47 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 47 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 49 Limitation of DC Injection.......................................................................................................................... 51 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.3.1) ........................................................................................................ 51 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 51 Background......................................................................................................................................... 51 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 51 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 52 Limitation of Voltage Flicker Induced by the DR ...................................................................................... 54 P1547 Requirement................................................................................................................................. 54 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 54 Background......................................................................................................................................... 54 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 56 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 57 Harmonics ................................................................................................................................................... 60 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.3.3) ........................................................................................................ 60 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 60 Background......................................................................................................................................... 60 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 61 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 62 Immunity Protection ................................................................................................................................... 66 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.3.4) ........................................................................................................ 66 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 66 Background......................................................................................................................................... 66 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 66 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 66 Surge Capability.......................................................................................................................................... 68 P1547 Requirement Section 4.3.5) ......................................................................................................... 68 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 68 Background......................................................................................................................................... 68 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 68 3
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Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 69 Islanding...................................................................................................................................................... 71 P1547 Requirement (Section 4.4) ........................................................................................................... 71 Application Guidance ............................................................................................................................. 71 Background......................................................................................................................................... 71 Impact of DR ...................................................................................................................................... 71 Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb ............................................................................................... 72 Appendix A................................................................................................................................................. 76 Glossary ...................................................................................................................................................... 76 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................. 78 Discussion of Power Factor ........................................................................................................................ 78 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................. 82 Grounding Fundamentals............................................................................................................................ 82 Appendix D - Example One Line Diagrams ............................................................................................... 90 Appendix E ................................................................................................................................................. 94 Example of Non-Islanding Test .................................................................................................................. 94 A.5 Interconnection Test to Verify Non-Islanding ............................................................................ 94 A.5.1 Non-Islanding Test Procedure Background ........................................................................... 94 A.5.2 Non-islanding Test Procedure................................................................................................ 95 Appendix F ................................................................................................................................................. 97 References................................................................................................................................................... 97
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Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection

The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547
Introduction
This application guide is intended to supplement, expand and clarify the technical requirements of IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. While the Standard includes distributed generation (DG) through 10 MVA, this guide addresses DG through 1 MVA. Neither this guide nor the Standard covers revenue metering requirements. Tariff and contract issues are also beyond the scope of this document. Because the Standard in not yet approved by the IEEE Standards Board, Draft 07 has been used. It is assumed that the final version of the Standard will not change significantly. When the final version of the Standard is published, changes will be made to this guide to reflect actual wording of the Standard. The subjects in part 2 of this guide closely parallel the Standard. For each topic the actual Standard language is quoted followed by application guidance divided into three sections: 1) Background, 2) Impact of DR, and 3) Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb. A Discussion of Power Factor in Appendix B is not addressed in the Standard, but it an important topic to consider. Since grounding is such an important topic and there are some non-standard grounding practices, Grounding Fundamentals are discussed in Appendix C. This guide does not cover testing, but since the issue of islanding is so important, Appendix E gives some examples of non-islanding tests. While the Standard was designed to cover the bulk of DG installations, in some circumstances additional technical specifications may be required. Especially in some remote areas, the addition of DG may be a significant percentage of the circuit load. The Tips, Techniques and Rules of Thumb section under each topic gives guidelines and thresholds where additional specifications may be required. In addition, most installations over 1 MW will require a specific engineering study to determine any additional requirements. The National Rural Electric Cooperative Association wishes to give special thanks to N. Richard Friedman of the Resource Dynamics Corporation for the compilation of this guide. Jay Morrison of the NRECA Energy Policy Department contributed to this document. Appreciation is also noted to the members of the NRECA T&D Engineering System Planning Subcommittee for their input, review and suggestions. The current members of the System Planning Subcommittee are: Ronnie Frizzell, Arkansas Electric Cooperative Corp., AK (Chairman) Brian Tomlinson, Coserv Electric, TX (Vice Chair) Mark Evans, Volunteer Electric Co-op, TN (Recorder) Robin W. Blanton, Piedmont EMC, NC Robert Dew, United Utility Supply, KY David E. Garrison, Allgeier Martin & Associates, MO H. Wayne Henson, East Mississippi EPA, MS Bill Koch, Rural Electric Magazine, WA Joe Perry, Patterson & Dewar Engineers, GA Georg Schulz, RUS, DC Mike Smith, Singing River EPA, MS
Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 Chris Tuttle, RUS, DC Kenneth Winder, Moon Lake Electric Assn., UT (Former Chairman)
September 2001
This is a working document. Any comments or suggestions are welcome. Please address all comments to: Bob Saint, Principal, T&D Engineering National Rural Electric Cooperative Association 4301 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22203 Phone: (703) 907-5863 Email: robert.saint@nreca.org
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Section 1: Cooperative Distribution System Circuits

Nearly half of the distribution circuits in the United States are owned by cooperatives. As energy markets are restructured, more pressure will be felt by cooperatives to control costs, increase operating flexibility, and maintain system and supply source reliability. Distributed generation (DG) offers new options for cooperatives and their customers. Understanding how DG systems are designed, interconnected and operated is key to understanding the impact of DG on cooperative distribution systems. The Electric Power System An electric power system generally consists of generation, transmission, subtransmission, and distribution. Most electric power is generated by central station generating units. Generator step-up transformers at the generation plant substation raise the voltage to high levels for moving the power on transmission lines to bulk power transmission substations. The purpose of high voltage transmission lines is to lower the current, reduce voltage drop and reduce the real power loss (l2R). Real power is the product of voltage, current and the power factor (the angle between the voltage and the current phasors). As the voltage is increased for a fixed amount of power, the current decreases proportionately. The power transmitted remains constant, but the decrease in current results in reduced losses. Transmission lines are usually 138 kV and above. Transmission substations reduce the voltage to subtransmission levels, usually between 44 kV and 138 kV. Subtransmission lines are those lines where the voltage is stepped directly to the customer utilization voltage. Interconnections to other electric utility transmission and subtransmission systems form the power grid. The system voltage is stepped down beyond the transmission system to lower the cost of equipment serving loads from the subtransmission and distribution segments of the power system. The transmission and subtransmission systems are generally networked. In contrast, the distribution system consists of radial distribution circuits fed from single substation sources. The distribution system includes distribution substations, the primary voltage circuits supplied by these substations, distribution transformers, secondary circuits including services to customers premises and circuit protective, voltage regulating and control devices. The Distribution System The distribution system typically consists of three phase, four wire Y grounded and single phase, two wire grounded circuits. Distribution circuits have voltages ranging from 19.9/34.5 kV to 7.2/12.5 kV (phase-to-ground voltage/phase-to-phase voltage), although there are some lower voltage 4 kV three wire ungrounded systems still in existence. These lines are typically referred to as primary circuits and their nominal voltage may be referred to as the primary voltage. Transformers on the distribution system step the voltage from the distribution line voltage to the customers utilization voltage commonly referred to as the secondary voltage. The secondary system serves most customer loads at 120/240 volts, single phase, three wire; 208Y/120 volts three phase four wire; or 480Y/277 volts three phase four wire. A complete list of preferred voltage levels is tabulated in American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C84.1.
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Residential, small commercial, and rural loads are served by overhead distribution feeders and lateral circuits, or by underground distribution circuits. Most residential loads are served by three phase, four wire primary feeders with single phase lateral circuits, although some three phase laterals serve small industrial and large commercial loads. Most rural loads are served with single phase primary and typically have one customer per distribution transformer. Distribution Primary Circuits A typical radial 12.5 kV distribution circuit would be served from a distribution substation transformer fed from one subtransmission line. If loads are large enough or of a critical nature, a second subtrasmission feed and transformer will be installed. Most existing primary distribution circuits are overhead construction, but much new construction is underground, especially in residential and commercial areas. Most primary distribution circuits are a radial design with one source per circuit. The trend to higher distribution voltages means more load may be served from each distribution circuit. This would normally imply reduced reliability, because more load is affected by clearing faults on the distribution circuit. However, automatic switching and protective relaying devices mitigate this effect. Also, customers are demanding a higher level of reliability due to the increased use of home computers and other electronic appliances. Distribution Secondary Systems The secondary system is that portion of the distribution system between the primary feeders and the customers premises. The secondary system is composed of distribution transformers, secondary circuits, customer services, and revenue (billing) meters to measure the energy (kWh) usage. In some cases the demand (kW) and power factor are also measured. The secondary circuits connect the customer service to the low voltage side of the distribution transformer. Although secondary systems are predominantly single phase, three wire, three phase secondaries are used where a combination of large commercial and small industrial loads are located in a residential area. There are three different secondary system configurations: radial secondary; solid banked secondary; and, loose banked secondary.
The radial secondary system is the most common configuration for serving cooperative rural areas, as well as residential and light commercial loads. Secondary banking1 is used in areas where the loads are close together and there is a need to reduce voltage flicker due to motor starting.
Banking means paralleling on the secondary side a number of distribution transformers which are connected to the same primary. Banked transformers are still a form of radial distribution, because they are connected to one primary feeder. This configuration should not be confused with a secondary network configuration where the distribution transformers are connected to two or more primary feeders.
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Banked secondary systems for residential or rural (if practical) are single phase, but three-phase banking is also used for commercial applications. The advantages of banking distribution transformers are as follows: (1) reduces voltage drop during motor starting by 50 to 70%, (2) improves the overall voltage profile, (3) provides clearing of secondary faults, (4) reduces the size of secondary conductors, (5) reduces the size of the distribution transformer (due to load sharing) by as much as 20-30%, (6) improves reliability of service, and (7) new load may be added without changing out the transformers and secondary conductors.
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Section 2: Meeting IEEE 1547 Technical Requirements Voltage Regulation

P1547 Requirement (Section 4.1.1)
DR shall not degrade the voltage provided to the customers of the Area EPS to service voltages outside the limits of ANSI C84.1, Range A. Apart from the effect on the voltage of the Area EPS due to the real power generation of the DR, the DR shall not attempt to oppose or regulate changes in the prevailing voltage level of the Area EPS at the PCC, except that DR generators shall be permitted to use automatic voltage regulation when such regulation can be accomplished without detriment to either the Area EPS or Local EPS.
Application Guidance
BACKGROUND
Voltage regulation is the term used to describe the process and equipment used by an electric power system (EPS) operator to maintain approximately constant voltage to users despite the normal variations in voltage caused by changing loads. Voltage regulation and voltage stability are important factors that affect the operation of a power distribution system. If a system is not well regulated or stable, machines receiving power from the system will not operate efficiently. Voltage regulation is considered in every step of design and when sizing conductors. Several different methods can be used to regulate voltage in a power distribution system. Typical radial distribution systems are regulated at substations using feeder-voltage regulators2 or automatic load-tapchanging transformers. Switched shunt capacitor banks3 may also be used at the substation for part of the system voltage control. On distribution feeders, both line regulators and switched capacitors are used. Rural areas served by cooperatives typically include long stretches of power lines with single-phase automatic step regulators for supplementary voltage regulation. These step regulators are smaller in rating than the feeder regulators and are often pole mounted. Ideally, utilities aim to keep the service voltage at all customers within Range A as specified in ANSI Standard C84.14.
2
A feeder-voltage regulator can be either single-phase or 3-phase construction. The single-phase regulator is available in sizes ranging from 25-400kVA and the 3-phase regulator is available in sizes ranging from 500-2000kVA. Today's voltage regulators are all the step-voltage type. A step voltage regulator is basically an autotransformer which has numerous taps in series with the windings. These taps are changed automatically under a load by a voltage-sensing, switching mechanism. The taps are switched in order to maintain a voltage as close to the predetermined level as possible.
Switched shunt capacitor banks are often used on distribution systems as part of the overall voltageregulation scheme. Unswitched shunt capacitors are typically applied to bring the light-load power factor to about 100%. Then automatically switched shunt capacitor banks are added to achieve the economic full-load power factor, which is typically 95% to 100%.
Voltage Ratings of 60 Hz Electric Power Systems, ANSI C84.1-1995, Published by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1995.
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IMPACT OF DR
Voltage regulation practice is based on radial power flows from the substation to the loads. DR introduces meshed power flows that may interfere with the effectiveness of standard voltage regulation practice. The effect of DR on EPS voltage regulation can cause changes in power system voltage by 1) the generator offsetting the load current, and 2) the DR attempting to regulate voltage. Most types of DR generators and utility-interactive inverters should strive to maintain an approximately constant power factor at any voltage within their rating; accordingly, the primary impact of DR on voltage regulation is the result of the DR offsetting the load current. This is especially important in ensuring that a DR installation will meet the intent of this P1547 requirement requiring the DR not to attempt to oppose or regulate changes in the prevailing voltage level of the Area EPS. The operation of DR on utility circuits basing voltage regulation on radial power flows can result in both high and low service voltage unless precautions are taken. Examples of each of these situations are discussed below. Low Voltage Most feeder regulators are equipped with line drop compensation (LDC) that raises the target regulator output voltage in proportion to the load. This feature helps to maintain constant voltage at a point further downstream by raising the regulator output voltage to compensate for line voltage drop between the regulator and the load center. A DR located immediately downstream of a feeder voltage regulator may interfere with the proper operation of the regulator, if the generation output is a significant fraction of the normal regulator load. When the DR offsets 15 percent or more of the load current, this causes the regulator to set a voltage lower than required to maintain adequate service levels at the end of the feeder. The impact on feeder voltage regulation is as follows: The feeder may be heavily loaded, but the regulator sees relatively low load due to the DR current offset. The line voltage drop from the DR to the load center still reflects heavy loading, but the regulator output voltage is not increased because of the low loading seen by the regulator. As a result, low voltage conditions occur at the load center.
It should be noted that some cooperatives operate at lower voltage during lightly-loaded conditions to Compromises in the regulator settings, additional regulator controls or relocation of the regulator to a point downstream of the DR interconnection point (or interconnection of the DR unit upstream of the regulator) may be necessary to maintain adequate voltage at the load center. reduce losses. These conditions typically occur during off-peak periods.
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High Voltage During normal radial feeder operation, there is a voltage drop across the distribution transformer and the secondary conductors, and voltage at the customer service entrance is less than at the primary. Under certain conditions with a DR unit installed, other customers on the feeder may see higher than normal service voltage with associated unintended consequences. This situation can occur when: 1. A DR unit (such as in a small residential DR system) shares a common distribution transformer with several other residences. 2. The distribution transformer serving these customers is located at a point on the feeder where the primary voltage is near or above the ANSI C84.1 upper limit (126+ volts on a 120 volt base). 3. The DR introduces reverse power flow that counteracts the normal voltage drop, perhaps even raising voltage somewhat. With these conditions, the service voltage to the other customers may actually be higher at the customer service entrance than on the primary side of the distribution transformer; it may even exceed the ANSI upper limit. The installation of reverse power relay(s) by the DR owner may be required to maintain voltage regulation under these conditions.
TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

In most cases, the impact on the feeder primary will be negligible for any individual residential scale DR unit (<10kW). This may not be the case, however, when a number of small units or a single larger unit have been installed in the same feeder. In this case, voltage regulation studies may be needed to insure that the feeder voltage will be maintained within appropriate limits.5 The aggregate DR capacity threshold for which studies become appropriate depends on many factors. However, a reasonable rule-of-thumb is that a study is not required if: The injected current (measured at the primary level) is less than 5% of the feeder loading at the interconnection point; and, All customers had satisfactory voltage prior to the addition of the DR.
To determine if the DR will cause a significant impact on the feeder voltage, the size and location of the DR, the voltage regulator settings, and impedance characteristics of the line must be considered. If line drop compensation is used by the regulator, then DR units interconnected within the regulators zone and downstream of the constant voltage point (CVP) will support (increase) the feeder voltage below the CVP. Those above the CVP will lower the voltage below the CVP. If voltage support is the key reason for using DR, then DR placement downstream of the CVP is crucial to meeting this objective (the farther downstream of the CVP, the greater the support). The values of line-drop-compensation utilized will determine the CVP location on the feeder. Note that when no line-drop-compensation is used, the CVP is at the regulator device itself.
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In this case (see box above), a voltage problem on the primary is unlikely. When the injected current is much above 5%, there is more reason to worry about potential impacts.6 Synchronous Generator DR and Voltage Regulation Synchronous generators equipped with voltage-regulator controls deliberately vary their field excitation in response to voltage changes, in an attempt to maintain constant voltage. When interconnected with a large EPS, changes in field excitation cause reactive power exchange with the EPS. The effect of constant-voltage regulated distributed generators on EPS voltage is a function of the short circuit ratio of the distributed generator to the power system. If the short circuit ratio is small, the distributed generator will have little actual effect on power system voltage, but the generator power factor may become abnormally low under high or low voltage conditions on the EPS. Such a condition can limit the real power capability of the generator and contributes to inefficient operation of the EPS. A power factor controller can be used, instead of a voltage-regulator controller, to stabilize the excitation system of synchronous rotating generators. The VAr/power factor controller can be used to maintain a constant power factor or VAr output, making the synchronous machine voltage response resemble that of an induction generator or utility-interactive inverter. Siting DR to Reduce Distribution System Losses Distributed generation will also impact losses on distribution systems. DR units can be placed at optimal locations where they provide the best reduction in feeder losses. Siting of DR units to minimize losses is like siting capacitor banks for loss reduction. The only difference is that the DR units will impact both the real and reactive power flow. Capacitors only impact the reactive power flow. Most generators will be operated between 0.85 lagging and 1.0 power factor, but some inverter technologies can provide reactive compensation (leading current). A good load flow analysis software should be able to model the effects on system losses. On feeders where losses are high, a small amount of strategically placed DR with an output of just 10-20% of the feeder demand can have a significant loss reduction benefit for the system. Unfortunately, most utilities do not have control over the siting locations, since DR is usually customer owned. Nonetheless, for utilities that are moving forward with their own DR programs, optimal siting of units can increase the performance of the system. Siting DR and Consideration of Thermal Capacity Limits Larger DR units must also be sited with consideration of feeder capacity limits. In some cases overhead lines and cables may be thermally limited, meaning that the DR can inject power that exceeds the lines thermal limit without causing a voltage problem on the feeder. The power flow analysis should flag the locations where capacity constraints will be an issue from a thermal as well as a voltage perspective. In general, a DR at a location that is thermally limited is not connected at the optimal point from a power loss perspective.
For shared secondaries, with DR even a small generator that injects less than 5% at the primary level could pose a voltage regulation risk to customers sharing the secondary. Thus, analysis of voltage conditions will almost always need to consider impacts on the secondary where the DR is located.
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Integration with Area Electric Power System Grounding

The interconnection of the DR with the Area EPS shall be coordinated with the neutral grounding method7 in use on the Area EPS as follows. Three-Wire Area EPS Systems. (Section 4.1.2.1) DR interconnections to Area EPS primary feeders of three-wire grounded or ungrounded systems, or to tap lines of such systems, shall not provide any metallic path to ground from the primary feeder except through suitably-rated surge arresters, high-impedance devices used only for fault detection purposes, or both. 8 1. DR interconnections to Area EPS primary feeders of three-wire grounded or ungrounded systems, or to tap lines of such systems, shall not provide any metallic path to ground from the primary feeder except through suitably-rated surge arresters or high-impedance devices used only for fault detection purposes, or both. 9 2. For DR interconnections, directly or through a transformer,10 to Area EPS primary feeders of multigrounded or uni-grounded four-wire construction, or to tap lines of such systems, the maximum unfaulted phase (line-to-ground) voltages on the Area EPS primary feeder, during single line-to ground fault conditions with the Area EPS source disconnected, shall not exceed those voltages that would occur during the fault with the Area EPS source connected and no DR generation. 11 3. The ground-fault current contribution of the DR, and its interconnection transformer, shall not be greater than 100% of the fault current contribution of the DR to a three-phase fault at the same primary feeder fault location. An interconnection to a primary feeder of a three-wire grounded or ungrounded system shall have zero ground fault current contribution.12 These ground fault current limitations shall not apply to any DR interconnected to an Area EPS through the existing distribution transformer provided that neutral grounding, if any, of the high voltage winding is not changed.
7
For definition of grounding methods consult IEEE 62.92.1.
For the purposes of this subclause, grounded metallic enclosures or support structures such as steel poles or metallic conduit, are not considered to be metallic paths to ground from the primary feeder.
9 For the purposes of this subclause, grounded metallic enclosures or support structures such as steel poles or metallic conduit, are not considered to be metallic paths to ground from the primary feeder. 10 In many existing 4-wire multi-grounded distribution circuits the existing transformer for commercial and industrial facilities is a Y-Y connected transformer. In these cases consideration has to be given to the grounding of the generator if the secondary service is a 4-wire service. 11
Voltages exceeding this limit are acceptable if it can be shown that they will not be detrimental to the equipment and customer loads connected to the Area EPS feeder.
12
For DR technologies that have time-variant fault contribution characteristics, the characteristic producing the highest fundamental-frequency fault current from the DR shall be used in this calculation (i.e., for synchronous generators, the subtransient reactance shall be used).
10
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Four-Wire Area EPS Systems. (Section 4.1.2.2) For DR interconnections, directly or through a transformer13, to Area EPS primary feeders of multigrounded or uni-grounded four-wire construction, or to tap lines of such systems, the maximum unfaulted phase (line-to-ground) voltages on the Area EPS primary feeder, during single line-to-ground fault conditions with the Area EPS source disconnected, shall not exceed those voltages that would occur during the fault with the same Area EPS source connected and no DR generation. The ground-fault current contribution (3I0) of the DR, including the effect of any transformers between the DR and the primary feeder, shall not be greater than 100% of the fault current contribution of the DR to a three-phase fault at the same primary feeder fault location.14 This ground fault current limitation shall not apply to any DR interconnected to an Area EPS through the existing distribution transformer provided that neutral grounding, if any, of the high voltage winding is not changed.
BACKGROUND
A grounding system consists of all interconnected grounding connections in a specific power system and is defined by its isolation or lack of isolation from adjacent grounding systems. The isolation is provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic means. System grounding, or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth, is for the purpose of controlling the voltage to earth, or ground, within predictable limits. It also provides for a flow of current that will allow detection of an unwanted connection between system conductors and ground. When such a connection is detected, the grounding system may initiate operation of automatic devices to remove the source of voltage from the conductors with undesired connections to ground. The National Electric Code (IEEE/ANSI 70) prescribes certain system grounding connections that must be made to be in compliance with the Code. The control of voltage to ground limits the voltage stress on the insulation of conductors so that insulation performance can more readily be predicted. The control of voltage also allows reduction of shock hazard to persons who might come in contact with live conductors. Types of Distribution Feeders and Grounding Methods
13 In many existing 4-wire multi-grounded distribution circuits the existing transformer for commercial and industrial facilities is a Y-Y connected transformer. In these cases consideration has to be given to the grounding of the generator if the secondary service is a 4-wire service. 14
For DR technologies that have time-variant fault contribution characteristics, the characteristic producing the highest fundamental-frequency fault current from the DR shall be used in this calculation (i.e., for synchronous generators, the subtransient reactance shall be used).
11
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The grounding of utility distribution feeders is usually derived from a distribution substation transformer with wye-connected secondary windings and with the neutral point of the windings solidly grounded or connected to ground through a noninterrupting, current-limiting device such as a reactor. A grounding transformer may also be used to establish a grounded system. The circuits associated with grounded distribution systems generally have a neutral conductor connected to the supply grounding point. The neutral conductor of the distribution circuits may be described as either multigrounded, unigrounded, or
Multigrounded neutral
Primary phase wires
Station transformer
1 transf
S. A. Common Multigrounded Single phase secondary Customer's water pipes Customer's water pipe grounds Neutral
Figure 1. Common Neutral Method of Distribution ungrounded: Multigrounded.....connected to earth at frequent intervals. Unigrounded........fully insulated and have no other earth connection except at the source. Ungrounded.........no intentional connection to earth. U.S. utility distribution feeders are either: 1) four-wire-multigrounded or unigrounded systems, 2) threewire ungrounded systems, or 3) three-wire grounded systems. An example of the common neutral method of distribution is shown in Figure 1.
IMPACT OF DR
DR interconnection to each type of distribution system can impact protection and coordination as discussed below.
12
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Types of Distribution Systems Three-Wire Ungrounded Systems Three-wire ungrounded systems are clearly in the minority of U.S. distribution feeders. While this type of system has no intentional connection to earth, connections to ground may occur through potential indicating or measuring devices or other very high impedance devices. Three-Wire Grounded Systems In three-wire unigrounded systems, a neutral conductor is not run with each circuit, but the system is grounded through the connections of the substation transformer or grounding transformer. On threephase three-wire primary distribution circuits, single-phase distribution transformers are connected phaseto-phase. The connection of three single-phase distribution transformers or of three-phase distribution transformers is usually delta-grounded wye or delta-delta. (The floating wye-delta or T-T connections also can be used.) The grounded wye-delta connection is generally not used because it acts as a grounding transformer. Surge arresters are generally connected phase-to-ground. However, the surge arrester rating is higher than those used on multigrounded neutral systems since the temporary 60 Hz overvoltages expected under fault conditions are also higher.15 Four-Wire Multigrounded or Ungrounded Systems Most U.S. utility distribution feeders are four-wire-multigrounded-neutral systems that are defined as being effectively grounded with respect to the substation source. The neutral conductor associated with the primary feeders of multigrounded neutral distribution systems is connected to earth at intervals specified by national or local codes. It is also common practice to bond this neutral conductor to surgearrester ground leads and to all noncurrent-carrying parts, such as equipment tanks and guy wires, and to interconnect it with the secondary neutral conductor or grounded conductor.16 For a single line to ground fault, this arrangement limits the voltage rise on unfaulted phases to about 125 to 135% of the prefault condition.17 Three-phase interconnections to multigrounded four-wire systems must provide an adequate ground current source to control unfaulted-phase overvoltages for brief islanding conditions during fault clearing, unless an interconnected DR is so small that it cannot support any voltage on the system when isolated with load. However, the DR ground current source must also not be so large that it significantly dilutes the fault current contribution from the utilitys source substation and thereby degrades the ground fault detection sensitivity.
15
IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Power Systems, Part 4, IEEE Std. C62.92.4-1991.
16 In some situations, the same neutral conductor is used for both the primary and secondary systems. There is some variation in this practice, however, and some utilities do not interconnect the primary and secondary neutral conductors nor bond the neutral to the guy wire. If no direct interconnection is made, the secondary neutral conductor may be connected to the primary neutral conductor through a spark gap or arrester. Surge arresters on multigrounded neutral systems are connected directly to earth, and their grounding conductor may be interconnected directly to the primary neutral conductor and equipment tanks. They may also be interconnected with the secondary neutral at transformer installations.
17
IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Power Systems, Parts 1-4, IEEE Std. C62.92 1991.
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Use of a DR source that does not appear as an effectively grounded source connected to such systems may lead to overvoltages during line to ground faults on the utility system. This condition is especially dangerous if a generation island develops and continues to serve a group of customers on a faulted distribution system. Customers on the unfaulted phases could in the worst case see their voltage increase to 173% of the prefault voltage level for an indefinite period. At this high level, utility and customer Distributed generation must be applied with a transformer configuration and grounding arrangement compatible with the utility system to which it is to be connected. Otherwise, voltage swells and overvoltages may be imposed on the utility system that can damage utility or customer equipment. equipment would almost certainly be damaged. Saturation of distribution transformers will help slightly to limit this voltage rise. Nonetheless, the voltage can still become quite high (150% or higher).

Assuring DR Integration with the EPS Ground Multigrounded Neutral Systems To avoid problems, all DR sources on multigrounded neutral systems that are large enough to sustain an island should present themselves to the utility system as an effectively grounded source. If they do not, they should use appropriate protective relaying to detect primary side ground fault overvoltages and quickly trip off-line (instantaneous trip). The former approach is preferred since it limits by design the voltage swells that the system will see during a fault. The latter approach, while used successfully in many installations, could subject the customer to many cycles of severe overvoltage prior to the DG unit being cleared from the system. Additionally, if the DR is not cleared quickly enough, equipment could be damaged. Static Power Converters Integration of the ground system of a static power converter based DR facility with the existing grounding system requires an examination of the circuit isolations from ground that might occur across the interconnection. When operating in parallel with the Area EPS, effective grounding must be assured. When the DR must disconnect itself to permit fault clearing on the utility system, or operate in a standalone mode, the same grounding effectiveness must be designed into both systems. A converter based DR directly connected to a grounded ac system through its static power converter is a grounded source as long as the interconnection is made. If the DR has a neutral or grounded conductor which is not switched upon disconnect and is solidly tied to the ac system neutral then even during disconnect and possible standalone operation without the ac system the DR remains grounded and has the protective features of grounding still in force. If a directly connected static power converter based DR was not tied to a grounded conductor during separation from the utility for standalone electricity supply, balanced grounded operation will be lost. In the case of single-phase systems, inclusion of an isolation transformer can eliminate this particular
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problem. Grounding is accomplished on both sides of the transformer and the grounded DR energy source can operate fully grounded with or without connection to the grounded utility service. DR systems with converters that use three phase isolation transformers to interface with the Area EPS present a variety of issues, all dependent on the configuration of the windings on either side of the transformer. It is generally advisable that a power source be grounded at only one point, and the NEC is quite specific on this point. If multiple ground connections are created in the integration of the DR facility to the existing ground system, neutral currents could flow in the ground system and compromise the integrity of the protective grounding system. If the DR is served by a dedicated isolation transformer, this permits the energy source of the DR to be directly grounded either solidly or through an impedance. Certain static power converter networks operate with a midpoint neutral. Alternatively the energy source may be grounded directly through the converter at its midpoint. The transformer typically steps up the DR converter voltage to the level required to match the ac utility interconnect voltage. It is at the transformer in particular that the grounding connections must be controlled.
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Synchronization
The DR unit shall synchronize with the Area EPS without causing a voltage fluctuation at the PCC greater than 5% of operating voltage.
BACKGROUND
In order to synchronize the distributed generator with the electric power system, the output of the distributed generator and the input of electric power system must have the same voltage magnitude, frequency, phase rotation, and phase angle. Synchronization is the act of checking that the four variables mentioned above SLIP AND SYNCHRONIZATION are within an acceptable range (or acceptable ranges). For synchronism to occur, the output variables of the distributed The slip of a rotating ac machine is the difference between its speed and generator must match the input variables of the electric the synchronous speed, divided by power system. With polyphase machines, the direction of the synchronous speed. Slip is phase rotation must also be the same. This is typically usually expressed as a percentage. checked at time of installation, the phases being connected to It may be computed from the measured speed of the machine and the switches such that the phase rotation will always be the synchronous speed, but direct correct. Phase rotation is not usually checked again unless methods are more accurate. wiring changes have been made on either the generator or inverter, or the electric power system.
IMPACT OF DR
The testing provisions of IEEE 1547 require the test to demonstrate that the interconnection system, at each point where synchronization is required, shall not connect the associated DR unit (or aggregation of DR units) to an Area EPS except when all of the appropriate conditions are satisfied. If these conditions are met, the DR will synchronize with the Area EPS with any voltage fluctuation limited to 5% of nominal voltage. The conditions for three types of DR follows. A. Synchronous Generator to an EPS, or an Energized Local EPS to an Energized Area EPS. Connection will be prevented when the DR (or the energized Local EPS) is operating outside of the following limits relative to the Local EPS (or Area EPS).
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Aggregate Rating of DR Units (kVA) 0 - 500 500 1,500 1,500 - 10,000
Frequency Difference (f, Hz) 0.3 0.2 0.1
Voltage Difference (V, %) 10 5 3
Phase Angle Difference (, ) 20 15 10
The test performed by the DR for the EPS will demonstrate that at the moment of paralleling-device closure, all three parameters in the table above are within the stated ranges. This test shall also demonstrate that if any of the parameters are outside of the ranges stated in the table, paralleling-device closure will not be permitted. B. Asynchronous (Induction) Generator to an EPS In the case where the induction motor is acting as a generator, and the voltage drop is less than 5% at the PCC, the requirement is met. Where the resulting voltage drop is greater than 5%, the analysis will proceed to consider the benefit of accelerating the generator to near synchronous speed before connecting. If this produces less than 5% voltage drop, then no additional testing is required and the requirement is met. When the resulting voltage drop is still found to be unacceptable, the analysis will proceed to consider the use of a static soft start unit that will provide a controlled rate of change of current. The results of the analysis will be recorded and made available to the Area EPS Operator. C. Static Inverter A non-interactive inverter shall be treated as a synchronous generator of comparable size. A line interactive inverter will be tested to establish the current that would be delivered to an EPS of zero impedance. This will demonstrate the current control capacity of the inverter regulator. The zero impedance current will be calculated from the value measured at two different impedances. If the current is less than 120% of rated, the inverter will be considered to be in compliance at any rate. The impedance values used for the test shall be as follows. Z1 = 0.02*V*V/P Z2 = 0.05*V*V/P Where Z = impedance value V = the DR unit rated line-to-line voltage, and P = the DR unit rated power output. The test will be carried out with a calibrated oscilloscope connected to measure the current in each phase. The root mean square (rms) current shall be calculated for the first half of the cycle. From these results the rms current to be delivered at an impedance level of zero shall be calculated by extrapolation.
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The test shall be carried out 10 times at each impedance value and the results maximized over these tests when extrapolating to zero impedance.

Out-of-Range Operation Operation with phase angles out of phase between the distributed generator and the electric power system may result in overheating of synchronous generator armature core ends with damage to the electric power system and the distributed generator equipment. When operating with a lower voltage magnitude, branch circuits may cause malfunctioning of motors and controls. Semiconductors operation may also be impacted when voltage magnitude is allowed to slip below desired levels. The semiconductors may malfunction and cause loss of control of distributed generator devices. In addition, lower voltage may also extinguish mercury vapor type and fluorescent lamps causing personnel safety to be compromised. Operation at under frequency may result in synchronous generator hot spots and higher than normal generator insulation temperatures. Synchronization Techniques Either manual or automatic synchronization devices may be used for synchronization of the distributed generator with the electric power system. Considerations in the design and operation of both types are discussed below. Manual Synchronization Manual synchronization equipment is normally used on smaller (less than 100 kW) distributed generator equipment and as a backup to an automatic system on larger units. Manual synchronization equipment varies with distributed generator size. The requirements for synchronization equipment for DGs operating in parallel with the EPS and able to operate as an island are summarized in Table 1. For the Table 1. Synchronizing Requirements for Paralleled DG Units with Islanding Capability Phase Angle DR Size Volt Meters Freq Meters Sync Scopes Meters 2 2 1 0 >10 kW-500 kW 2 2 1 1 >500 kW-10 MW 2 2 1 1 >10 MW similar requirements for DGs with no ability to operate as an island, see Table 2. For small single-phase systems (10 kW or less) which are electric power system connected only with no islanding capabilities, only two volt meters are required. For larger systems which are 10 kW and larger and have both electric power system operation and islanding operation capabilities, the manual synchronization equipment will consist of two voltmeters,
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Table 2. Synchronizing Requirements for Paralleled DG Units without Islanding Capability Voltage Phase Angle Sync DR Size Volt Meters Differential Freq Meters Meters Scopes Meters 2 0 0 0 0 10 kW 2 1 0 0 0 >10 kW-500 kW 2 1 1 1 0 >500 kW-10 MW 2 1 1 1 0 >10 MW two frequency meters, and a synchroscope.18 (See Table 1.) One voltmeter and one frequency meter monitor the electric power system voltage and frequency. The other voltmeter and frequency meter monitor the distributed generator voltage and frequency. A synchroscope pointer is used to indicate the phase angle between the electric power system voltage and the distributed generator voltage. The straight up or 12 oclock position indicates that the two voltages are in phase. For a synchroscope, the connection between the electric power system and the distributed generator is made when the synchroscope is rotating slowly in the clockwise direction and the pointer is about 11:30 position. When the pointer is rotating, it shows the frequencies of the electric power system and the distributed generator are not exactly the same. Synchronization with the pointer rotating slowly clockwise will ensure the connection between the two units is made along with a small outflow of power from the distributed generator to prohibit the reverse power relay from tripping erroneously. Automatic Synchronization Many types of automatic synchronizers are available to replace part or all of the manual synchronizing functions mentioned above. Synchcheck relays, which are designed to check the electric power system voltage and the distributed generator voltages, close a contact when the two voltages are within certain limits for certain length of time. The synch-check relays are the least costly and simplest to operate. The synch-check relays may also serve as signal devices for automatically closing the breaker at the point of common coupling.
Synch-Check Relays Synch-check relays are used to ensure that before a machine can be paralleled, the voltages on both sides of the circuit breaker are nearly in synchronism. That is, that the angle between the voltages and the frequencies are sufficiently close together that the circuit breaker can be closed successfully. If the limits are exceeded, the synchro-check relay will prevent closure of the circuit breaker.
Highly accurate and reliable automatic synchronizing relays and electronic transducer combination packages are available with adjustable ranges to monitor and control the synchronism, frequency, phase or power factor and the voltage levels of the distributed generator. Dead bus relays can also be included in the combination packages to allow connecting to a dead bus (used in black plant applications) when the synchronizing relay itself would not provide a signal to close the circuit breaker at point of common coupling.
Synchronizing lights serve as a backup to the synchroscope, or can substitute for the synchroscope. They are connected across the point of common coupling contacts and go dark at synchronism.
18
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Induction machines must utilize speed matching within 5% of the synchronous speed prior to connecting. Synchronous machines must use synchronization relays or equipment to achieve an angular displacement between the machine output voltage and utility system voltage of 12 electrical degrees or less prior to connecting. Larger rotating equipment in this class will benefit from negative sequence detection (phase unbalance) should single phasing occur, and it good practice to include it for generators over 10 kW.
Power Conversion Technology Electric energy generated by a DR may be directly connected to an EPS, or indirectly connected through a static power converter. Directly connected synchronous generators must run at a synchronous shaft speed so that the power output is electrically in synchronism with the EPS. Directly connected induction generators are asychronous (not in synchronism). They operate at a rotational speed that varies with the prime mover and is slightly higher than that required by a synchronous generator. Indirect connection through a static power converter allows the electric energy source to operate independently of the EPS voltage and frequency. The method chosen to interconnect any of these energy sources to the EPS is dependent on the type of generation, its characteristics, its capacity, and the type of EPS service available at the site. Induction An induction generator is an asynchronous machine that requires an external source to provide the magnetizing (reactive) current necessary to establish the magnetic field across the air gap between the generator rotor and stator. Without such a source, an induction generator cannot supply electric power but must always operate in parallel with an EPS, a synchronous machine, or a capacitor that can supply the reactive requirements of the induction generator. In certain instances, an induction generator may continue to generate electric power after the EPS source is removed. This phenomenon, known as selfexcitation, can occur whenever there is sufficient capacitance in parallel with the induction generator to provide the necessary excitation and when the connected load has certain resistive characteristics. This external capacitance may be part of the DR system or may consist of power factor correction capacitors located on the EPS circuit to which the DR is directly connected. Induction generators operate at a rotational speed that is determined by the prime mover and is slightly higher than that required for exact synchronism. Below synchronous speed, these machines operate as induction motors and thus become a load on the EPS. Some advantages of the induction generator are as follows: Needs only a very basic control system, since its operation is relatively simple. Does not require special procedures to synchronize with the electric EPS, since this occurs essentially automatically. Will normally cease to operate when an EPS outage occurs.
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A disadvantage of an induction generator is its response when some types are connected to the area EPS at speeds significantly below synchronous speed. In this case, potentially damaging inrush currents and associated torques can result. An induction generator, regardless of load, draws reactive power from the EPS and may adversely affect the voltage regulation on the circuit to which it is connected. The induction generator is then sucking vars from the system; it is important to consider the addition of capacitors to improve power factor and reduce reactive power draw.19 Synchronous Most generators in service today are synchronous generators. A synchronous generator is an ac machine in which the rotational speed of normal operation is constant and in synchronism with the frequency of the EPS to which it is connected. Synchronous generators have their DR field excitation supplied either by a separate motor-generator set, a directly coupled self-excited dc generator, or a brushless exciter that does not require an outside electrical source; therefore, this type of generator can run either stand alone or interconnected with the EPS. When interconnected, the generator output is exactly in step with the EPS voltage and frequency. Note that separately excited synchronous generators can supply sustained fault current under nearly all operating conditions. A synchronous generator requires more complex control than an induction generator, both to synchronize it with the EPS, and to control its field excitation. It also requires special protective equipment to isolate it from the EPS under fault conditions. Significant advantages include the fact that this type of machine can provide power during EPS outages and it also permits the DR owner to control the power factor at his facility by adjusting the dc field current. Static Power Converter Some DR installations produce electric power having voltages not in synchronism with those of the electric utility network to which they are to be connected. The purpose of an electric power converter is to provide an interface between the nonsynchronous DR output and the utility so that the two may be properly interconnected. Two categories of nonsynchronous DR output voltages are as follows: (1) Direct current voltages generated by dc generators, by fuel cells, by photovoltaic devices, by storage batteries, or by an ac generator through a rectifier.
Line Commutated vs. Self Commutated Inverters Inverters may be line commutated or self commutated. Sychronizing of a line commutated unit requires only voltage magnitude matching because frequency and phase angle are established during connection. Synchronization of a self commutated inverter requires matching of voltage magnitude, frequency, and phase angle similar to any synchronous source. A self commutating inverter can operate independent from the electric power system as long as it has an internal frequency reference. A line commutated unit may not be able to make a black start, but may be able to continue to operate following separation from the electric power system. If line commutated unit has an internal frequency reference, it can continue to operate. Without a reference, the line commutated inverter will allow frequency to drift until it goes beyond the window of acceptable operating limits.
19
See Appendix B for a discussion of power factor.
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(2) Alternating current voltages generated by a synchronous generator running at nonsynchronous speed, or by an asynchronous generator. As a consequence of these two broad categories of nonsynchronous DR output voltages, two broad categories of electric power converters can be used to connect the DR to the utility network: (1) dc-to-ac power converter. In this case, the input voltage to the device is generally a nonregulated dc voltage. The output of the device is at the appropriate frequency and voltage magnitude as specified by the local utility. This is the dominant means of small and renewable DR interconnection. (2) ac-to-dc electric power converter. In this case, the input frequency and voltage magnitude to the device, or both, are not at levels that meet Area EPS requirements. The output of the converter device is at the appropriate frequency and voltage magnitude as specified by the Area EPS in cases where dc power can be utilized. This approach is not widely used. The profusion of data centers and other customers using essentially dc power supplies (such as the power supplied by electronic ballasts) has opened the door to either a direct dc or dc-to-ac converter designed to deliver the dc output of small DR units directly to the application. Static power converters are built using diodes, transistors, and thyristors, with ratings compatible with DR applications. These solid-state devices are configured into rectifiers (to convert an ac voltage into a dc voltage), or into inverters (to convert a dc voltage into an ac voltage), or into cyclo-converters (to convert ac voltage at one frequency into ac voltage at another frequency). Some types require the utility source to operate while others may continue to function normally after a utility failure. The major advantages of solid-state converters are their higher efficiency and their potentially higher reliability as compared with rotating machinery converters. Additionally, this technology offers increased flexibility with the incorporation of protective relaying, coordination and communications options.
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Inadvertent Energizing of Area EPS

Inadvertent Energization The DR shall not energize the PCC when the Area EPS has been de-energized for any reason. Reconnection after Area EPS Outage No reconnection shall take place until the Area EPS voltage and frequency are within the operating voltage range of 106V 132V, and frequency range of 59.3Hz 60.5Hz, respectively. The DR shall include an adjustable delay (or a fixed delay of five minutes) that can delay reconnection for up to five minutes20 after Area EPS restoration of continuous normal voltage and frequency.
BACKGROUND
To ensure personnel safety during line maintenance or activities relating to service restoration, it is critical that inadvertent energizing of utility circuits be prevented when the EPS is de-energized. Accordingly, the DR shall not transfer power to the EPS side of the PCC when the EPS has been de-energized for any reason. Additionally, when the voltage or frequency of the Area EPS is outside of acceptable limits, unless islanding is permitted, power transfer from the distributed resource to the Area EPS must cease beyond the point of common coupling. In the case of a system fault, this will allow the Area EPS to step through its relaying and reclosing schemes in an effort to clear the fault, without interference from the DR. It is expected that DR parallel operation will not be permitted when the density of the distributed resources of a particular portion of the aggregate system exceeds the capacity of that portion of the Area EPS beyond the PCC.
IMPACT OF DR
Following an out-of-bounds event which has caused the DR to cease to energize the Area EPS line, the line shall remain disabled until continuous normal voltage and frequency have been maintained by the Area EPS for a minimum of five minutes. At this time, the DR is allowed to automatically reconnect to the Area EPS, if the Area EPS has authorized automatic reconnection.
20 To prevent possible voltage collapse, staggered or random return time capability of DR units (such as induction generators) after the delay may be required.
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There is a range of incidents in which deenergization is required and inadvertent reenergization should be prevented. There are a number of different options for accomplishing this: manual disconnect switch; direct transfer trip; automatic bus transfer switch; and, non-islanding inverter.
Each of these options is discussed below. Manual Disconnect Switch21 A manual disconnect switch that can be locked can be used to separate the distributed resource from the Area EPS beyond the PCC. This provides Area EPS workers with an effective means to ensure that the system beyond the PCC cannot be inadvertently re-energized by the DR while maintenance is performed on the system22. Direct Transfer Trip A direct transfer trip can serve to provide a remote signal activating the DRs disconnecting device. As this can be activated remotely, it has the advantage of being capable of shutting down or disconnecting (depending upon the configuration) many sources at one time. Inadvertent re-energization of multiple units serving the same feeder can be controlled from a single source. Transfer trip relaying is a method of protection whereby a tripping signal is transmitted to a remote line terminal, causing it to trip when a fault is detected in the protected line section. A transfer-trip relaying system is identified as an overreaching or an underreaching system, depending on the setting of the directional distance relay that keys the frequency shift tone or carrier transmitter at each terminal. If it has a setting that causes it to respond to faults on the protected line and, additionally to faults beyond the end of the protected line, it overreaches and the system is identified as an overreaching transfer trip system. Permissive overreaching transfer trip systems Permissive overreaching systems make use of a continuous pilot (guard) signal, and no tripping will occur while the guard tone is being received. A fault in the line section will cause the pilot frequency to shift to the trip frequency. At the same time, the fault detectors at both ends of the line will operate, and trip
21 See subsequent section on Isolation Device for additional requirements on the use of disconnect switches.
The disconnect switch does not, however, provide a sufficient means of ceasing and restoring power transfer to the system beyond the PCC when the change in state is required to occur quickly or automatically. Additionally, as distributed resources become more prevalent, it becomes more cumbersome to manually switch and lock the disconnect switches. Disconnect switches may be required for other reasons as well (commercial, utility union work practices, etc.).
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signals will be transmitted to each line terminal, so that tripping will result to clear the line section. Tripping occurs when the distance relay operates at each terminal and a trip signal is received at that terminal. The distance relays at the two ends of the line cooperate to clearly identify a fault as being internal to the protected line or external. Underreaching transfer trip systems Underreaching systems may be either direct or permissive; they also make use of pilot signals. In direct systems, the fault detectors are set to overlap in the protected line section23, but not to respond to external faults. For internal faults, trip signals are transmitted from each end of the line to the opposite end, causing the circuit breakers to operate and clear the fault. In the direct underreaching system, receiving the channel trip causes tripping of the terminal breaker(s). No local fault-detector relay operation is required. Permissive underreach systems include a local directional distance relay which supervises tripping. Overreaching transfer trip systems require that a signal be received by the channel equipment in order for tripping to take place. These systems are usually committed to channels that are not dependent on the integrity of the protected power line itself such as pilot wires and microwave. Automatic Bus Transfer Switch An automatic bus transfer switch can be applied to detect a loss of power beyond the PCC and subsequently change state to prevent transferring power to the Area EPS beyond the PCC. Typically, the bus transfer switches are set so that they will not close on a dead bus thereby preventing inadvertent re-energization. Non-Islanding Inverter
CAN A SELF-COMMUTATED INVERTER BE NON-ISLANDING? Self-commutated inverters can be designed as either voltage or current sources. Most EPS-interconnected self-commutated inverters are designed as current sources. The inverter uses the utility voltage as a reference, then provides the current available from the DR unit at the voltage and frequency the utility has presented to it. If the utility signal is not there as a reference, the inverter is designed to cease to energize the EPS across the PCC. The high-frequency switching and digital control used
The non-islanding inverter can provide another by these inverters allows manufacturers to employ a means for preventing inadvertent re-energization. variety of schemes to avoid islanding. One of these techniques, recently developed by a consortium of This is a relatively new product, although a track photovoltaic inverter manufacturers and Sandia record of reliability is beginning to be established. National Laboratories, uses positive feedback from Much work has been, and continues to be voltage and frequency to accelerate the drift of voltage performed to develop inverters that can ensure and/or frequency outside of the normal trip limits when the EPS is not available to control these parameters. that the energy producing facility will not be able to generate electrical energy in the absence of the EPS electrical source. Some of these inverters have been tested to appropriate standards on which the non-islanding function is based24. In these cases, some utilities have allowed the use of such devices and have modified their work practices accordingly.
The directional distance relays are typically set to respond to faults within approximately 80 percent of the protected line length.
23 24
UL 1741 is one example of a standard for inverters used on photovoltaic systems.
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Monitoring
Each DR unit of 250 kVA or more, or DR aggregate of 250 kVA or more at a single PCC shall have provisions for monitoring its availability, connection status, real power output and imaginary power output at the point of DR connection
BACKGROUND
The need to monitor DR unit status is typically driven by Area EPS personnel safety and operating concerns. When there is no power export, and when reverse power relaying and/or power inverter logic prevents power export25, monitoring is usually not required. From a safety perspective, however, monitoring is still considered in some cases. When the DR is exporting power to the Area EPS, monitoring is essential. Larger capacity DR installations may be located at a site with a relatively high electrical load. If the size of the DR is less than the size of the load, but is significant compared to the capability of the EPS serving the site, an operational basis may exist for monitoring. This discussion of monitoring does not take into account the application of revenue metering. IEEE 1547 only addresses the technical requirements of interconnection; revenue metering is a business and contractual issue and is not covered here.
IMPACT OF DR
In those cases where the DR has the capability to export power and/or energy into the EPS, the EPS operator is naturally concerned about the impact on distribution system operations. In these cases, and to ensure the safety of Area EPS operations personnel and of the general public, the interconnecting Area EPS generally requires real-time status information from the DR. The 1547 Standard, as noted above, does not require this type of monitoring; this is typically included in the contract or tariff that describes the business terms of DR interconnection and EPS interaction. IEEE 1547 only requires that the DR unit include provisions for monitoring selected operating parameters at the point of DR connection. The details of the monitoring requirements must be spelled out in the agreement with the DR owner. However, to present a complete picture of the package of monitoring
25
In this case, the Area EPS is assured that during an outage of a circuit or during unusual switching operations, the DR is unable to inject power and energy into the EPS. This operating restriction placed on the DR addresses the primary safety concerns associated with DR operation.
26
Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 requirements that may comprise the business arrangement, this section summarizes the fundamental monitoring provisions. The Area EPS is mostly concerned with DR system status and loading during times of unusual system operating states, such as an outage of a circuit or emergency switching operations. At these times, the EPS operator is reluctant to depend on automatic devices to remove the DR from the system. If the size of the DR is very small compared to the EPS serving the site, the interconnecting Area EPS generally will not require monitoring26.
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Establishing the DR Monitoring Threshold The suggested threshold for monitoring in IEEE 1547 is 250 kVa, or approximately 200 kW. During deliberations in development of this requirement, 100 kW was originally proposed as a lower break point. The 100 kW break point was sized for the 400-ampere electrical service entrances being used in many new upscale homes. The original intent was to exempt residential installations from the monitoring requirements. In addition, it was noted that many entities (such as RTO control centers) providing real time control of the Area EPS transmission system would only need to see the power flow from any aggregate installations totaling 1 MW or larger.
When monitoring is required, most Area EPS SCADA systems have the ability to monitor relay contact operations, and this capability can be used to provide core information about system status to the Area EPS operator. Most modern DR units today are equipped with multi-function microprocessor-based control systems. These systems generally have the capability for detailed data logging around fault conditions, with data storage in a non-volatile format. Accordingly, this information should be readily available to service personnel investigating fault conditions. If more detailed real time monitoring is desired, the area EPS operator may be able to use established systems to integrate the DR status outputs into their overall system monitoring. When the DR feeder penetration ratio exceeds 25 percent, based on the known minimum feeder section load with which the DR can be isolated, monitoring shall be required, regardless of the size of the DR unit.

In cases where the DR has the capability to export capacity and energy to the Area EPS, installation of metering for monitoring and control purposes is recommended, in accordance with the following guidelines: Aggregate DR Size Requirement <200 kW .................................................No Monitoring 200 kW to 1 MW ....................................Monitoring not required if DR is prevented via protective relaying from injecting energy into the EPS > 1 MW...................................................Monitoring required27
26
An example of this last case is a 20 kW windmill on a residential property with a peak load of 5 kW served by a rural distribution line with a capability of 6 MW. Situations may arise when the EPS operator may be willing to waive this requirement based on the capability of the DR interconnection package, or the experience of the DR operator.
27
27
Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 Monitoring arrangements typically include:
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Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) for performing Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) functions; communications equipment; telephone circuit protection equipment; transducers; potential transformers; and, current transformers.
The Area EPS operator is typically provided with local indication and discrete signals for remote monitoring of the Local EPS, including: Isolation device status (open or closed); Local EPS operating at normal voltage and frequency; and, Local EPS locked out (i.e., unable to be automatically connected to the Area EPS).
In addition, the monitoring arrangement should include electrical energy and demand information, reactive power information, voltage information, and alarms28. IEEE 1547 requires a design verification to ensure that the provisions for monitoring are in accordance with the technical requirements. Potential free contacts and analog values, originally included in the IEEE 1547 requirement but subsequently dropped, represent specific technologies that may be applicable for some systems, but are inappropriate for others. For example, a common photovoltaic (PV) application is to use multiple smaller inverters (often 1-2 kW) to make an aggregate system rated at over 50 kW. Typically, all of these inverters communicate via a communication link to a central computer that can display all of the required data (and more). Another popular approach is communication over a TCP/IP protocol through an Ethernet connection.
28
The monitoring arrangement should be capable of displaying 2 seconds of data gathered before and after any fault condition, and should retain data for the 10 most recent fault conditions. It is usually good practice to collect RMS amps, RMS volts, and frequency. Data should be recorded on a cycle-by-cycle basis at the point of common coupling, including a time stamp.
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EXAMPLE OF UTILITY-SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR DR MONITORING The DR will provide a terminal strip suitable for connecting 18 to 14 gauge wires via ring or spade terminations. On this terminal strip the following signals will be terminated. Analog Unidirectional Signals (signals will be 0 -1.0 milliamperes) Instantaneous voltage (1 phase minimum) Instantaneous current (1 phase minimum) Bi-directional Signals (signals will be -1.0 to 0 to + 1.0 milliamperes) Instantaneous kW (1 phase minimum) Instantaneous KVAR (1 phase minimum) Digital (all digital contacts will be form C contacts) Facility status (on line/off line, synchronizing breaker open/closed); Hourly generation (kWh pulses); and, Equipment alarms indicating functional status of protection system (for example, dead man timer, failed power supply, or other system failure alarm).
Note: Monitoring is technically involved. While this information is not prescriptive, it is intended to be useful for the cooperative member or DR developer to have available this typical list of monitoring and control needs. It should be noted that kW and KVAR metering is not included; this is likely to require revenue grade metering, not within the scope of IEEE 1547 but which will need to be addressed by the contractual arrangement with the DR owner.
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Isolation Device
Where required by the Area EPS operating practices, a readily accessible, lockable, visible-break isolation device shall be located between the Area EPS and the DR unit.
BACKGROUND
This requirement from IEEE 1547 differs from the earlier requirement, Inadvertent Energizing of the Area EPS. While the two requirements are clearly related, the earlier requirement focuses on preventing the DR energization of the PCC when the Area EPS has been de-energized for any reason. The intent of this requirement for an isolation device is primarily driven by personnel safety concerns during routine line maintenance or other service activities, not necessarily when the Area EPS is out of service. Strategically located disconnect switches are an integral part of any electrical power system. These switches provide visible isolation points to allow for A NEW NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE safe work practices. The National Electrical Code29 REQUIREMENT (NEC) dictates the requirements for disconnect devices, which allow for safe operation and maintenance of the Added as a new requirement in the 1999 NEC, Section 445-10 requires that generators be electrical power systems within public or private equipped with disconnect switches. The text of buildings and structures. This requirement deals this new code requirement reads as follows: specifically with disconnect switches required to ensure safe work practices taking place on the Area EPS and NEC 445-10. Disconnecting Means Required for not addressed by the National Electrical Code. Generators. Generators shall be equipped with a
disconnect by means of which the generator and all protective devices and control apparatus are Similar to the National Electrical Code, all electric able to be disconnected entirely from the circuits utilities have established practices and procedures supplied by the generator except where: which ensure safe operation of the electrical power system under both normal and abnormal conditions. The driving means for the generator can be readily shut down; and Several of these procedures identify methods that The generator is not arranged to operate in ensure that the electrical system has been properly parallel with another generator or other configured to provide safe working conditions for Area source of voltage. EPS line and service personnel. Although these procedures may vary somewhat between utilities, the underlying intent of the procedures is to establish safe work area clearances to allow Area EPS line and service personnel to operate safely in proximity to the electrical power system. To achieve this result, electric utilities have developed procedures that require visible isolation, protective grounding and
29
National Electrical Code, NEC 1999, NFPA 70, published by the National Fire Protection Association, One Batterymarch Park, Quincy, Mass.
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jurisdictional tagging of the portion of the electrical power system where clearance is to be gained. These procedures, in unison with other safety procedures and sound judgement based upon knowledge and experience, have resulted in an essentially hazard free work environment for Area EPS personnel.
IMPACT OF DR
In a DR installation, some equipment and fuses or breakers may be energized from two or more directions. Thus, disconnect switches should be strategically installed to permit disconnection from all sources. Typically, the load-side contacts (switch blades) of a disconnect switch are de-energized when the switch is open. However, this is not necessarily the case when a DR is connected to the Area EPS system, so a safety label should be placed on the switch, warning that the load-side contacts may still be energized when the switch is in the open position. Also, a means should be provided for fuse replacement (in fused switches) without exposing the worker to energized parts.

To facilitate the utility safety procedures described above, it is a general practice that a visible break isolating device be provided for each source of electrical energy which is electrically connected to the utility electrical system. These isolation devices, typically electrical disconnect switches, are used to provide visible isolation of the electrical power source from the utilitys electrical system when clearance is to be gained.30 Installation of a disconnect switch allows utility workers to isolate the DR from the EPS and prevent inadvertent energization of circuits on which they are working. When a disconnect switch is provided, the following requirements should be met: 1. The energy producing source must be capable of being isolated from the Area EPS by means of an external, visible, gang-operated disconnecting switch. The switch should be externally operable without exposing the operator to contact with live parts and, if power operable, of a type that can be opened by hand in the event of a power supply failure. This disconnecting switch is to be installed, owned and maintained by the owner of the distributed resource facility. 2. The disconnect switch shall be located within 10 feet of the point of common coupling. If this is not practical, the disconnecting switch should be located between the DR and the point of common coupling and a laminated weather-proof map showing the location of the DR disconnecting switch shall be permanently mounted adjacent to the PCC.
3. The disconnect switch must be rated for the voltage and current requirements of the installation. 4. Disconnect switches shall meet applicable UL, ANSI and IEEE standards, and shall be installed to meet all applicable local, state and federal codes. 5. The disconnect switch shall be readily accessible for operation and locking by the Area EPS personnel at all times. Operation of this switch by the serving utility is at the discretion of the utility with appropriate notice to the DR.
30
See the related discussion of disconnect switches as included in the earlier section on Inadvertent Energization of Area EPS.
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6. The disconnect switch shall be clearly marked, DR Disconnect Switch, with permanent 3/8 inch letters or larger. 7. For disconnect switches energized from both sides, a marking shall be provided to indicate that all contacts of the switch may be energized. DR isolation requires all ungrounded conductors and equipment, such as inverters, transformers, and other associated devices to be disconnected from all sources of supply. The DR operator should install an isolation device to permit safe access to the wiring system.
CAUTION IN THE USE OF DISCONNECT SWITCHES A manual disconnect switch capable of being locked can be used to separate the distributed resource from the electric power system beyond the PCC. This provides utility workers with an effective means to ensure that the system beyond the PCC cannot be inadvertently reenergized by the DR as maintenance is performed on the system. The disconnect switch does not, however, provide a sufficient means of ceasing and restoring power transfer to the system beyond the PCC when the change in state is required to occur quickly or automatically. Additionally, as distributed resources become more prevalent, it becomes more cumbersome to manually switch and lock the disconnect switches. Disconnect switches may be required for other reasons as well (commercial, utility union work practices, etc.).
Effectively, each generator must be disconnected from every other source of electric power without jeopardizing either the equipment, operating personnel, the general public, or other sources that remain in operation. The isolation device should be operable without exposing the operator to contact with live parts, be capable of being locked in the open position, and be readily accessible. The rating of the switch should not be less than the load to be carried by the DR, and the open or closed position of the switch should be verifiable. Following the isolation of all electrical power sources, protective safety grounds are attached to the high voltage phase conductors and jurisdictional tags (tags specifying the individual person who can authorize operation of a particular electrical device, such as a disconnect switch) are placed to further safeguard utility personnel. These procedures ensure that safe work area clearances are established and maintained. Following the necessary maintenance work, the jurisdictional tags and the protective grounds are removed and the disconnect switches are closed to allow for re-energization of the electrical power system. As an option to the disconnect switch described above, much work has been, and continues to be performed to develop inverters which can ensure that the DR will not be able to generate electrical energy in the absence of the utility electrical source (the non-islanding inverter). Utilities may wish to modify their current work practices by waiving the requirement for an isolation device when such an inverter has been installed, and the inverters have been tested to appropriate standards on which the non-islanding function is based31. In most cases, the utility accessible and lockable visible-break, load break switch will be the option chosen to meet this requirement. It is suggested for DR projects less than 10 kW (e.g., small residential photovoltaic installations) that this requirement can be met by a plug or twist-lock plug, if it can be removed in a manner preventing it from being plugged back into the system. A pad-lockable cap that can be placed over the plug for which only utility personnel have the key is one such example. The testing provisions of IEEE 1547 include a demonstration of the operation of the utility disconnect switch or control being used to meet the isolation requirement.
31
UL 1741 is one example of a standard for inverters used on photovoltaic systems.
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Voltage Disturbances
The protection functions of the interconnection system shall measure the effective (RMS) or fundamental frequency value of each phase-to-neutral or, alternatively, each phase-to-phase voltage. When any of the measured voltages is in any voltage range given below, the DR shall cease to energize the Area EPS within the clearing time as indicated. Clearing time is the time between the start of the abnormal condition and the DR ceasing to energize the Area EPS. For DR less than or equal to 30 kW in peak capacity, the voltage set points and clearing times shall be either fixed or field adjustable. For DR greater than 30 kW the voltage set points shall be field adjustable. 32 The voltages shall be measured at the point of DR connection when any of the following conditions exist: (a) the aggregate capacity of DR systems connected to a single PCC is less than or equal to 30 kW, (b) the interconnection equipment is certified to pass a non-islanding test33, (c) the aggregate DR capacity is less than 50% of the total Local EPS minimum electrical demand, and export of real or reactive power to the Area EPS is not permitted.
Interconnection System Response to Abnormal Voltages (on a 120 V, 60 Hz base)34 Voltage Range (Volts) V<60 60V<106 132<V<144 144V Clearing Time (sec.)* .16 2 1 .16
* DR 30kW, Maximum Clearing Times ; DR > 30kW, Default Clearing Times35
BACKGROUND
32 33
Field adjustable settings shall be protected against unauthorized adjustment. An example of a non-islanding test is included in Appendix E; other standards may apply.
34 For DR systems interconnected with an Area EPS at a base other than stated, the table values should be converted to a per unit basis. 35
The Area EPS Operator can specify different voltage settings or Trip Times to accommodate Area EPS system requirements.
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The purpose of the allowed time delay is to ride through short-term disturbances to avoid excessive nuisance tripping. For systems less than 30 kW in peak capacity, the above set points are to be protected against unauthorized adjustment. Adjustment by a qualified individual (or automatic adjustment for prevailing conditions) is desirable to allow compensation for voltage difference between the inverter and the PCC. For intermediate and larger DR units over 30 kW (peak capacity) being fed from medium-voltage switchgear, consideration should be given to monitoring voltage for the requirements of this section at the PCC in order to avoid problems with voltage drop in various transformers, wiring, or feeder circuits. Understanding Voltage Disturbances Some of the terms used to describe voltage disturbances are defined differently by utility engineers and by manufacturers and users of disturbance analyzers and power conditioners. The differing usage of these
Term Impulse Momentary interruption Notch Sustained interruption Sag Surge Swell Momentary overvoltage at fundamental frequency lasting from a half-cycle to a few seconds Utility meaning Unidirectional surge Complete loss of line voltage for a duration of 30 cycles to 2 min, while automatic equipment is acting to resolve an abnormal circuit condition An impulse that subtracts from the fundamental frequency wave The complete loss of line voltage for a duration greater than 2 min Momentary undervoltage at fundamental fre-quency lasting from a half-cycle to a few seconds Unidirectional surge Monitoring equipment manufacturer or user meaning Same Complete loss of line voltage for a duration of a half-cycle or more Same Complete loss of line voltage for a duration of half-cycle or more Same Momentary overvoltage at fundamental frequency lasting from a half-cycle to a few seconds Same
technical terms is contrasted in Table 3. Table 3. Voltage Terminology Differences

Source: IEEE Std 1250-1995, IEEE Guide for Service to Equipment Sensitive to Momentary Voltage Disturbances.
IMPACT OF DR
The occurrence of a voltage disturbance on the Area EPS is a typical experience in distribution system operations. As discussed in the Section on Voltage Regulation, distribution system voltage regulation depends on the DR clearing off line whenever EPS voltage is out of agreed-upon operating ranges. In this case, the disconnection of the DR avoids any impact on system voltage.
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Cooperative Requirements Cooperatives should consider the following type of clause in any agreement or tariff in implementing this requirement of IEEE 1547: The DR owner shall have, as a minimum, an interrupting device(s), which is sized to meet all applicable local, state and federal codes, operated by over and under voltage protection (installed in each phase and wired phase to ground), and additional loss of phase protection. (The interrupting device(s) shall also be operated by over and under frequency protection as covered by the next section of this guide.) The set points as listed above shall not be changed or modified by the DR owner or operator at any time. The DR shall automatically initiate a disconnect sequence from the Area EPS as these set points are reached. To avoid out of phase reclosing, the design of the DR units protection and control scheme shall take into account the Area EPS practice of automatically reclosing the feeder without synchronism check as quickly as 12 cycles after being tripped. A failure of the DR owners interconnection protection equipment, including loss of control power, shall open the interrupting device, thus disconnecting the generation from the utility system. The DRs protection equipment shall utilize a non-volatile memory design such that a loss of internal or external control power, including batteries, will not cause a loss of interconnection protection functions including all pickup set points. All interface protection and control equipment shall operate as specified independent of the calendar date. Causes of Momentary Disturbances Electrical utility and utilization supply systems are designed to provide an adequate and reliable voltage supply to meet the basic needs of all users. Normally, both utility and utilization systems used for the production and distribution of electricity are subjected to unexpected momentary variations from both natural and man-made disturbances. As a result, most electrical systems will experience certain voltage disturbances. Some electric and electronic equipment, because of special sensitivities, may require a voltage supply that has fewer momentary disturbances than what is otherwise adequate. The nature of the offending disturbances, severity, incidence rate, effects on sensitive equipment (e.g., lost or spurious data, false triggering or other equipment failure), and the degree of control will vary. Many of these disturbances are generated at the users facility by user equipment or by other user-owned equipment on adjacent circuits; others result from an event on the utility system, such as lightning and equipment switching. Momentary voltage disturbances are generally caused by the following: Lightning Faults (short circuits) Switching Motor starting Cyclic and variable loads Tap changing
See Table 4 for more detail.
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Table 4. Description of Momentary Disturbances

Disturbance Lightning Description Lightning-related surges in the low-voltage system can either occur from direct strikes to the customers service or by induction from strikes elsewhere. Lightning can cause surges at loads and commonly leads to sags or momentary interruptions as a result of temporary faults (including arrester operation) initiated by lightning. Some lightninginduced transients cause the tripping and automatic reclosing of protective switchgear. Such operations are similar to those caused by line-to-ground faults from tree limbs and other objects grounding or short-circuiting transmission or distribution lines. Faults (short circuits) on the utility system are classified as either temporary or permanent. The normal utility overcurrent protective practice is based on the fact that most faults (on overhead systems) are temporary or can be selectively isolated in order to restore the remainder of the system. Permanent (long-term) faults may be due to equipment failure, accidents with vehicles, a tree limb falling onto the line, etc. They result in service interruptions, which can last, from minutes to hours. During a permanent fault condition, the breaker is usually programmed to operate three or four times in an attempt to re-establish power before it locks open. The fault must then be located and repaired before service is restored to all customers. Most switching operations, both utility and user, result in momentary voltage disturbances. These operations include fault clearing, rapid clearing, load transfer, fault closing, current chopping, etc. Although most users of sensitive equipment are aware that their equipment may be subjected to transients, many are not aware of the magnitude or source of the transients or the specific sensitivities of their equipment. Transients from within the customers premises occur with load switching or fault clearing. The transient voltage results from the rapid rate of change of current through the inductance of the wiring. The magnitudes of these transients can be quite high. In addition to voltage regulators and load tap-changers (LTCs), most utilities and many industrial and commercial users employ shunt capacitor banks to help control the power factor or voltage profile by supplying reactive power (vars) to inductive loads, such as motors. Placed strategically on the circuit, shunt capacitors also reduce the losses associated with the primary circuit while improving the power factor. To accommodate widely varying load conditions, most capacitor banks are switched automatically. When capacitor banks are energized, the transient oscillation between the capacitor and the system inductance produces transient voltages as high as 2 times normal at the capacitor location. The magnitude of the overvoltage is usually less than this due to damping provided by systems loads and losses. Certain sensitive loads may not be able to tolerate the normal switching transients associated with routine capacitor switching. The starting of large motors is accompanied by a voltage sag resulting from the inrush current flowing through the system impedance. The maximum voltage sag occurs at the motor terminals and can have a noticeable or even objectionable effect on other customers in the area, or on nearby load sensitive to sags. (See Flicker section.) These loads include automatic spot welders, reciprocating compressors, etc. The human eye is particularly sensitive to this type of disturbance. At six fluctuations per second, the objectionable voltage flicker limit is only 0.5%. (See Flicker section.) The control of operating voltage levels on a distribution system is accomplished through the use of voltage regulators, LTCs and shunt (power factor correction) capacitors. A load tap-changer is functionally equivalent to a voltage regulator. Both consist of an autotransformer with a tapped series winding. A voltage-level-sensing control and a tapchanging mechanism are provided that change the tap position and the voltage level under load.
Faults
Switching
Capacitor Switching
Motor Starting Cyclic and Variable Loads Tap Changing
36
Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 Sensitive Loads
September 2001
Digital electronic devices, particularly those with a memory, are extremely sensitive to even very shortduration power disturbances. These momentary disturbances, impulses, or transients may result in customer complaints unless adequate ride-through capability is provided. Minicomputers, electronic cash registers, and data terminals are a few examples of sensitive loads that often fall victim to momentary voltage disturbances. These disturbances can interrupt the operation of sensitive circuitry and cause memory loss, system malfunction, or component failure. Leading categories of sensitive customer loads are discussed below. Computers Computer equipment is more sensitive to voltage disturbances than most other equipment. Computers generate harmonic distortion and typically are not very sensitive to it unless the voltage waveform is very distorted. Distortion of the voltage near the zero-crossings can cause timing errors. Process Control Commercial facility management systems typically include sensors for input data, remote terminal units, the central processor, and man-machine interface devices. Functions managed can include heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning; security; access control; and energy management. Industrial flexible manufacturing systems are assemblies of machine tools, cutting tools, and workpiece-handling devices employed to process a variety of finished parts. Process control systems exhibit similar voltage sensitivities as computer equipment. In addition, motor starters, contactors, relays, and other devices held closed by a coil and magnetic structure are especially sensitive to short-time interruptions and voltage sags. As a guide, a voltage sag to 60 or 70% of rated voltage for 0.5 seconds will de-energize many of these devices. Many control relays, sealed-in by their own contacts, will drop out if voltage is lost for 0.5 cycle or more. Telecommunications Most of the critical telecom equipment uses batteries to buffer disturbances and interruptions of the electric utility service, so short-term transients normally have little or no effect. However, the individual terminals that connect to the public telecommunication networks often connect directly to the electric utility service and are subjected to disturbances. Electric Arc Lighting High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting includes mercury, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps used for security and street lighting applications. In the event of a power interruption or voltage sag lasting more than 1 cycle, HID lamps extinguish and do not restart for several minutes. The exact magnitude of the voltage drop causing this condition depends on the lamp ballast. Consumer Electronics An ever-increasing variety and number of digital electronics are found in videocassette recorders, microwave ovens, stereos, televisions, and clocks. Some of these have back-up systems (e.g., batteries)
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that pre-vent disruption to timer/clock functions when power is lost for short periods of time. Others do not. Adjustable Speed Drives Adjustable speed drives (ASDs) are used to control the speed, torque, acceleration, and direction of rotation of a motor. Unlike constant speed systems, the ASD permits the selection of an infinite number of speeds within its operating range. Adjustable-frequency ac drives convert three-phase 60 Hz input power to an adjustable frequency and voltage source for controlling the speed of squirrel-cage induction motors or other ac motors. Problems have been documented involving nuisance tripping of some manufacturers ac drives due to switching transients associated with capacitors on the customers or utilitys system.
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Frequency Disturbances
All DR units shall follow the interconnected Area EPS frequency within the range 59.3 Hz to 60.5 Hz (on a 60 Hz base). The frequency measurements shall be either at the point of DR connection or PCC. A DR unit <30 kW shall cease to energize the Area EPS within 0.16 s if the frequency goes outside the range above. A DR unit >30 kW shall (1) cease to energize the Area EPS within 0.16 s if the frequency exceeds 60.5 Hz, (2) be capable of time delayed disconnection with adjustable under-frequency settings in the range 59.3 Hz to 57 Hz, and (3) disconnect within 0.16 s if the frequency is less than 57.0 Hz.36
BACKGROUND
Under and over frequency protective functions are among the most important means of preventing the establishment of a DR island. It is desirable for these protections to operate promptly, but nuisance trips need to be avoided. At the point of generation, the frequency in a typical Area EPS is very stable. However, voltage phase-angle swings can occur in transmission and distribution lines due to sudden changes in feeder loading and load current. Over a short enough measurement time these voltage swings can cause nuisance trips of under or over frequency protective functions. The purpose of the allowed time delay in this P1547 requirement is to ride through short-term disturbances to avoid excessive nuisance tripping of the DR.
IMPACT OF DR
As discussed above, frequency excursions do typically occur during on the Area EPS during distribution system operations. Maintaining stable EPS operations depends on the DR clearing off line whenever EPS voltage and/or frequency are out of agreed-upon operating ranges. The IEEE 1547 requirement is more clearly stated in Table 5. Smaller DR units less than 30 kW potentially have less impact on system operations and typically can disconnect from the Area EPS well within 10 cycles clearing time. DR units larger than 30 kW can have an impact on distribution system security. The IEEE 1547 requirement takes this into account by allowing the Area EPS operator to specify the frequency setting and time delay for underfrequency trips down to 57 Hz.
36
Table 5. IEEE 1547 Requirement for DR Response to Area EPS Frequency Disturbances
DR Size 30kW EPS Frequency >60.5 Hz <59.3 Hz >60.5 Hz 59.3-57.0 Hz <57.0 Hz DR Cease to Energize Time .16 sec. .16 sec. .16 sec. Time Delayed .16 sec.
>30kW
This frequency in the range 59.3 Hz to 57 Hz and time delay can be selected by the Area EPS Operator to provide system security.
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Causes for EPS Frequency Degradation Area EPS security depends on the systems ability to withstand the outage of certain lines or equipment without being forced into a system emergency. Security also depends on the proper matching of system load and generation. When generation is inadequately matched with system load, the EPS frequency will decline. When this happens, the system operator seeks to quickly match load with the available generation. Underfrequency relays are installed on the distribution system to automatically shed load to stabilize operations. This is the purpose of allowing the Area EPS to determine the setting of the DR underfrequency trip relay. Some of these underfrequency relays are sensitive to the rate of EPS frequency decay, providing information to the system operator to assist in the timing of load shedding. Similar problems on the EPS can occur when generation exceeds the available load, as in the case when a large block load is suddenly lost, or when tie lines exporting power quickly relay closed. Overfrequency is much less of a problem to system operations than underfrequency.

In large power systems, frequency changes are rare. However, with installed DR, some frequency change is unavoidable when blocks of load are switched. With a modern synchronous governor or static transfer switch used on a distribution system feeder, these disturbances should be EXAMPLE OF GENERATOR GOVERNORS AND IMPACT ON under 5 percent frequency change and FREQUENCY less than 5s duration, even for full load switching. Governors work in droop or isochronous modes of operation. In a Both the frequency and voltage trip pickup settings for induction generators and static power converters may be relaxed at the discretion of the Area EPS if it appears that the DR will experience too many nuisance trips. Synchronous generator trip settings can also be relaxed, but not too much due to the increased threat of islanding.
droop mode, the engines speed decreases as the load increases; in isochronous mode the governor maintains the same steady speed at any load, up to the full load. A typical speed droop setting for a droopoperated generator is 35%. Thus, if speed and frequency at full load are 1800 r/min and 60 Hz, respectively, at no load they will be 1872 r/min and 62.4 Hz, with 4% droop. When a generator is parallel with the system for maintenance periods, the governor is set on droop mode, i.e., it is base-loaded. Under an isolated condition, it is desirable to operate the governor under an isochronous mode so that the system frequency is kept constant. Under steady load, frequency tends to vary slightly above and below the normal frequency setting of the governor. The extent of this variation is a measure of the stability of the governor.
The frequency trip points should be An isochronous governor should maintain frequency regulation within adjustable in increments with a setting 1/4%. When load is added or removed, speed and frequency dip or resolution of 1/2 Hz or better. Internal rise momentarily, usually for 13 s, before the governor causes the engine to settle at a steady speed at the new load. For generators microprocessor protection functions in operating in parallel with a primary source of power, the governor may static power converters units may be be arranged to automatically switch from droop to isochronous mode substituted for external relays if they upon loss of the primary source. provide suitable accuracy. External test ports for periodic utility testing of the trip pickup settings should be included in the interconnection package. Operation at under frequency may result in synchronous generator hot spots and higher than normal generator insulation temperature. 40
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Disconnection for Faults

P1547 Requirement
The DR unit shall cease to energize the Area EPS for faults on the Area EPS circuit to which it is connected. With a stiffness ratio of 10 or less, the DR unit shall be equipped with current-based protection 37 and current-based or voltage-based ground fault protection suitable for the detection of Area EPS faults.
BACKGROUND
Short circuit currents on distribution circuits in the United States are from over 20,000 A to values less than 1 A for high-impedance single-phase-to-ground faults. The maximum fault can be controlled by system design. Area EPSs are designed not to exceed the rating of distribution line equipment. Maximum faults are limited by restricting substation transformer size and impedance, or both; by installing bus or circuit reactors; or by inserting reactance or resistance in the transformer neutral. Minimum fault magnitude is largely dependent on fault resistance which cannot be controlled. These faults are the most dangerous and difficult to detect. Clearing times for short circuits on distribution circuits vary widely, depending on magnitude and the type of protective equipment installed. In general, on most circuits, large current faults will be cleared in 0.1 s or faster. Low current faults frequently require clearing times of 5-10 s or longer; and some very low level but potentially dangerous ground faults may not be cleared at all, except by manual disconnection of the circuit. Cooperative Circuit Configuration A distribution circuit is typically supplied through a single power circuit breaker located at the supply substation and is divided into various zones by automatic sectionalizing devices. These devices are carefully coordinated, so that a fault in any section can be quickly isolated with minimum or no interruption to other portions of the circuit. Of course, a fault in the main trunk section near the source breaker will require that the entire circuit be interrupted. However, if automatic reclosing is employed, the duration of outages due to transient faults in this zone will be limited to a brief interval, often considerably less than 1 s. It is essential that the DR be promptly disconnected from the EPS after the EPS source is lost, in order to prevent generator damage due to reclosing out-of-synchronism.
37
For example, voltage-restrained overcurrent relays or voltage controlled overcurrent relays or distance relays are typically used for this purpose.
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Faults are categorized as follows, in order of frequency: single-phase-to-ground; phase-to-phase; double-phase-to-ground; and bolted three-phase.
Table 6. Major Causes of Failure

Type of Fault Insulation Cause Design Defects Improper Manufacturing Improper Installation Aging Insulation Lightning surges Switching surges Dynamic Overvoltages Animal Contact Tree Contact Vehicle Collisions Wind Snow or Ice Contamination Vandalism Overcurrent Overvoltage
The major causes of failures are summarized in Table 6.
Electrical Mechanical
IMPACT OF DR
The DR system should be designed with adequate protection and control equipment, including an interrupting device that will disconnect the generator if the EPS that connects to the DR system or the DR system itself experiences a fault. The DR system should have, as a minimum, an interrupting device(s) with the following characteristics:
Thermal
1) sufficient capacity to interrupt maximum available fault current at its location; 2) sized to meet all applicable ANSI and IEEE standards; and 3) installed to meet all local, state, and federal codes. A failure of the DR system's protection and control equipment, including loss of control power, shall automatically open the disconnecting device38, thus disconnecting the DR system from the EPS (i. e. fail safe).

Disconnecting Device Selection Criteria The selection of protective devices and/or functions depends on the type of DR unit. However, regardless of the type of DR, four principles of disconnecting device selection shall be considered: 1. Dependability A high probability of clearing faults that occur on the Area EPS. 2. Security A low probability of interrupting the circuit unnecessarily. 3. Selectivity Ability to discriminate so as not to isolate any area beyond the PCC. 4. Speed Operation as rapidly as possible, consistent with coordination requirements, to minimize damage.
38
Either a physical device such as a relay or switch, or a computer-controllable capability in electronic power equipment, designed to isolate a portion of the Area EPS and/or DR systems.
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Application to Larger DR Units This IEEE 1547 requirement specifies DR use of current-based protective devices and ground fault protection suitable for the detection of Area EPS faults. As included in a footnote in the Standard, voltage-restrained overcurrent relays or distance relays are typically used for this purpose. This requirement generally applies only to relatively large DR installations. For example, for application on a typical 12 kV line with fault currents ranging from 12,500 amperes near the source substation to 1250 amperes at the end of the line, the Stiffness Ratio threshold of 10 represents a 550 kVA to 5500 kVA DR (assuming that the short circuit current of the DR is five times rated current). Characteristics of Static Power Converters for Fault Detection A salient characteristic of most static power conversion devices is their inability to supply excessive currents under Area EPS fault conditions. Fault detection schemes using overcurrent principals that are universally applied to static power conversion systems are not usually effective. DR units using this technology must rely on other methods to detect electrical faults on the Area EPS. When an Area EPS fault occurs, abnormal voltage conditions are typically experienced. Under and overvoltage and frequency sensing is typically used to detect these conditions. Detection of these abnormal voltage conditions by voltage sensing circuitry within the inverter can be an effective method to isolate the DR from the fault. Faster disconnection times for the DR should be expected for extreme voltage excursions to reduce the possibility of equipment damage. In addition to the voltage sensing method, detection of off-frequency operation can be used to isolate the DR from the Area EPS fault. The bandwidth of the frequency setpoints should be small since offfrequency conditions on the Area EPS are rare and sensitivity for islanding conditions is enhanced.
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Loss of Synchronism
Synchronous generator DRs in applications with a stiffness ratio of 20 or less shall be equipped with loss of synchronism (out-of-step) protective functions to isolate the DR from the Area EPS without any intentional time delay.
BACKGROUND
A synchronous generator typically employs three-phase stator winding which, when connected to the utility three-phase source, creates a rotating magnetic field inside the stator and cutting through the rotor. The rotor is excited with a dc current that creates a fixed field. The rotor, if spun around at the speed of the stator field, will lock its fixed field into synchronism with rotating stator field. Force (torque) applied to the rotor in this synchronous state will cause power to be generated as long as the force is not so great that the rotor pulls out of step with the stator field.
IMPACT OF DR
An island is formed when a relay-initiated trip causes a section of the Area EPS containing DRs to become separated from the main section of the Area EPS,. The main section of the EPS and the island will then operate out of synchronism. If an isolation device is reclosed between the main section of the EPS and the island, a voltage and current transient will occur while the island is brought into synchronism with the remainder of the EPS. The severity of this transient will depend upon the voltage phase-angle separation magnitude across the isolation device when the reclosing event occurs.

Generator Out-of-Synchronism Operations Synchronous Generator Operation of generator out-of-synchronism with excitation maintained places severe type of duty on the unit. Such operation produces heavy surge currents in the armature windings of a magnitude that may exceed those associated with the machine short-circuit requirements and may cause serious damage to the winding. Out-of-synchronism operation also produces torque reversals that create, in many parts of the unit, high mechanical stresses of magnitudes that may be several times those produced by rated torque. High induced voltages and currents in the field circuit may cause flashover of the collector rings and of the commutator of an associated exciter, and may cause damage to solid-state exciter components and systems.
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For these reasons, out-of-synchronism must be identified promptly and the condition remedied. Possible corrective action includes removal of the unit from the system. Induction Generator Since induction generators cannot generally supply sustained fault current or, in many instances, supply isolated load, they do not normally require the same level of protective relays as a synchronous machine. When self-excitation is possible, relaying similar to that installed for a synchronous generator will be required. In such cases, the overvoltage protective function must be instantaneous to minimize potential damage from high voltage. To determine the potential for self-excitation and the need for additional relaying, it will be necessary to review the capacitors in-service on the distribution line supplying the induction generator as well as any capacitors the DR may be using for power-factor correction.
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Feeder Reclosing Coordination

In the case of an Area EPS protection function initiating a trip of an Area EPS protective device in reaction to a fault on the Area EPS, the DR unit must be designed to coordinate with the Area EPS reclosing practices of that protective device.39
BACKGROUND
Experience has shown that 70-95 percent of line faults are temporary if the faulted circuit is quickly disconnected from the system. Most line faults are caused by lightning; if the resulting arcing at the fault does not continue long enough to damage conductors or insulators, the line can be returned to service quickly. Modern distribution feeders reclose (reenergize the feeder) automatically after a trip resulting from a feeder fault. This trip-reclose sequence may be initiated by reclosing relays controlling the corresponding feeder breaker at the substation, or by pole mounted reclosers or sectionalizers located on the feeder away from the substation. Pole mounted reclosers or sectionalizers are strategically placed so as to limit the number of customers affected per given feeder fault. Automatic reclosing allows immediate testing of a previously faulted portion of the feeder and makes it possible to restore service if the fault is no longer present. Depending on the fault magnitude, the first reclosing try can occur very fast, sometimes within 0.2 seconds. This short time interval assumes settings of an instantaneous trip followed by an instantaneous reclosing. It is common practice for utilities to attempt to automatically reclose their circuit breakers following a relay-initiated trip. The time delay between tripping and the initial reclose attempt can range from 0.2 seconds (12 cycles) to 15 seconds (or more). For radial feeders, this initial attempt is then usually followed by two more time-delayed attempts, normally with 30 to 90 second intervals. If none of the reclose attempts are successful, the feeder will then lockout. The reclose attempts are normally performed without any synchronism-check supervision since the feeders are radial in design with the utility being the only source of power.
IMPACT OF DR
The response of the DR unit must be coordinated with the reclosing strategy of the isolation devices within the Area EPS. Coordination is required to prevent possible damage to Area EPS equipment, and to equipment connected to the Area EPS other than the DR. The DR and the Area EPS reclosing strategy will be coordinated if one or more of the following conditions are met for all reclosing events:
39 Typical recloser operation time for Area EPS protective devices may vary from 15 cycles to as long as 2 minutes.
47
Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 1. The DR is designed to cease to energize the EPS before the reclosing event.
September 2001
2. The reclosing device is designed to delay the reclosing event until after the DR has ceased to energize the EPS. 3. The DR is controlled to ensure that the voltage phase-angle separation magnitude across the isolation device is less than one quarter of a cycle when the reclosing event occurs. 4. The reclosing device is controlled to ensure that the voltage phase-angle separation magnitude across the isolation device is less than one quarter of a cycle when the reclosing event occurs. 5. The DR capacity is less than 33 percent of the minimum load on the feeder. This last item is especially important. If the DR capacity is less than 33% of the minimum load on the feeder, then coordination or changes to recloser or sectionalizer settings is typically not needed. Coordination is required to prevent a loss of sensitivity in the detection and isolation of high impedance ground faults within the EPS. To achieve coordination, once the DR has ceased to energize the EPS due to operation of any protective OBSERVATIONS ON COORDINATION CONDITIONS function, it must remain isolated for Any one of Conditions 1 to 4 will ensure that equipment connected to either 5 minutes or the time required the EPS, other than the DR, will not be subjected to a voltage or current to reset reclosing isolation devices in transient of greater magnitude than that which occurs during a reclosing the Area EPS, whichever is less. event onto a de-energized line. The current transient in the EPS and DR will be higher than for a reclosing event onto a de-energized line, as the The DR shall be designed not to DR will be connected. However, this current transient will be no higher energize the Area EPS until the EPS than the DR current for a three-phase fault at the terminals of the DR, voltage and frequency are within the which should be acceptable. ranges allowed for normal operation Condition 1 will be satisfied if the DR installation protection is able to defined previously. detect an island and cease to energize the EPS before the reclosing If the DR installation has a ground fault current contribution of more than 1 percent of the EPS ground fault current at the PCC, then it must be coordinated with the reset strategy employed for automatic reclosing isolation devices in the utility.
event. This condition can also be met by applying Direct Transfer Trip (DTT) from the reclosing isolation device to the DR. Condition 2 will be satisfied if the reclosing isolation device has closed on de-energized-line only protection. Condition 3 will be satisfied if the DR installation is controlled to limit the frequency drift in an islanded condition. For all DR there will be a finite interval between when the isolation device opens and when the voltage phase-angle separation magnitude across the isolation device reaches a quarter cycle. This time can be measured in a type test under balanced island conditions. Condition 4 will be satisfied if the reclosing isolation device has synchronization check protection. Condition 5 should ensure that Condition 1 is met, given the under voltage protection requirements herein. For small and medium capacity DR operating at low penetration, Condition 5 will often be the simplest requirement to satisfy. For many DR systems a combination of Condition 3 for rapid reclosing
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Use of Transfer Trips Control devices at the DR must recognize that a feeder has tripped and be able to initiate a command to separate the DR from the feeder prior to feeder reclosing. For larger DR facilities this capability may not be a problem, but costs may be prohibitive for smaller facilities. If separation cannot be obtained prior to the Area EPSs initial reclose attempt, additional protection may be required. This would include the addition of direct transfer trip (DTT) from the feeder breaker to the DR, or the addition of synchronismcheck relaying40 at the feeder breaker. Even for large facilities, it may be necessary to use a DTT scheme to assure avoidance of accidental paralleling. However, DTT will require communications not only from the substation breaker but also from all the reclosers/sectionalizers upstream from the DR. Reclosing after a trip can be initiated from any one of these devices. Area EPS practice today also includes the use of multi-shot reclosers (feeder breaker or a recloser/sectionalizer can reclose not only once but twice and three times for a permanent fault). Typically, the multi-shot reclosing process takes place in a period of roughly one to three minutes. Although additional reclosings have no effect on a DR that has promptly separated, the overall reclosing coordination issue must be taken into account if the DR facility is to re-parallel automatically. Automatic Sectionalizing It is becoming a more common practice for utilities to use a loop design for their feeders where two feeders are joined together with a normally open recloser (automatic sectionalizing). When DR generation is placed on a feeder with automatic sectionalizing, it may be possible for the unit to be tied back to the utility through a different feeder. In this case, any protection that is required on the original feeder (DTT, Synch Check, etc.) would also be required on the alternate feeder, or the DR should be prohibited from generating on the alternate feeder. Additional problems occur if the DR can provide enough fault current to activate a sectionalizers current threshold detection setting. Sectionalizers typically look for low voltage and high current to determine if they should open or not. With a DR on a feeder, a sectionalizer may falsely operate for an upstream fault because of the current provided by the DR. Clearing High Impedance Faults A long-standing problem with feeder protection is the clearing of high-impedance faults. A common example of a high-impedance fault is a conductor of a grounded-wye feeder lying on dry asphalt. Due to the high resistance to ground, the fault current will be very small. The relaying for the feeder will either respond very slowly (due to the low fault current) or not at all. If the feeder reclosing relay resets in a short amount of time (typically 10 seconds), then breaker cycling could occur. This occurs when the feeder trips, then recloses, and the reclosing relay resets before the relaying trips the breaker again. Since a high-impedance fault has very low fault current, the relaying takes an extended amount of time to operate again (on the order of seconds to minutes). In the mean time, the reclosing relay has reset. This
40
Synchronism-check relaying may increase the reclosing time, a potential problem in some situations.
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can go on indefinitely until remote intervention occurs, equipment malfunctions, or the fault characteristic changes. When being fed by fault current from one or more DR units, the ability of the Area EPS feeder relaying to detect a high-impedance fault is diminished. Where the DR is a substantial source of ground fault current, the DR generation should remain isolated from the Area EPS until the automatic reclosing on the feeder breaker has reset41. This time is typically 180 seconds (3 minutes). This is to avoid desensitizing the utility relaying during a high-impedance ground fault.
41
Sectionalizers have a lockout time similar to the recloser relay reset time. To ensure proper sectionalizer operation, the DR unit should also remain isolated during the sectionalizer lockout time.
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Limitation of DC Injection
The DR and its interconnection system shall not inject dc current greater than 0.5% of the full rated output current at the point of DR connection. 42
BACKGROUND
DC injection produces a dc offset in the basic power system waveform. This offset increases the peak voltage of one half of the power system waveform (and decreases the peak voltage in the other half of the waveform.) The increased half-cycle voltage has the potential to increase saturation of magnetic components, such as cores of distribution transformers. This saturation, in turn, causes increased power system distortion. DC injection is an issue because of the economics of magnetic component design. These economics dictate using the smallest amount of magnetic core material possible to accomplish the needed task. This results in the magnetic circuit of the component operating near that part of the B-H curve where the curve begins to become very non-linear.
IMPACT OF DR
There is a concern that transformerless inverters may inject sufficient current into distribution circuits to cause distribution transformer saturation. Distribution transformers range in size from 25 to over 100 kVA. A 25 kVA transformer would typically carry 4-6 houses. A 100 kVA unit typically carries 14-18 houses. These numbers vary depending on the amount of electric heating that is used, but averages about 5 kVA per residence. What DC Current Can A Transformer Tolerate? A transformer operates at a peak flux that is defined normally by its magnetizing inductance and the applied voltage. An exciting current flows in the primary that is equal to the applied voltage divided by the magnetizing inductive reactance. Ignoring leakage, the peak flux does not change as the transformer is loaded (the primary ampere-turns increase to compensate for the additional secondary ampere-turns). Typical design peak flux densities are 15 kiloGauss for low loss transformers and 17 kG for less efficient ones. Saturation is at about 19 - 20 kG. This does not leave a lot of headroom. If the applied AC voltage is increased, the excitation current, and consequently peak flux in the core, will increase. Any DC current applied to the transformer windings will offset the AC excitation current and also increase the peak flux. It might be expected that an increase in excitation current of only 15% would cause saturation. However, since operation would then be beyond the knee of the B-H iron saturation curve, it turns out that doubling
42
This value or a lower value may be required to meet a limit of 0.5% of the rated capacity at the PCC.
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the excitation current only increases peak flux by about 10%. This will not adversely affect transformer operation. Accordingly, a DC injection limit that is of the same magnitude as the excitation current is acceptable. This conclusion is supported by language in another relevant IEEE Standard (IEEE C57.110-1998, Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents): "DC Components of Load Current Harmonic load currents are frequently accompanied by a dc component in the load current. A dc component of load current will increase the transformer core loss slightly, but will increase the magnetizing current and audible sound level more substantially. Relatively small dc components (up to the rms magnitude of the transformer excitation current at rated voltage) are expected to have no effect on the load carrying capability of a transformer determined by this recommended practice. Higher dc load current components may adversely affect transformer capability and should be avoided." Because the peak excitation occurs at the peak (root(2) times the rms) of the transformer winding current, a DC component equal to the RMS excitation current increases peak current by only 171%, further increasing the safety margin. An injected DC component equal to the normal AC rms transformer excitation current is then an easily justifiable limit. Excitation currents for typical distribution transformers run at about 1% of full load rating, but some very efficient transformers may have excitation currents as low as 0.3%. Given the above peak to RMS ratio, the IEEE 1547 DC injection limit requirement of 0.5% is reasonable.

This requirement only applies to inverter-based DR. Results from the testing requirement of Section 5.1.4 of IEEE 1547 should be verified. Rely on test results from the DR or inverter manufacturer initially, with third-party independent certification at a later date as soon as this certification process has been developed and testing laboratories have been approved. Cooperatives with a significant amount of DR today, and an expectation that inverter-based DR will be increasing in the future, may want to consider establishing their own testing capability in accordance with this requirement. This testing arrangement could be outsourced or done in-house. For convenience, the IEEE 1547 testing requirement from Section 5.1.4 appears below: Limitation of DC Injection Inverter based DR shall be tested to confirm that the DR does not inject DC current greater than prescribed limits that are listed in 4.3.1. The test follows. A single-phase DR unit shall be connected to the secondary side of an isolation transformer with a secondary winding resistance of no more than 1% of (rms secondary voltage)/(DR rated rms line current). A three-phase DR unit shall be connected to the secondary side of an isolation transformer with a wye secondary winding resistance of no more than 1% of (rms line to neutral secondary voltage)/(DR 52
September 2001
rated rms line current). The primary side of the isolation transformer shall be energized from an EPS43 or simulated utility. The DC component of the output current of the DR unit shall be measured with the DR operating as close to 100% of rated output when practical. Verify that the DC component of output current is less than 0.5% of the rated DR rms output current.
43 Voltage unbalance (negative sequence divided by positive sequence) of Area EPS may affect the results of this test. Voltage unbalance of up to 3% may be found on the Area EPS.
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Limitation of Voltage Flicker Induced by the DR

P1547 Requirement
The DR shall not create objectionable flicker for other customers on the Area EPS.
44
BACKGROUND
Flicker is a relatively old subject that has recently gained considerable attention due to the increased awareness of issues concerning power quality. Power engineers first dealt with flicker in the 1880s when the decision of using ac over dc was of concern. Low frequency ac voltages resulted in a flickering of the lights. To avoid this problem, a higher 60 Hz frequency was chosen as the standard frequency in North America.
Voltage Change and Frequency Range
What is Flicker?
The term flicker is sometimes considered synonymous with voltage fluctuations, voltage flicker, light flicker, or lamp flicker. The phenomena being referred to can be defined as a fluctuation in system voltage that can result in observable changes (flickering) in light output. Because voltage flicker is mostly a problem when the human eye observes it, usually it is considered to be a problem of perception. There are, however, rare cases where voltage flicker can affect equipment operation such as electric drives and UPS systems. Voltage flicker can be separated into two types: cyclic and noncyclic. Cyclic flicker is a result of periodic voltage fluctuations in the system voltage, with noncyclic referring to occasional voltage fluctuations.
The frequency content of voltage flicker is extremely important in determining whether or not flicker levels are observable (or objectionable). The typical frequency range of observable flicker is from 0.5 Hz to 30.0 Hz, with observable magnitudes starting at less than 1.0%. The most sensitive frequency range for voltage flicker is approximately 5-10 Hz. In essence, this means that the human eye is more susceptible to voltage fluctuations in this 5-10 Hz range. As the frequency of flicker increases or decreases away from this range, the human eye generally becomes more tolerant to luminance fluctuations.
The IEEE 1547 specifications are not intended to cover these application issues or to 1) apportion allowances for flicker emissions among various DRs or loads on an Area EPS, or 2) whether distributed generators should be treated differently than distributed loads. Individuals vary widely in their susceptibility to light flicker. Tests indicate that some individuals are irritated by a flicker that is barely noticeable to others. Studies show that sensitivity depends on how much the illumination changes (magnitude), how often it occurs (frequency), and the type of work activity undertaken. The problem is further compounded by the fact that fluorescent and other lighting
For guidance refer to IEEE Std 519, IEEE Flicker Task Force P1453 and technical report IEC 61000-37, IEC 61000-4-15, and IEC 61400-21.
44
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systems have different response characteristics to voltage changes. For example, incandescent illumination changes more than fluorescent, but fluorescent illumination changes faster than incandescent. Sudden voltage changes from one cycle to the next are more noticeable than gradual changes over several cycles. Illumination flicker can be especially objectionable if it occurs often and is cyclical. This figure from IEEE Std 141-1993, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants, shows acceptable voltage flicker limits for incandescent lights used by a large number of utilities. Two curves show how the acceptable voltage flicker magnitude depends on the frequency of occurrence. The lower curve shows a borderline where people begin to detect flicker. The upper curve is the borderline where some people will find the flicker objectionable. At 10 per hour, people begin to detect incandescent lamp flicker for voltage fluctuations larger than 1% and begin to object when the magnitude exceeds 3%. In using this curve, the purpose for which the lighting is provided needs to be considered. For example, lighting used for close work such as drafting requires flicker limits approaching the borderline of visibility curve. For general area lighting such as storage areas, the flicker limits may approach the borderline of the irritation curve. Note that the effect of voltage flicker depends on the frequency of occurrence. An occasional dip, even though quite large, is rarely objectionable. When objectionable flicker occurs, either the load causing the flicker should be reduced or eliminated, or the capacity of the supply system increased to reduce the voltage drop caused by the fluctuating load. In large plants, flicker-producing equipment should be segregated on separate transformers and feeders so as not to disturb flicker-sensitive equipment. Voltage flicker - a condition of fluctuating voltage on a power system that can lead to noticeable fluctuations in the output of lighting systems. Objectionable flicker in the supply voltage from the utility should be reported to the utility for correction. Flexibility in approach and effective communications between the customer and the utility can be invaluable in resolving potential flicker problems. Voltage flicker due to DG could occur on any radial distribution system. The risk of flicker needs to be evaluated for any type of distribution system. Flicker may be either a simple issue or a complex issue as far as its analysis and mitigation are concerned. From the simple perspective, it can be the result of starting a machine (e.g. induction generator) or step changes in DG output which result in a significant
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voltage change on the feeder. If a generator starts, or its output fluctuates frequently enough, flicker of lighting loads may be noticeable to customers.
IMPACT OF DR
Determination of the risk of flicker problems due to basic generator starting conditions or output fluctuations is fairly straightforward using the flicker curve approach, particularly if the rate of these fluctuations is well defined, the fluctuations are step changes, and there are no complex dynamic interactions of equipment. The dynamic behavior of machines and their interactions with upstream voltage regulators and generators can complicate matters considerably. For example, it is possible for output fluctuations of a DG (even smoother ones from solar or wind systems) to cause hunting of an upstream regulator and, while the DG fluctuations alone may not create visible flicker, the hunting regulator may create visible flicker. Thus, flicker can involve factors beyond simply starting and stopping of generation machines or their basic fluctuations. Dealing with these interactions requires an analysis that is far beyond the ordinary voltage drop calculation performed for generator starting. Identifying and solving these types of flicker problems when they arise can be difficult and the engineer must have a keen understanding of the interactions between the DG unit and the system. Wind Turbine Generators and Flicker Wind turbine generators (WTGs) can cause voltage flicker because their power output can vary substantially with time. Flicker from wind systems can potentially be caused by three characteristics: 1) Switching Events Flicker can be caused by switching events, such as starting, stopping, or switching between a small generator and a large generator. Each time a WTG synchronizes with the line, there is a surge of magnetizing current and sometimes a surge of power. The initial surge of current might vary from 75% to several times nameplate current rating. SCRs are often used to limit these high initial currents. These high starting currents cause the distribution line voltage to drop. A surge of power causes the voltage to rise. Likewise, switching between a small generator used at lower wind speeds and a larger generator used at high speeds also cause a sudden change in power levels. These changes in voltage levels might be 1% to 4% in magnitude and they occur somewhat infrequently, perhaps once every 5 to 15 minutes, depending upon the WTG controller settings. 2) Flicker Can Be Caused by the Blades Flicker can be caused by rhythmic fluctuations in power output due to the blades passing the tower. When a blade passes the tower, its torque is reduced due to the interference of the tower. Lattice towers with upwind blades result in the least change in torque, while tubular towers with down-wind blades have the most change in torque. For 3-bladed wind turbines, this pulsing power is called the 3P effect, since there are three pulses in power for each revolution of the rotor. WTGs using standard induction generators translate this drop in torque directly into a dip in the power output, while WTG s that are designed for variable speed operation usually translate this change in torque into a change in rotational speed, thus smoothing out the dip in power. Manufacturers have been designing turbines to reduce this type of flicker. The frequency of this 3P effect varies with rotor RPM, which is inversely proportional to WTG size. A small 50 kW wind turbine would have a 3P flicker frequency of about 10 Hz, while a large 700 kW wind 56
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turbine would have 1.5 Hz. These frequencies are in a range that are very noticeable to the typical customer. 3) Turbulent and Gusty Winds This type of flicker is proportionately reduced when more wind turbines are connected together due to the non-coincident nature of wind gusts. It is the most prevalent with a single turbine. The graph below illustrates how much the power can vary from a single wind turbine during variable wind conditions during a one-hour period. Each data point is the average generation for a oneminute period. Sub-minute variations are also quite variable. This wind turbine has a fixed-blade pitch and uses a simple fixed speed induction generator.

Comparing the IEEE and the IEC Flicker Curves The following graph is drawn from a paper written by the IEEE Flicker Task Force (Voltage and Lamp Flicker Issues: Should the IEEE adopt the IEC?) and it compares the two flicker curves. The vertical axis is the percentage of voltage variation from 0.1% to 10%. The bottom axis is the frequency of voltage changes. The top curve is the IEC borderline-of-irritation curve for 120 volts. The bottom curve is the borderlineof-irritation curve from IEEE 141. Flicker above these curves will begin to cause customer complaints. In general, the IEC Standard allows a slightly higher level of flicker for frequencies below 12 Hz, but lower levels above 12 Hz. Most experts agree that this IEC curve more accurately represents the typical customers visual perceptions of annoying flicker.
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Present Evaluation and Measurement Techniques

Historically, voltage flicker has been measured using rms meters, load duty cycle, and a flicker curve. If sudden rms voltage deviations occurred with specified frequencies exceeding values found in flicker curves, the system was said to have experienced voltage flicker. Because of the different types of variation in voltage that can occur, it is very difficult to use the IEEE flicker curves to assess the level of flicker. Each type of voltage change can contribute in its own way to the overall flicker seen by customers. Of course, flicker measurements can always be taken after the DR has been installed, but if a problem is discovered, the DR unit would have to be shut off or limited until a distribution system reinforcement could be installed. This approach is not good practice. Distribution Planning Requires a Prediction of DR Flicker Contributions The distribution system planner needs a method to determine if a proposed DR installation will cause objectionable flicker on the distribution system. No such procedure exists in the U.S. using the IEEE flicker curves. Furthermore, the IEEE flicker curves are not universally used in the U.S. Typically, utilities either use the IEEE curves, some variant of the curves, or curves developed years ago in their own utility. The IEC procedures for calculating flicker levels are more universally accepted overseas. Since Denmark has had literally thousands of wind turbines on its distribution system for many years, it has developed methods for predicting when wind turbines might cause objectionable flicker to nearby customers. The IEC has very comprehensive standards for assessing flicker levels on Area EPSs. These standards take into account complex disturbances and multiple sources. For example, IEC 1000-3-7 provides very detailed explanation and calculation methods for determining if any type of voltage change can cause objectionable flicker. All major wind turbine manufacturers publish data that can be used with this IEC standard to predict flicker levels at any location on the electric grid. Meeting the IEEE 1547 Requirement This requirement will be met under the following conditions: Flicker produced by a DR shall be acceptable if the short-term flicker severity, PST, is less than or equal to 1.0 for a PCC at the secondary distribution voltage, or less than or equal to 0.9 for a PCC at the
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primary distribution voltage, both with 99% compliance (one-week basis). Higher flicker levels may be allowed at the discretion of the Area EPS Operator. DR units shall be automatically accepted if the power variations from the unit, S, compared to the available short circuit capacity of the Area EPS, SSC, are within the following limits at the PCC: Voltage Changes Per Minute ( r ) r > 200 10 r 200 r < 10
(S/SSC)max, % 0.15 0.23 0.46
Note: A voltage drop followed by a recovery means two voltage changes.
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Harmonics
When the DR is serving balanced linear loads, harmonic current injection into the Area EPS at the PCC shall not exceed the limits stated below (Table 7). The harmonic current injections shall be exclusive of any harmonic currents due to harmonic voltage distortion present in the Area EPS without the DR connected. Table 7. Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of Current (I) (a) Individual Harmonic Order (b) (Odd Harmonics) Percent (%) <11 11 h < 17 17 h < 23 23 h < 35 35 h TDD
4.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
0.3
5.0
(a) I = the greater of the Local EPS maximum load current integrated demand (15 or 30 min) without the DR unit, or the DR unit rated current capacity (transformed to the PCC when a transformer exists between the DR unit and the PCC). (b) Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
BACKGROUND
Harmonic distortion is a form of electrical noise; harmonics are electrical signals at multiple frequencies of the power line frequency. Many electronic devices cause harmonics, including personal computers, adjustable speed drives, and other types of equipment using just part of the sine wave by drawing current in short pulses. Equipment with this operating characteristic is dominated by switched power supplies. These power supplies are an economical means of providing voltage to the equipment being served, and are not affected by minor voltage changes in the power system. Switched power supplies feed a capacitor that supplies the voltage to the electronic circuitry. Since the load is a capacitor as seen from the power system, the current to the power supply is discontinuous. That is, current flows for only part of the half-cycle. Figure 2 shows the current waveform of such a power supply.
Figure 2. Current Wave of Switched Mode Power Supply
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Linear loads, those that draw current in direct proportion to the voltage applied, do not generate large levels of harmonics. The nonlinear load of a switched power supply superimposes signals at multiples of the fundamental power frequency in the power sine wave and creates harmonics. The uses of nonlinear loads connected to Area EPSs include static power converters, arc discharge devices, saturated magnetic devices, and, to a lesser degree, rotating machines. Static power converters of electric power are the largest nonlinear loads. Harmonic currents cause transformers to overheat, in turn overheating neutral conductors. This overheating may cause erroneous tripping of circuit breakers and other equipment malfunctions. The voltage distortion created by nonlinear loads may create voltage distortion beyond the premises wiring system, through the utility system, to another user.45 This IEEE 1547 requirement applies to voltages from 120v to 69kV, and is drawn directly from IEEE 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems46. IEEE 519 is based on the premise that the harmonic distortion caused by a single consumer should be limited to an acceptable level at any point in the system; and the entire system should be operated without substantial harmonic distortion anywhere in the system.47
IMPACT OF DR
As discussed above, distributed generators can contribute to harmonic distortion of the utility system voltage. Current injection limits are the responsibility of the DG operator, and Area EPS voltage distortion is the responsibility of the Area EPS operator. The two requirements are interrelated -- voltage on a feeder that is near the voltage distortion limit may be pushed over the threshold limit by the addition of a distorted DG unit. For a proper analysis, a number of factors need to be considered. First, the underlying background level of harmonic distortion of the utility voltage prior to the addition of any DG units is important. Second are the contributions of harmonic current that are made by distributed generators and the impact that these currents will have on the voltage distortion. DG installations should be reviewed to determine their compliance with IEEE 1547 and whether harmonics will be confined to the DG sites or also injected into the Area EPS. If they are injected into the Area EPS, the impact on voltage distortion must be determined, especially if there is a threat to adjacent customers or utility equipment. Measurements and modeling of the system harmonics may be required to assess conditions in some cases.
45
When reactive power compensation, in the form of power factor improvement capacitors, is used with these nonlinear loads, resonant conditions can occur that may result in high levels of harmonic voltage and current distortion when the resonant condition occurs at a harmonic associated with nonlinear loads.
46
The limits listed in Table 4, according to IEEE 519, should be used as system design values for the worst case for normal operation (conditions lasting longer than one hour). For shorter periods, during start-ups or unusual conditions, the limits may be exceeded by 50 percent. The harmonic distortion limits of this requirement establish the maximum allowable current distortion for a DR unit, and utilize the index of total demand distortion (TDD). This is the harmonic current distortion in percent of maximum demand load current (15 or 30 minute demand).
47
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The type and severity of harmonic contributions from a DG unit will depend on the power converter technology, its filtering and its interconnection configuration. In the case of inverters, there has been particular concern over the possible harmonic current contributions they may make to the utility system. Fortunately, these concerns are in part due to older SCR type power inverters that are line commutated and produce high levels of harmonic current. Most new inverter designs are based on newer solid state technology that uses pulse width modulation to generate the injected alternating current. These newer inverters are capable of generating a very clean output and they should normally satisfy the IEEE 1547 requirements. In general, harmonic contributions from DG units are less an issue than problems associated with other equipment on the distribution system. In some cases, equipment at the DG site may need to be derated due to added heating caused by harmonics elsewhere on the system. Filters and other mitigation approaches are sometimes required.

If individual customers meet the current distortion limits specified above, and there is not sufficient diversity between individual customer harmonic injections, then it may be necessary to implement some form of filtering on the Area EPS to limit voltage distortion levels. However, it is more likely that voltage distortion problems will be caused by system frequency response characteristics that result in magnification of harmonic current at a particular harmonic frequency. This changing of the system impedances vs. frequency characteristic is a result of the systems physical configuration. This situation has to be solved on the Area EPS by either changing capacitor locations or sizes, or by designing a harmonic filter. If the limits are exceeded, the following steps may be taken: 1. Perform harmonic measurements at selected points within the utility circuit, including the PCC, and look for consumers with converters operating with current distortion beyond the limits. When identified, such consumers should be asked to keep the harmonic distortion within the recommended limits by installing filters, by reducing harmonic generation, or through other means. 2. Install filters to control the harmonics. 3. Install a new feeder. This is effective in stiffening the source and isolating the harmonic problems. However, cost is obviously a major consideration. It is possible to add new converter loads to a circuit already polluted with harmonics to the recommended limits as long as properly designed filters are also provided. This would be the responsibility of the DR owner. Neutral Conductors and Non-Linear Loads In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, neutral conductors can be severely affected by nonlinear loads connected to the 120V branch circuits. Under normal conditions for a balanced linear load, the fundamental 60-Hz portion of the phase currents will cancel in the neutral conductor.
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In a 4-wire system with single-phase nonlinear loads, certain odd-numbered harmonics called triplens (odd multiples of the third HARMONIC IMPACT OF SWITCHED POWER SUPPLIES harmonic such as the 3rd, 9th, and th 15 ) do not cancel, but rather add A normal 60-cycle power line voltage appears on the oscilloscope as a sine together in the neutral conductor. wave, as shown here. The switched power supplies draw current as shown. In systems with many single-phase With the harmonics present, the waveform is distorted. These waves are described as non-sinusoidal. The voltage and current waveforms are no nonlinear loads, the neutral current longer simply relatedand are called non-linear. Non-linear loads draw can actually exceed the phase current in abrupt pulses, which distort current wave shapes, causing current. The danger here is harmonic currents to flow back into other parts of the power system. excessive overheating because there is no circuit breaker in the neutral conductor to limit the current as there is in the phase conductors. Such excessive 60 Hz power currents also cause high voltage drops between the neutral conductor and ground. The triplen harmonic neutral current can be reduced by adding harmonic filters at the load. If neither of these solutions is practical, install extra neutrals ideally one for each phase. You can also install an oversized neutral shared by 3-phase conductors. Transformer Heating
Switched power supply current
Combination distorted waveform

In these power supplies (also called diode-capacitor input power supplies), the incoming ac voltage is rectified with diodes and is used to charge a large capacitor. After a few cycles, the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage of the sine wave (170V for a 120V ac line). The electronic equipment then draws current from this high dc voltage to power the rest of the circuit. The equipment can then draw the current down to a regulated lower limit. Typically, before reaching that limit, the capacitor is recharged to the peak in the next half cycle of the sine wave. This process is repeated over and over. The capacitor draws a pulse of current only during the peak of the wave. During the rest of the wave, the capacitor draws nothing.
The harmonic current distortion limits shown in Table 7 are only permissible provided that the transformer connecting the user to the utility system will not be Symptoms of harmonics usually show up in the power distribution equipment subjected to harmonic currents in that supports the non-linear loads. There are two basic types of non-linear excess of 5% of the transformers loads, single-phase and 3-phase. Single-phase non-linear loads are rated current (see IEEE C57.12.00prevalent in offices, while 3-phase loads are widespread in industrial plants. 2000). If the transformer connecting the user will be subjected to harmonic levels in excess of 5%, the installation of a larger unit, capable of withstanding the higher levels of harmonics, should be considered. When the harmonic current flowing through the transformer is more than the design level of 5% of the rated current, the heating effect in the transformer should be evaluated. This evaluation will ensure that the transformer insulation is not being stressed beyond design limits.48
48
The methodology contained in IEEE C57.110-1998 should be applied. This evaluation includes consideration of the following: Transformer capability equivalent calculation using design eddy-current loss data;
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One way to protect a transformer from harmonics is to limit the amount of load placed on it. This is called derating the transformer. For existing transformers, new feeders, transformers, and branch circuit wiring may need to be addedwith an attendant economic cost. Circuit Breakers Common thermal-magnetic circuit breakers use a bimetallic trip mechanism, which responds to the heating effect of the circuit current. The bimetallic trip mechanism is designed to respond to the true-rms value of the current waveform and therefore will trip when it gets too hot. This type of breaker has a better chance of protecting against harmonic current overloads. A peak-sensing electronic trip circuit breaker responds to the peak of current waveform. As a result, it will not always respond properly to harmonic currents. Since the peak of the harmonic current is usually higher than normal, this type of circuit breaker may trip prematurely at low current. If the peak is lower than normal, the breaker may fail to trip when it should. The Harmonic Survey Checking for Non-DR Sources A harmonic survey will give you a good idea whether or not you have a harmonic problem and where it is located. Here are a few guidelines to follow: 1. Load Inventory. Take a walking tour of the facility and take a look at the types of equipment in use. If personal computers and printers, adjustable-speed motors, solid-state heater controls, and fluorescent fixtures with electronic ballasts are in the facility, harmonics are likely. 2. Transformer Heat Check. Locate the transformers feeding the non-linear loads and check for excessive heating; ensure that the cooling vents are unobstructed. 3. Transformer-Secondary Current. Use a true-rms meter to check transformer currents. Measure and record the transformer secondary currents in each phase and in the neutral (if used). Calculate the kVA delivered to the load and compare current to the nameplate rating. (Note, however, that if harmonic currents are present, the transformer can overheat even if the kVA delivered is less than the nameplate rating.) If the transformer secondary is a 4-wire system, compare the measured neutral current to the value predicted from the imbalance in the phase currents. (The neutral current is the vector sum of the phase currents and would normally be zero if the phase currents are balanced in both amplitude and phase). If the neutral current is unexpectedly high, triplen harmonics are likely and the transformer may have to be derated and its load reduced. Measure the frequency of the neutral current. 180 Hz would be a typical reading for a neutral current consisting of mostly 3rd order harmonics. 4. Sub-Panel Neutral Current Check. Survey the sub-panels that feed harmonic loads. Measure the current in each branch neutral and compare the measured value to the rated capacity for the wire size
Transformer capability equivalent calculation using data available from certified test report; Neutral bus capability for nonsinusoidal load currents that include third harmonic components.
The user is cautioned that local and national electrical codes should be consulted before any installed unit is officially derated (i.e., changing the nameplate). Some units may not be derated without violating these codes.
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used. Check the neutral bus bar and feeder connections for heating or discoloration. An infrared temperature probe is useful for detecting excessive overheating on bus bars and connections. 5. Receptacle Neutral-to-Ground Voltage Check. Neutral overloading in receptacle branch circuits can sometimes be detected by measuring the neutral-to-ground voltage at the receptacle. Measure the voltage when the loads are on. Two volts or less is about normal. Higher voltages can indicate trouble, depending on the length of the run, quality of connections, etc. Measure the frequency. 180Hz would strongly suggest a presence of harmonics. 60Hz would suggest that the phases are out of balance. Pay special attention to under-carpet wiring and modular office panels with integrated wiring that uses a neutral shared by 3-phase conductors. Because the typical loads in these two areas are computer and office machines, they are often trouble spots for overloaded neutrals.
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Immunity Protection
The influence of electromagnetic interference (EMI) shall not result in a change in state or misoperation of the interconnection system.
BACKGROUND
The use of hand-held transceivers49 (walkie-talkies) has increased dramatically over the past few years. When operated in close proximity to a static protective relay, these transceivers will produce local, high field-strength electromagnetic radiation that may affect protective relay performance. This interaction has driven the need for a standard on radiated interference and withstand capability for static protective relays. The test field-strength level has been increased from 10-20 V/m to 35 V/m. The 35 V/m level is intended to roughly approximate the effect of a walkie-talkie operated at 15 cm (6 inches) from the exposed surface of the relay. This value is the result of extensive testing by members of the Working Group formed to update IEEE Std C37.90.2-1995, IEEE Standard for Withstand Capability of Relay Systems to Radiated Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers.
IMPACT OF DR
This IEEE 1547 requirement, along with the subsequent surge withstand capability (SWC) requirement, differs from the previous standard focus on the ability of the interconnection system (frequently colocated at the DR) to prevent any negative DR impact on Area EPS safety or operating stability. This requirement focuses exclusively on the continued operation of the interconnection system after EMI exposure. The DR interconnection system is essentially being held to the same standard of performance as generators, protective relaying and other electrical equipment.

In the design of equipment for immunity protection, the use of discrete frequency steps has been made an alternative to a continuous sweep of the frequency. These changes are in recognition of the variety of modern equipment used to conduct these types of tests.
A transceiver is a device or circuit that generates high-frequency electric energy, controlled or modulated, which can be radiated by an antenna.
49
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Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547 Single-Frequency Test Parameters
September 2001
The most common source of single-frequency interference to static protective and control relays is provided by portable radio transmitters when they are used in close proximity to the relays. The portable transceivers normally used in power system communications have output power less than 10W measured at the base of the antenna. There are other factors, besides power level, that may affect the susceptibility of the relay equipment to these devices, such as the frequency and modulation level. In deciding on a meaningful test level, it is important to know what field strengths are produced by commercial portable transceivers, since these are the dominant interfering sources. The specified IEEE 1547 test for this requirement is as follows: The interconnection system shall be tested in a manner similar to the method described in ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2 to confirm that the results are in compliance. The boundaries of the test shall be reported similarly to those in ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2 (IEEE 1547, Section 5.1.6, Immunity Protection)50.
50
Successfully completing the Standard test demonstrates a practical level of EMI withstand capability but does not guarantee that false relay operations cannot be caused by incautious use of walkie-talkies in close proximity to the relays.
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Surge Capability
P1547 Requirement Section 4.3.5)
The interconnection system shall have the capability to withstand voltage and current surges in accordance with the environments defined in IEEE/ANSI C62.41 or IEEE C37.90.1 as appropriate.
BACKGROUND
Occasionally, attempts will be made to describe surges in terms of energy to help select the rating of a candidate surge-protective device. However, this concept can be a misleading oversimplification because the energy distribution among the circuit elements involved in a surge event depends on the impedance of the source (including the ac mains) as well as on the impedance of the surge-protective device called upon to divert the surge. There is no independent, meaningful, and self-contained description of a surge in terms of energy alone. The energy delivered to the end-equipment is the significant factor, but it depends on the distribution between the source and the load (equipment or surge-diverting protective device, or both). Transient surge voltages occurring in ac power circuits can be the cause of operational upset or product failure in industrial and residential systems and equipment. These problems have received increased attention in recent years because of the widespread application of complex semiconductor devices that are more sensitive to voltage surges than vacuum tubes, relays, and earlier generations of semiconductor devices. Logical and economical design of circuits to protect vulnerable electronic systems from upset or failure requires knowledge of or an estimate of: 1. 2. 3. 4. Transient voltage and current waveforms, Frequency of occurrence of transients with various energy levels, Particular environmental variations such as amplitudes, and Upset or failure threshold of the particular equipment to be protected.
IMPACT OF DR
This IEEE 1547 requirement differs from the previous Standard focus on the ability of the interconnection system (frequently co-located at the DR) to prevent any negative DR impact on Area EPS safety or operating stability. Instead, this requirement focuses exclusively on the continued operation of the interconnection system after exposure to surge voltages occurring in low-voltage ac power circuits, in this case the Area EPS distribution system. The DR interconnection system is essentially being held to the same standard of performance as generators, protective relaying and other electrical equipment.
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These surge voltages originate from two major sources: lightning effects (direct or indirect) on the power system and system switching transients. Lightning Models of lightning effects consistent with available measurements have been made in order to yield predictions of surge levels, even if the exact mechanism underlying the production of any particular surge is unknown. The major mechanisms by which lightning produces surge voltages are the following: 1. A nearby lightning strike to objects on the ground or within the cloud layer produces electromagnetic fields that can induce voltages on the conductors of the primary and secondary circuits. 2. Lightning ground-current flow resulting from nearby cloud-to-ground discharge couples onto the common ground impedance paths of the grounding network, causing voltage differences across its length and breadth. 3. Operation of a primary gap-type arrester to limit the primary voltage, and the rapid drop of voltage that may occur when the arrester is coupled through the capacitance of a transformer and produces surge voltages in addition to those coupled into the secondary circuit by normal transformer action. 4. A direct lightning strike to high-voltage primary circuits injects high currents into the primary circuits, producing voltages by either flowing through ground resistance and causing a ground potential change or flowing through the surge impedance of the primary conductors. Some of this voltage couples from the primary to the secondary of the service transformers, by capacitance or transformer action or both, thus appearing in low-voltage ac power circuits. 5. Lightning strikes the secondary circuits directly. Very high currents and resulting voltages can be involved, exceeding the withstand capability of equipment and conventional surge protective devices rated for secondary circuit use. Switching Transients System switching transients can be divided into transients associated with normal or abnormal conditions, as follows: 1. Minor switching near the point of interest, such as an appliance turnoff in a household or the turnoff of other loads in the individual system. 2. Periodic transients (voltage notching) that occur each cycle during the commutation in electronic power converters. The voltage notch is caused by a momentary phase-to-phase short circuit with a rapid change in voltage, lasting in the 100 ms range. 3. Multiple reignitions or restrikes during a switching operation are another example. Air contactors or mercury switches can produce, through escalation, surge voltages of complex waveforms and of amplitudes several times greater than the normal system voltage.
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4. Major power system switching disturbances, such as capacitor bank switching, fault clearing, or grid switching51. 5. Various system faults, such as short circuits and arcing faults52. The most visible effect of a switching surge is generally found on the load side of the switch and involves the equipment that is being switched, as well as the switching device. In the case of the equipment being switched, the prime responsibility for protection rests with either the manufacturer or the user of the equipment in question. However, the presence and source of transients may be unknown to the users of this equipment. This potentially harmful situation occurs often enough to command attention.
Transient overvoltages associated with switching of power-factor correction capacitors have levels, at least in the case of restrike-free switching operations, of generally less than twice the normal voltage, though the levels of the transients often can be 1.5 times normal (that is, the absolute value may be 2.5 times the normal peak). These transients can occur daily, and their waveforms generally show longer time durations, such as several hundred microseconds, compared to typical durations on the order of microseconds to tens of microseconds for other switching events and lightning-induced transients. If multiple reignitions or restrikes occur in the capacitor-switching device during opening, then the transient overvoltage can exceed three times the normal system voltage and involve high energy levels.
51
One type of switching transient, for example, results from fast-acting overcurrent protective devices such as current-limiting fuses and circuit breakers capable of arcing times of less than 2 ms. These devices leave inductive energy trapped in the circuit upstream; upon collapse of the field, high voltages are generated.
52
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Islanding
P1547 Requirement (Section 4.4)
For an unintentional island in which the DR and a portion of the Area EPS remain energized through the PCC, the DR shall cease to energize the Area EPS within ten seconds of the formation of an island.53
BACKGROUND
Islanding occurs when the distributed generator (or group of distributed generators) continues to energize a portion of the EPS that has been separated from the rest of the Area EPS. This separation could be due to operation of an upstream breaker, fuse, or automatic sectionalizing switch. Manual switching or open upstream conductors could also lead to islanding. Islanding can occur only if the DR continues to serve load in the islanded section.
IMPACT OF DR
In most cases it is not desirable for a DG to island with any part of the Area EPS on an unplanned basis; this can lead to safety and power quality problems that will affect the Area EPS and local loads54. During utility repair operations, such as dealing with downed conductors, DR islanding can expose utility workers to circuits that otherwise would be de-energized (and the workers believe to be de-energized).
53
Some examples by which this requirement can be met are: The DR aggregate capacity is less than one-third of the minimum load of the Local EPS. The DR is certified to pass a non-islanding test. An example of a non-islanding test is included in Appendix D. The DR installation contains reverse or minimum power flow protection, sensed between the Point of DR Connection and the PCC, which will disconnect or isolate the DR if power flow from the Area EPS to the Local EPS reverses or falls below a set threshold. The DR contains other non-islanding means such as under voltage/over voltage, under frequency/over frequency, "forced frequency or voltage shifting," transfer trip, and/or under power relaying protection functions along with loading requirements or governor and excitation controls that maintain constant power and constant power factor.
1. 2. 3.
4.
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For example, if an island develops on a feeder during standard reclosing operations, the islanded DG units will quickly drift out of phase with the Area EPS during the dead period. Then, when a reclose occurs, the Area EPS will connect out of phase with the island if reclose blocking into an energized circuit is not provided at the breaker control. This can cause damage to Area EPS equipment, the DG units supporting the island, and customer loads.
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This situation can also pose a threat to the public as well. Service restoration can also be delayed as line crews seek to ensure that DR islanding is not a problem.

IEEE 1547 Options The IEEE interconnection Standard provides 4 specific options for meeting this requirement:
Compliance Option 1. Limited DR capacity as share of customer load 2. Non-islanding inverter 3. Reverse power protection Description DR aggregate capacity is less than one-third of the minimum load of the Local EPS. DR is certified to pass a non-islanding test55. The DR installation contains reverse or minimum power flow protection, sensed between the Point of DR Connection and the PCC, which will disconnect or isolate the DR if power flow from the Area EPS to the Local EPS reverses or falls below a set threshold. The DR contains other non-islanding means such as under voltage/over voltage, under frequency/over frequency, "forced frequency or voltage shifting," transfer trip, and/or under power relaying protection functions along with loading requirements or governor and excitation controls that maintain constant power and constant power factor.
4. Acceptable nonislanding protection (other than through inverter design)
To prevent islanding, a DG unit operating in parallel with the Area EPS should disconnect from the system within 10 seconds of sensing a voltage sag or discontinuity of service on Area EPS side of the PCC. This is typically fast enough to allow disconnection prior to the shortest reclosing times found in protective relays on the Area EPS. It should also prevent reclosure into an out of phase DG unit, as well as allow the fault arc to deionize prior to reclosure. Once a DG unit has disconnected from the Area EPS, it should not reconnect into a de-energized system. Anti-Island Protection Passive protection. Voltage and frequency relays are used as a means of anti-island protection, shown as Item 4 in the above table. This passive scheme measures electrical variables at the PCC and detects conditions that indicate an island has been formed. This protection scheme is based on the DRs inability to satisfy a sudden change in load without a corresponding change in its voltage and/or frequency. In this instance, the voltage or frequency relays will take the unit off line. Active protection. In some cases, passive protection can be fooled if the generator is able to carry the load of the island without a substantial change in voltage or frequency. Some inverter manufacturers have added an additional active anti-islanding capability56. Active schemes measure electrical variables
55
See Appendix D.
56
One common active approach is based on inverter design. When the Area EPS voltage signal is available, the inverter is forced to operate at 60 Hz.. In this case, it is the forcing utility voltage function that causes the inverter to operate within frequency specification.
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at the PCC, but the response of the variables is checked against a deliberate variation in some aspects of the DR output. Active anti-islanding is more robust than passive, but even it cannot guarantee that an island will not develop in some rare cases. Operating Conditions with a Running Island The potential problems described in this section can only occur during a running islanding condition. With a normal connection to the utility substation in place, the utility system stabilizes the system voltage and the neutral. If islanding is a physical impossibility because the system characteristics are such that a stable island cannot be formed, then these possible problems can likely be ignored. If a running island is possible, then possible conditions in the island must be evaluated to see what maximum level of system overvoltages may be expected and how fast the interconnection protective relaying will respond to them. These overvoltage magnitude and duration results should then be compared to arrester temporary overvoltage (TOV) curves and published curves for consumer equipment TOV capability. Arranging the system so as to avoid the possibility of isolating a large capacitor bank and a small amount of load with a DG will reduce the risk of overvoltages. Avoiding Neutral Instability Neutral instability in an island can be avoided by the choice of suitable transformer connections, or by adding an appropriately sized grounding transformer on the primary circuit. The grounding transformer has the advantages that 1) it may avert the need to replace an existing power transformer which would otherwise be suitable, and 2) it can be sized to provide the minimum effect on ground relaying sensitivity which is consistent with a stable neutral under islanded conditions. A relaying scheme to protect against neutral instability overvoltages can be considered, but generally requires voltage transformers connected to the primary distribution voltage in order to detect high phaseto-ground voltage or zero-sequence overvoltage. Also, the minimum operating time of overvoltage relays and circuit breakers is typically much longer than the few milliseconds of withstand capability which published curves give at 173% voltage. A Special Case: Intentional Islanding for Reliability There may be times when a cooperative customer seeks the increased reliability associated with a planned DR island. This can be accomplished if the DR system and the interconnection are designed to provide backup islands during upstream Area EPS outages. Reliable DG units and careful coordination of utility sectionalizing and protection equipment is a necessary condition of this approach. Any time such a scheme is implemented it needs to be well planned to avoid causing problems. Figure 3 shows one scheme where an upstream automatic switch is used to island a section of a distribution feeder. For this approach to work, the switch must open during upstream faults and the generator must be able to
During an islanded situation in the case of an Area EPS interruption, the inverter will seek its natural tuned frequency at a value outside the normal frequency range. In the process of drifting to the natural inverter frequency, the unit will trip its internal frequency relays. These relays are typically set to trip when the frequency is outside the normal operating range of 59.3 to 60.5 Hz.
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carry the load on the islanded section, maintaining suitable voltage and frequency levels at all islanded loads. Unless a static switch is employed, this scheme would usually result in a momentary interruption to the island since the DG would necessarily trip during the voltage disturbance caused by the upstream fault. A DG assigned to carry the island must be able to restart and pickup the island load after the switch has opened. Figure 3. Intentional Island
Customer Island Isolation Device
Radial Feeder Substation
Fault
Power flow analysis of island scenarios must be performed to insure that proper voltage regulation is maintained and to establish that the DG can handle inrush during starting of the island. The DG unit must be able to load follow during islanded operation and the switch will need to sense if a fault current has occurred downstream of the switch location and send a signal to block islanding if a fault has occurred within the island zone. When utility power is restored on the utility side, the switch must not close unless the utility and island are tightly in synchronism. This requires measuring the voltage on both sides of the switch and transmitting that information to the DG unit supporting the island so that it can synchronize with the utility and allow reconnection. New automated switch technology and advanced communications are making this approach practical today.
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ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANNED ISLANDING FOR RELIABILITY For operation beyond the PCC, the following may apply in addition to the regular interconnection requirements: The generator(s) must have load following capability and sufficient voltage regulation capability for the type of loads on the island. Typically, synchronous generators have been used for this application. To minimize voltage and frequency fluctuations on the separated system, the generator should be several times (3 times or more) larger than the largest single load. Upon separation from the utility, the steady state voltage and frequency on the entire separated system must be within acceptable limits. Typically, bi-directional feeder voltage regulation will be required. Bi-directional protection will also be evaluated for each of the devices on the separated system. Bi-directional sensing may also be needed for all fault indicators. Feeder re-conductor and/or other upgrade may be required to accept the reverse power flow. Additional relays at designated tie points to allow islanding upon grid trouble, and to allow paralleling upon restoration of the grid. Communication between the tie point relays and the DG may be required to permit proper synchronization and tripping of the DG. Each separated system configuration will need to be studied individually. Special studies: Islanding study. Planning studies to verify the entire separated system will operate within acceptable voltage and frequency for each island configuration. Fault studies to insure the generator can see end of line on the utility system under different switching conditions with different generator combinations in the event more than one generator is on the feeder. The fault studies are also needed to check for relay de-sensitization and to determine whether relay setting change or replacement are required and whether additional protection is needed. Stability studies to check for the generator-generator-load interactions and to insure the separated system will be stable.
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Appendix A Glossary
Banks (Transformer) An aggregation of similar devices (for example, transformers, lamps, etc.) connected together and used in cooperation. In an automatic switching, a bank is an assemblage of fixed contacts over which one or more wipers or brushes move in order to establish electric connections. Commutator (rotating machinery) An assembly of conducting members insulated from one another, in the radial-axial plane, against which brushes bear, used to enable current to flow from one part of the circuit to another by sliding contact. Disconnecting Device Either a physical device such as a relay or switch, or a computer-controllable capability in electronic power equipment, designed to isolate a portion of the Area EPS and/or DR systems. Electric Power System, Area (Area EPS) An electric power system (EPS) that serves Local EPSs. Typically an Area EPS has primary access to public rights-of-way, priority crossing of property boundaries, etc., and is subject to regulatory oversight. Electric Power System, Local (Local EPS) The local electric power system (Local EPS) is a system contained entirely within a single premises or group of premises. The Local EPS can include distributed sources of power, including both generators and energy storage technologies. Galvanic Isolation Refers to a physical barrier between the Area EPS main power supply cables and the protected hardware. Galvanic isolation can be accomplished by the use of a dual wound transformer through which no spike or electrical noise can penetrate. The only connection between the input and the output is magnetic. Harmonic distortion Nonlinear distortion of a system or transducer characterized by the appearance in the output of harmonics other than the fundamental component when the input wave is sinusoidal. Isolation Device A device in one circuit that prevents the malfunctions in one section of the circuit from causing unacceptable influences in other sections of the circuit or other circuits. Interconnection The result of adding a DR unit to an Area EPS. Penetration Ratio The ratio of DR nameplate capacity to the maximum feeder load. Permissive A general term indicating that functioning cooperation of two or more relays is required before control action can become effective. Phase Angle The measure of the progression of a periodic wave in time or space from a chosen instant or position. Power Factor The ratio of the resistance to the impedance at power frequency of an equivalent circuit supposed to be formed by an inductance and a resistance in series.
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Rated Torque The shaft torque necessary to produce rated power output at rated-load speed. Reactive Power The reactive power is defined as the square root of the square of the apparent power minus the square of the active power. Reactive power is developed when there are inductive, capacitive, or nonlinear elements in the system. Root Mean Square (rms) Refers to the most common mathematical method of defining the effective voltage or current of an AC waveform. To determine rms value, three mathematical operations are carried out on the function representing the AC waveform: (1) The square of the waveform function (usually a sine wave) is determined. (2) The function resulting from step (1) is averaged over time. (3) The square root of the function resulting from step (2) is found. In a circuit whose impedance consists of a pure resistance, the rms value of an AC wave is often called the effective value or DC-equivalent value. SCADA Supervisory Control and Distribution Automation A smart distribution system, including RTU sensors, telemetry or other communication capability and automated control of distribution system components. Stiffness Ratio This ration is calculated at the PCC, except when there is a transformer(s) dedicated to one customer in which case the stiffness ratio is calculated on the high-voltage side of the dedicated transformer(s). Stiffness ratio: SC kVA (Area EPS) + SC kVA (DR) = SC kVA (Area EPS) + 1 SC kVA (DR) SC kVA (DR)
Synchronous Speed The speed of rotation of the magnetic flux, produced by or linking the primary winding. Tap Changer A selector switch device used to change transformer taps with the transformer energized. A load tap-changer is functionally equivalent to a voltage regulator Windings An assembly of coils designed to act in consort to produce a magnetic flux field or to link a flux field.
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Appendix B Discussion of Power Factor

Most of the electricity used by business and industry customers is needed to drive electric motors. For an electric motor, more energy must be supplied than actually required to turn the motors shaft, since a certain amount of energy is required to maintain the magnetic field of the motor. The energy that is Real Power (kW) actually used to turn the motors shaft is used by all electrical devices to produce work or heat and is Reactive called real power. Real power is expressed in Apparent Power (kVA) Power kilowatts (kW). The extra energy needed to (kVAR) maintain the magnetic field in inductive devices such as motors but that does no real work is called reactive power and is expressed in kilovars (kVARS). The total power or apparent power delivered to end-using customers by electric power companies is actually the vector sum of the real and reactive power components and is expressed in kilovolt-amps (kVA). Many loads are highly inductive, such as lightly loaded motors and illumination transformers and ballasts. Industrial facilities tend to have a lagging power factor, where the current lags the voltage (as in an inductor). This situation is generally caused by the predominance of electric motors in most industrial facilities, where the motor windings act as inductors as seen by the Area EPS. The installation of capacitors can compensate for the inductive motor windings, improving the overall power factor. Some industrial plants have installed large banks of capacitors strictly for the purpose of improving the power factor to reduce any utility low power factor penalties. For an ac circuit, the power is calculated as Pavg = VI cos Where = the phase angle between the voltage and current V = voltage I = current Pavg = the average power in the ac circuit. represents the power factor and is Power Factor = cos = Pavg / VI
The cosine of
The Power Factor of a load is defined as the ratio of active power to apparent power, Power Factor = kW/ kVA = cos Under normal operating conditions certain electrical loads (e.g. induction motors, welding equipment, arc furnaces and fluorescent lighting) draw not only active power from the supply (kilowatts, kW) but also reactive power (reactive kVA, kVAr). This reactive power is necessary for the equipment to operate correctly but could be interpreted as an undesirable burden on the supply. 78
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Power Factor and System Operations Most utilities prefer customer operations to run at as close to unity power factor as possible. A better (nearer unity) customer power factor mean the Area EPS will see: reduction in the load on cables and switchgear; ability to support additional customer load; reduced load on distribution network components, with likely extension of their useful life.
The ability to connect additional load is always of benefit to an expanding power company. Synchronous Generators and Power Factor A synchronous generator is an ac machine in which the rotational speed of normal operation is constant and in synchronism with the frequency of the Area EPS to which it is connected. Synchronous generators that have their field excitation supplied either by a separate motor-generator set, a directly coupled selfexcited dc generator, or a brushless exciter do not require an outside electrical source. As a result, this type of generator can run either stand alone or in parallel with the Example of Capacitors for Power Factor Area EPS. When interconnected, Correction57 the generator is exactly in step with Area EPS voltage and frequency. As an example, system "A" in Figure 1 shows a Separately excited synchronous typical power system with on-site generation. The ongenerators can supply sustained fault site generator is rated 25MVA at 0.8 Power Factor current under nearly all operating (PF) and supplies roughly 53% of the industrial systems load. The industrial systems load has an conditions. It also gives the DR aggregate sum of 45 MVA at 0.84 Power Factor and owner the option to control the is a 24/7 - 365 day operation. This equates to a power factor on the Local EPS by reactive power flow of 24.4 MVAR and real power the adjusting the dc field current. The synchronous generator nameplate rating includes power output and power factor (e.g., 20 MW, 0.85 power factor). These generators can be operated at a range of operating conditions, for example, to maximize power output or var output. The power factor rating of most synchronous generators is typically between 0.8 lagging to 0.95 lagging. By convention, a synchronous generator operating with a lagging power
57
flow of 37.8 MW. The utility supplies the remaining amount of power as shown (17.8 MW, 9.4 MVARS, 20.1 MVA @ 0.88PF).
The plant owners wish to reduce their overall cost for power. One method as provided here is to improve their overall plant power factor to 0.90 lagging and increase their generator MW output by improving power factor. System "B" in Figure 1 shows how a capacitor bank was utilized to accomplish this goal. System "B" shows that the addition of an 18.25 MVAR capacitor bank enabled their generator to output an additional 5 MW while improving the plant power factor to 0.9 Lagging.
Example from Northeast Power Systems, Inc., Queensbury, NY, www.nepsi.com.
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factor is producing vars, while one operating with a leading power factor is consuming vars. From a reactive power viewpoint, a generator with a lagging power factor is much like a shunt capacitor bank (shunt capacitor banks put out vars as does a generator). The primary difference is that a generator will put out real power in addition to the reactive power by merely changing the field voltage.
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Operating a synchronous generator with a lagging power factor does not require additional power from the prime mover, but it does reduce the amount of real power that the generator can produce by increasing the stator winding current. In many cases, a generator operating with a lagging power factor can have its control settings changed or type so that it will put out more kW and less vars.
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Appendix C Grounding Fundamentals

Grounded and Ungrounded Systems A system that is a combination of lines, cables, or conductors with apparatus may be broadly classified as either grounded or ungrounded. A grounded system is a system in which at least one conductor or point (usually the neutral point of the transformer or the generator windings) is intentionally grounded directly or through an impedance. An ungrounded system or apparatus is one without an intentional connection to ground. Various classes of grounding are available to the system designer, each having a unique set of attributes. Most grounded systems employ some method of grounding the system neutral at one or more points. These methods can be categorized as shown below:
Ungrounded
Grounded
Solid Grounding
Impedance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Resistance Grounding
Ground Fault Neutralizer Grounding
Each method of grounding refers to the nature of the external circuit from the system neutral to ground rather than to the degree of grounding. In each case the impedance of the generator or transformer whose neutral is grounded is in series with the external circuit. Thus a solidly grounded generator or transformer may or may not furnish effective grounding to the system, depending on the system source impedance. Each of these grounding methods is briefly discussed below.
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Electrical power systems, which are operated with no intentional ground connection to the system conductors, are generally described as ungrounded. In reality, these systems are grounded through the system capacitance to ground. Ungrounded systems have the secondary windings of the distribution substation transformer connected either in ungrounded delta or ungrounded wye, with the former connection being more common. The distribution feeders are three-wire three-phase and two-wire singlephase circuits. Surge arresters are connected from phase conductor directly to earth, or to the grounded equipment tank or frame, either directly or through a spark gap. In most systems, the system capacitance to ground is an extremely high impedance, and the resulting system relationships to ground are weak and easily distorted. Two principal advantages are attributed to ungrounded systems. The first is operational: The first ground fault on a system causes only a small ground current to flow, so the system may be operated with a ground fault present, improving system continuity. The second is economic: No expenditures are required for grounding equipment or grounded system conductors. When an ungrounded system is chosen, a ground detection scheme may be applied to the system. This scheme frequently takes the form of three voltage transformers with their primary windings connected in wye and with the primary neutral grounded. The secondary windings of the voltage transformers are usually connected in broken delta, with a voltage relay connected in the open corner and used to operate an indication or alarm circuit. Loading resistors may be required either in the primary neutral circuit or in the secondary circuit to avoid ferroresonance. Solidly Grounded Systems Solid grounding refers to the connection of the neutral of a generator, power transformer, or grounding transformer directly to the station ground or to the earth. Because of the reactance of the grounded generator or transformer in series with the neutral circuit, a solid ground connection does not provide a zero-impedance neutral circuit. If the reactance of the system zero-sequence circuit is too great with respect to the system positive-sequence reactance, the objectives sought in grounding, principally freedom from transient overvoltages, may not be achieved. This is rarely a problem in typical industrial and commercial power systems. The zero-sequence impedance of most generators used in these systems is much lower than the positivesequence impedance of these generators. The zero-sequence impedance of a delta-wye transformer will not exceed the transformer's positive-sequence impedance. There are, however, conditions under which relatively high zero-sequence impedance may occur. Reactance Grounding The term reactance grounding describes the case in which a reactor is connected between the system neutral and ground. Since the ground-fault that may flow in a reactance-grounded system is a function of the neutral reactance, the magnitude of the ground-fault current is often used as a criterion for describing the degree of grounding. In a reactance-grounded system, the available ground-fault current should be at least 25% and preferably 60% of the three-phase fault current to prevent serious transient overvoltages (X0 10X 1 ). This is considerably higher than the level of fault current desirable in a resistance-grounded system, and therefore reactance grounding is usually not considered an alternative to resistance grounding. In most generators, solid grounding, that is, grounding without external impedance, may permit the maximum ground-fault current from the generator to exceed the maximum three-phase fault 83
September 2001
current that the generator can deliver and for which its windings are braced. Consequently, neutralgrounded generators should be grounded through a low-value reactor that will limit the ground-fault current to a value no greater than the generator three-phase fault current. In the case of three-phase fourwire systems, the limitation of ground-fault current to 100% of the three-phase fault current is usually achievable without interfering with normal four-wire operation. In practice, reactance grounding is generally used only in this case and to ground substation transformers with similar characteristics. Resistance Grounding In resistance grounding, the neutral is connected to ground through one or more resistors. In this method, with the resistor values normally used, and except for transient overvoltages, the line-to-ground voltages that exist during a line-to-ground fault are nearly the same as those for an ungrounded system. A system properly grounded by resistance is not subject to destructive transient overvoltages. For resistance-grounded systems at 15 kV and below, such overvoltages will not ordinarily be of a serious nature if the resistance value lies within the following boundary limits: R 0 X C0 , R 0 2X 0. The corresponding ground-fault current is far less than is normally used for low-resistance grounding, but is the design criterion for high-resistance grounding. The reasons for limiting the current by resistance grounding may include one or more of the following: 1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines. 2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents. 3. To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground-fault currents in the ground return path. 4. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have accidentally caused or who happen to be in close proximity to the ground fault. 5. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault. 6. To secure control of transient overvoltages while at the same time avoiding the shutdown of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault (high-resistance grounding). Resistance grounding may be either of two classes, high resistance or low resistance, distinguished by the magnitude of ground-fault current permitted to flow. Although there are no recognized standards for the levels of ground-fault current that define these two classes, in practice there is a clear difference. Highresistance grounding typically uses ground-fault current levels of 10 A or less, although some specialized systems at voltages in the 15 kV class may have higher ground-fault current levels. Low-resistance grounding typically uses ground-fault current levels of at least 100 A, with currents in the 2001000 A range being more usual. Ground Fault Neutralizer Grounding A ground-fault neutralizer is a reactor connected between the neutral of a system and ground and having a specially selected, relatively high value of reactance. The reactance is tuned to the system charging current so that the resulting ground fault current is resistive and of a low magnitude. This current is in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage, so that current zero and voltage zero occur simultaneously. If the ground fault is in air, such as an insulator flashover, it may be self-extinguishing. This method of grounding is used primarily on systems above 15 kV, consisting largely of overhead transmission or
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distribution lines. Since systems of such construction are rarely used in industrial or commercial power systems, the ground-fault neutralizer finds little application in these systems. Obtaining the System Neutral
EXAMPLE OF A GROUNDING TRANSFORMER
The best way to obtain the system neutral One type of grounding transformer commonly used is a three-phase for grounding purposes in three-phase zigzag transformer with no secondary winding. The impedance of systems is to use source transformers or the transformer to balanced three-phase voltages is high so that when there is no fault on the system, only a small magnetizing generators with wye-connected windings. current flows in the transformer winding. The transformer impedance The neutral is then readily available. to zero-sequence voltages, however, is low so that it allows high Such transformers are available for ground-fault currents to flow. The transformer divides the groundpractically all voltages except 240 V. On fault current into three equal components; these currents are in phase with each other and flow in the three windings of the new systems, 208Y/120 V or 480Y/277 grounding transformer. V wye-connected transformers may be used to good advantage instead of 240 V. Wye-connected source transformers for 2400, 4160, and 13,800 V systems are available as a standard option, whereas 4800 and 6900 V wye-connected source transformers may be priced at a premium rate. The alternative is to apply grounding transformers. System neutrals may not be available, particularly in many old systems of 600 V or less and many existing 2400, 4800, and 6900 V systems. When existing delta-connected systems are to be grounded, grounding transformers may be used to obtain the neutral. Grounding transformers may be of either the zigzag, the wye-delta, or the T-connected type. Transformer Configurations Some common transformer configurations to which DG units typically interconnect (high side/low side) include: Delta/Wye Grounded Delta/Delta Wye-Grounded/Wye Grounded Wye-Grounded/Delta Wye Ungrounded/Delta
APPLYING A GROUNDING TRANSFORMER BANK AND THE NEED FOR SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES
Use of an adjacent grounding transformer bank is one approach for creating a DG source that behaves as an effectively grounded source when the step-up transformer does not provide effective grounding. It should be noted that any additional grounding sources on the system, whether by a grounding bank or by using an appropriate step-up transformer winding arrangement, will have the effect of reducing (diverting) the zero sequence return current seen at the substation that arises from line to ground faults on the feeder. The amount of current diverted is determined by the ratio of the DG grounding source impedance to the substation grounding impedance. This effect has the impact of desensitizing the ground fault relaying at the substation since the substation will see less current for a given magnitude line to ground fault out on the feeder. To assess the impact of this problem, the grounding source impedance of the DG site must be analyzed to insure that it will not divert more than a small fraction of the fault current (perhaps 10% as a rule of thumb). For smaller DG units it? usually is not an issue. For a larger unit acting as a ground source or for cases involving many small units acting together as ground sources, the short circuit studies need to identify the impact of this? and see if any changes are required in relay pickup settings. A grounding resistance can be used on the DG ground source neutral connection to limit the impact. This also helps to reduce circulating current in any delta winding of the transformer that are caused by zero sequence voltages on the feeder.
Not all of these configurations provide effective grounding.
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Will not provide effective grounding unless a suitably sized primary side grounding bank is provided adjacent to the step-up transformer.58 Delta/Delta Will not provide effective grounding unless a suitably sized primary side grounding bank is provided adjacent to the step-up transformer. Delta-delta transformers connecting the DR to the EPS would also afford the ability to ground the DR directly at its energy source. However, DR could become ungrounded during utility separation for any loads on a high side bus within the DR side of the interconnection. Wye-Grounded/Wye-Grounded Provides effective grounding only if a suitably sized grounding bank is provided or if the generator is wye-grounded and meets neutral impedance requirements. Wye Grounded/Delta Typically provides effective grounding regardless of generator grounding arrangement. Wye Ungrounded/Delta If the DR has a dedicated transformer with ungrounded wye-delta windings, the DR may be grounded directly at its energy source. When connected to the Area EPS ground, both sides of the isolated circuits will be grounded. Upon separation from the utility if the DR transformer has local loads on an internal bus on the high side of its transformer, those loads would lose their grounded supply reference. If nothing further were done, this circumstance would be unadvisable since those loads would operate temporarily as an isolated ungrounded system while not originally intended to do so. Remedies might include dedicated transformers with derived grounded neutrals to serve those loads, or ground detection circuits to monitor and alarm for ground faults or the use of grounding transformers to establish a neutral that may be grounded. Grounding the DR Itself Basics of Power Source Grounding Grounding for a DR installation must include consideration of the energy source and any isolation transformers if present. When the DR operates in parallel with the Area EPS, Article 705-50 of the NEC requires an interconnected electric power production source to be grounded in accordance with article 250 of the NEC.
58
If the DR delta-wye transformer is grounded at its high side bus, the local loads retain operation from a grounded source during utility separation. In this case, the location of where the bus is grounded is important.
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Interconnections to ungrounded primary systems must not contain any connection to ground which would provide a source of ground fault current to the otherwise ungrounded system. If the DR does not have a dedicated transformer, its energy source cannot be grounded since the utility bus it is interconnected with will reflect the ground reference back to the DR converter and its energy source. In addition to grounding limitations, the DR facility would need to have protection against the full short circuit current capability of the bus since it would not have the limiting impedance of an isolation transformer under fault conditions. Grounding and ground fault protection of a DR system is particularly important for protection against shocks and to ensure the safety of personnel and equipment and reduce the hazards of fire and explosion. Established safety grounding rules of NEC 250 should be followed when designing a DR ground system. Generally the neutral of an ac system or one conductor of a dc system is connected to the ground system of the building or switchyard and earth. This is the grounded conductor of the electrical service. DR systems that are galvanically isolated from the grounded ac utility supply are termed separately derived systems and must be grounded according to the provisions of NEC 250. It is prohibited to connect the grounded circuit conductor of a separately derived system at more than one point. Otherwise some of the normal neutral current could flow in the grounding conductor circuit between the points of connection and represent a safety hazard and defeat protective ground fault circuits. The single point of grounding connection to the circuit is required to be between the source and the first disconnecting means or overcurrent devices (or at the source if these items are not present). This arrangement provides the greatest level of protection for any faults which may occur on the system. It also establishes a ground reference for the DR, needed to protect it against surges from lightning or switching transients, and controls the voltage to earth and ground within predictable limits. The grounded conductor is bonded to the ground system which includes the structural metal of the building and earth. It may be bonded in either a solid connection or through a neutral grounding impedance to limit fault currents to non-damaging levels. For resistance grounded neutral systems two levels are used. High resistance grounding typically limits the ground fault current to 10 amps or less but the current must at least be equal to the total system capacitance to ground charging current. This scheme is used basically for detection and alarming of ground faults without immediate tripping of the system and is not a recommended method for effective grounding. Low resistance grounding typically fixes the ground fault current to levels of 100 to 1000 amps. This helps limit fault current damage and permits coordination and protection circuits to function and clear the faulted circuit. To ensure the benefits of a solidly grounded system the degree of grounding must be high. This is to say the higher the ground fault current is in comparison to the short circuit fault current the greater is the degree of grounding. ANSI/IEEE 142-1991 defines an effectively grounded system in the following manner:
Grounded through a sufficiently low impedance such that for all system conditions the ratio of zero-sequence reactance to positive-sequence reactance (X0/X1) is positive and less than 3 and the ratio of zero-sequence resistance to positive-sequence reactance (R0/X1) is positive and less than 1.
The above discusses the grounding of the power circuit and the resulting creation of a grounded conductor in the system. In addition to this it is equally important that all non-current carrying metal parts in a
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system which may become energized under fault conditions also be grounded. This is termed equipment grounding and also referred to as bonding. Those conductors that bond all such members together are termed equipment grounding conductors. The system of equipment grounding conductors must be bonded to the grounded conductor of the electrical system at the source, or at the service entrance, so that fault current can flow and allow circuit protective devices to operate and de-energize the faulted circuit. It is prohibited that earth be the sole equipment grounding conductor. Synchronous Generators The principle objective of grounding a synchronous generator system is the protection of the generator and associated equipment against damage caused by abnormal electrical conditions. Generator protection guidelines and design considerations are summarized below.
Protection Guidelines
Design Considerations
It has been concluded from field investigations of generator failures that limiting ground current magnitudes/durations during internal line-to-ground faults is no guarantee that core damage will be completely eliminated. However, there is an indication that low-fault currents and fast-fault clearing will minimize core damage since iron burning and damage depend mainly on core current magnitude and duration. The energy generated in a fault is equal to I2Rf t, where Rf is the fault resistance. This relationship indicates that a reduction in current will have a greater reduction in fault-heating damage than a proportional reduction in time. However, the energy generated by an arcing fault will not be reduced by the square of the reduced current as implied by the equation. It will decrease more slowly because the arcing fault resistance is neither constant nor linear.
Minimizing damage for internal ground faults
Limiting mechanical stress in the generator for external ground faults
At least a minimum value of impedance, either a resistance or a reactance, be installed in the neutral of all wye-connected grounded generators where the zero-sequence reactance is less than positive-sequence subtransient reactance. In calculating the maximum currents that can flow in the generator windings during an external fault, it is usually sufficient to consider the generator impedances alone. It can be shown that, if sufficient neutral impedance is used to make the phaseto-ground fault current less than or equal to the 3-phase fault current with the machine isolated from the system, the winding currents for any fault will be less than or equal to the winding current for a 3-phase fault.
Limiting TOVs (temporary overvoltages) and transient overvoltages on the generator insulation
The class of grounding affects generator overvoltage protection in controlling the magnitude of temporary and transient overvoltages during a ground fault and, consequently, determines the minimum rating of surge arresters that can be employed. These considerations are common to grounding all types of apparatus. The available classes of grounding may be ranked as follows in order of increasing temporary overvoltages assuming a fault resistance that yields the highest coefficient of grounding but neglects the effects of restrikes within a solid dielectric: 1) Effectively grounded 2) Low-inductance grounded 3) Low-resistance grounded 4) Resonant grounded 5) High-resistance grounded 6) Ungrounded Ordering of transient overvoltages with grounding classes is difficult (refer to ANSI/IEEE C62.921987, Table 1). A comparison with the effect of grounding on fault current magnitude indicates that very low fault currents are generally obtained at the risk of higher temporary and transient overvoltages.
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Design Considerations
The grounding class chosen for a generator has a significant impact on the sensitivity and speed of ground-fault relaying for the generator and other apparatus connected to the generator voltage system. In general, ungrounded, high-resistance, and resonant-grounded systems allow for the most sensitive ground-fault detection. In systems where generators are bussed together at generator voltage or where feeders are taken out at the generator voltage, relaying requirements may dictate a grounding class other than one which would provide maximum sensitivity for generator stator ground faults. The effects which the choice of grounding class may have on ground relaying are discussed in a general way in Section 3. A complete discussion of generator ground-fault protection, including specific relaying systems, can be found in ANSI/IEEE C37.101-1985.
Providing a means of generator system ground fault detection
Coordinating the protection of the generator with the requirements of other equipment connected at generator voltage level.
When a generator is interconnected with other systems, e.g., other generators, plant auxiliaries, feeders, etc., at the generated voltage level, the class of generator grounding should not be determined by considering the generator's needs alone. Requirements for selective relaying, overvoltage control, inductive coordination, etc., in other parts of the system may constrain the choice of a generator grounding means.
The choice of grounding class is largely determined by the relative importance to the user of each of the above guidelines. Static Power Converters Grounding for static power converters applied as part of a DR system must be viewed in the context of grounding for the entire DR installation including the energy source and any isolation transformers if present. When the DR operates in parallel with the Area EPS, Article 705-50 of the NEC requires an interconnected electric power production source to be grounded in accordance with article 250 of the NEC. A notable exception to the NEC 705 grounding rule, however, is for direct current systems connected through an inverter directly to a grounded electrical supply service provided other methods that utilize equipment listed and identified for the use accomplish equivalent system protection.
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Appendix D - Example One Line Diagrams

Utility Substation Ungrounded System
VT (2)
Dead Line sensing
Fuse Single Phase (2) Distribution Transformer 120/240 volt secondary (2)
27 I
Other Remote Other Remote Customer Loads Customer Loads Revenue Metering
PCC (Point of Common Coupling) Utility DR
Note 1
A Point of DR Connection
Circuit Breaker with Thermal/Magnetic Trip Mechanism

(1) (1)
27/ 59
81
Local Load
Contactor
Small Induction Generator

27/59 27I 81
LEGEND
Time Under & Over voltage Instantaneous Undervoltage (Blocks Auto Reclose at Substation) Overfrequency & Underfrequency
TRIPS
A A
Note 1: Accessible and lockable disconnect switch Note 2: DR could partially serve other remote loads on the secondary system Note 3: For loss of utility system, DR could continue to serve local load by opening breaker A This presumes enough reactive power is available for the induction generator Figure D-1. Small (< 25 kVA) Single Phase Induction Generator
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Utility Substation
Y Grounded System
VT (2) Dead Line Sensing for Reclosing

27I (2)
Note 1:
Fuse (3) Revenue Metering M

PCC (Point of Common Coupling) Note 4: Utility DR
Reactor
Note 2:
Utility Neutral
VT (3)
(3) 27 (3) (3)
59 I/T
(1) 81 R
(3)
(1)
51G
51
Note 3:
A
PI (Point of Interconnection)
Circuit Breaker VT (1)

27R
(1)
VT (1)
25
LEGEND
TRIPS A
27 27I 27R 51 51G 59 I/T 81 25
B VT (1)
Inverter
Local Load
Time Undervoltage (Islanding) Instantaneous Undervoltage (Blocks Auto Reclose at Substation) Instantaneous Undervoltage (Blocks A from Closing) Time Overcurrent Time Overcurrent (Ground) Instantaneous & Time Overvoltage Overfrequency & Underfrequency Synchronizing (Permits closing B)
A A A A
Note 1: Note 2: Note 3: Note 4: Note 5:
Accessible and lockable fused disconnect switch. Reduces zero sequence current flow to distribution line faults. Ferroresonance suppression resistors. DRs using Wye-Delta transformations can run isolated and serve other remote loads. However, the size of the reactor could limit the amount of load served remotely. For loss of utility system, DR could continue to serve local load by opening breaker A.
Figure D-2. Small Three Phase Inverter (< 100 kVA) and Grounded Wye Delta Transformer 91
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Utility Substation
VT
27 I
(2) (2)
Fuse (3) Main Power Transformer (3) VT Utility Neutral

CT (1) CT (3) 51 (3) 27 (3) 59 (1) 81
Reactor Note (2)

(1)
51G
R (3) (Note 3)
Note 4
A Breaker
(1) VT 27R
Circuit
(1
M Metering (Note 1)
Revenue
Utility DSG
B (Note 1)
Inverter
Local Load
LEGEND 27 Time Undervoltage 27I Instantaneous Undervoltage 27R Instantaneous Undervoltage 51 Time Overcurrent 51G Time Overcurrent Ground 59I/T Inst. & Time Overvoltage 81 Over & Underfrequency
TRIPS A A A A A
NOTES
1. Alternate location for accessible and lockable disconnect switch. 2. Reduces zero sequence current flow to distribution line faults 3. Ferroresonance suppression resistors. 4. Can be closed only when utility feed is alive and DG bus is dead.
Figure D-3. Substation with Inverter Source and Grounded-Wye Transformer Protected by Fuses 92
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Utility Substation VT (2) Dead Line Sensing for Reclosing

27I
Y Grounded System
Note 1
Revenue Metering
PCC (Point of Common Coupling)
Utility DR
D CT (3)
Resistor
Circuit Breaker Note 2

50/ 51
VT (3)
CT (1)
51 51 G G 151 G
Optional
(1) (3) (1) (1) 59 81 59 I/T G (3) 87
Note 3 CT (3)
A (3) 51
27
Circuit Breaker
67
27R
CT (3) VT (3) Point of DR Connection
VT (1)
(1) 25
67 27 27I 27R
VT (1)
B Local Load
Note 4
Synchronous Generator
50/51 51 51G 151G 59I/T 81 59G 25
LEGEND TRIPS Directional Overcurrent A Time Undervoltage (Islanding) A or D Instantaneous Undervoltage (Blocks Auto Reclose at Substation) Instantaneous Undervoltage (Blocks A from Closing) Instantaneous & Time Overcurrent A & D Time Overcurrent A Time Overcurrent (Ground) A Time Overcurrent (Ground) A&D Instantaneous & Time Overvoltage A or B or D Overfrequency & Underfrequency A & D Zero Sequence Overvoltage A or B or D Synchronizing (Permits closing B)
Note 1: Note 2: Note 3: Note 4:
Accessible and lockable disconnect switch. If breaker D is installed, then trip D. If fuse is used in place of breaker then trip A. For Delta-Wye transformations, there is no ground fault current contribution for primary faults therefore this transformer connection cannot be used for DRs operating isolated and serving other remote line to ground load. For loss of utility system, DR could continue to serve local load by opening breaker A or breaker D.
Figure D-4. Large Synchronous Generator (1 5 MVA) Connected to Wye Grounded Distribution Primary 93
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Appendix E Example of Non-Islanding Test

(From IEEE 1547, Annex A.5)
A.5
Interconnection Test to Verify Non-Islanding
This test provides a means to determine that a DR or its interconnection system will not maintain stable operation without the presence of a utility source. A utility source means any source capable of maintaining an island within the recommended voltage and frequency window. An engine-generator with voltage and frequency control and with no non-islanding protection is considered a utility source for the purpose of this test. However, because of the uncertainty associated with the need to sink both real and reactive power from the DR, this test can be performed most conveniently with a utility connection, rather than a simulated utility. The test should be conducted with voltage and frequency near the middle of their normal ranges. Voltage should be at least 3% inside the most restrictive voltage trip limits. Frequency should be at least 0.25 Hz inside the most restrictive frequency trip limits. (Note that frequency and voltage variation are not required for this testing.)
A.5.1
NON-ISLANDING TEST PROCEDURE BACKGROUND
This test procedure is designed to be universally applicable to both unity-power-factor DRs and nonunity-power-factor DRs. With unity-power-factor DRs, the second step, where QDR is measured, will result in a value of QDR that is zero, simplifying the remainder of the procedure. For DRs where QDR is not zero the test procedure is complicated by the presence of reactive power to or from the DR. Harmonic currents flow between the utility, the capacitor and the DR, complicating the situation by making it appear that current is flowing when the 60 Hz component of current has been reduced to zero. Thus it is important, when adjusting inductive and capacitive reactance, to use instruments that can read only the 60 Hz component of current and power. The sequence of the steps below is suggested for several reasons. The inductance is adjusted first because that measurement is low in harmonics. The capacitance is added second so that the voltage is stable when the resistance is added. The resistive parallel load is then added and adjusted. Note that this resistance will be in addition to the resistance that will inherently be part of the inductive load. This test procedure assumes that a non-unity-power-factor DR will be a source, not a sink for reactive power (i.e., QDR is positive). However, the procedure will also work for DRs that sink reactive power (QDR is negative). The test circuit is configured as shown in Figure A.1. Details of this circuit may be changed to suit the specific hardware available to the tester. For example, it may be convenient to replace switch S1 with individual switches on each leg of the RLC load. For each DR/load power combination the following procedure is suggested to achieve the proper generation-to-load complex power balance.
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A.5.2
NON-ISLANDING TEST PROCEDURE
a) Determine, from Table A.1, the DR test output power, PDR, that will be used.
Table A.1Ratios of Real Load to DR Output DR Output (PDR) Real Power Load (PLOAD) 25% 25% 50% 50% 100% 100% 100% 125%
b) Begin with the utility switch S3 closed. With no local load connected (that is, S1 is open so that the
RLC load is not connected at this time), start the DR and parallel it to the utility by closing S2. Operate the DR at the power output determined in step (a). Measure real and reactive power flow at the measurement point. The real power should equal PDR. The reactive power measured in this step is designated QDR. c) Shut down the DR and open S2. d) Adjust the RLC circuit to have a quality factor of 2.5. This is accomplished by: 1) Determining the amount of inductive reactance required in the resonant RLC circuit using the relation QL = 2.5 PDR. 2) Connecting an inductor as the first element of the RLC circuit and adjusting the inductive reactance to yield the required value of QL. 3) Connecting a capacitor in parallel with the inductor. Adjust the capacitive reactance so that QC + QL = QDR.
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4) Connecting a parallel resistance R that results in the power consumed by the RLC circuit equaling
PDR. e) Connect the RLC load configured in step (d) to the circuit by closing S1. Start the DR and close S2, making certain that the DR power output is as determined in step (a). Note: The purpose of the procedure up to this point is to zero out the 60 Hertz components of real and reactive power, i.e., to zero out the 60 Hertz component of current flow, at the utility switch S3. System resonances will typically generate harmonic currents in the test circuit. These harmonic currents may make it impossible to zero out an RMS measurement of power or current flow at the switch. Because of test equipment measurement error and some impact from harmonic currents, it is necessary to make small adjustments in the test circuit to achieve worst case islanding behavior. Step (g) is performed to make these small adjustments.
f) Open the utility-disconnect switch to initiate the test. A test is successful when the DR ceases to
energize the test load within the time limit set by 4.4.1.
g) After each successful test, one parameter (L or C) is adjusted by approximately 1.0% per test, within
a total range of 5% of the operating point determined in step (d), above. The parameter that is adjusted may be load inductance, L, or load capacitance, C. After each adjustment, a non-islanding test is run and time to trip is recorded. If any of these tests results in islanding for longer than the time specified in 4.4.1, the unit fails the test and the test sequence is considered complete. The tests should be performed at each of the following ratios of real load (PLOAD)to DR output (PDR), where both values are given as a percent of DR rated output. The actual tripping time for each test shall be recorded. A single failure of any of these tests is considered a failure of the entire test sequence.
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September 2001
Appendix F References
American National Standard Institute (ANSI). ANSI C84.1-1995 Electrical Power Systems and Equipment Voltage Ratings (60 Hz). Rosslyn, VA: National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1996. Chugach Electric Association, Inc. Interconnection Guidelines for Non-Utility Generation. Preliminary Draft. Chugach Electric Association, Inc., 2001. Edison Electric Institute, Interconnection Working Group. Edison Electric Institute Distribute Resources Task Force Interconnection Study. Edison Electric Institute, 2000. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). ANSI/IEEE C62.92-1997 IEEE Guide for the Application or Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems. Parts I-IV. New York, NY: IEEE, 1991. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). ANSI/IEEE 1001-1988 IEEE Guide for Interfacing Dispersed Storage and Generation Facilities with Electric Utility Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 1989. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE P1547/D07 Draft Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 2001. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE Std. C57.110-1998 IEEE Recommended Practices for Establishing Transformer Capacity When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents. New York, NY: IEEE, 1998. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE Std. 142-1991 IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 1991. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE Std 519-1992 IEEE Recommended Practices for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 1993. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE Std. 929-2000 IEEE Recommended Practices for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 2000. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). IEEE Std. 1250-1995 IEEE Guide for Service to Equipment Sensitive to Momentary Voltage Disturbances. New York, NY: IEEE, 1995. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). P1547 Working Group Resource Document (WGRD) for Draft Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. New York, NY: IEEE, 1998. 97
September 2001
National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 70 National Electrical Code, NEC 1999. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1999. Underwriters Laboratories Inc. UL 1741 Standard for Safety: Static Inverters and Charge Controllers for Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems. Northbrook, Il: Underwriters Laboratories Inc., 1999.
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Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection The NRECA Guide to IEEE 1547

Resource Dynamics Corporation September 2001

Application Guide for Distributed Generation Interconnection

Section 1: Cooperative Distribution System Circuits

Section 2: Meeting IEEE 1547 Technical Requirements Voltage Regulation

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Integration with Area Electric Power System Grounding

For definition of grounding methods consult IEEE 62.92.1.

Primary phase wires

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Aggregate Rating of DR Units (kVA) 0 - 500 500 1,500 1,500 - 10,000

Frequency Difference (f, Hz) 0.3 0.2 0.1

Voltage Difference (V, %) 10 5 3

Phase Angle Difference (, ) 20 15 10

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

See Appendix B for a discussion of power factor.

Inadvertent Energizing of Area EPS

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

UL 1741 is one example of a standard for inverters used on photovoltaic systems.

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

UL 1741 is one example of a standard for inverters used on photovoltaic systems.

* DR 30kW, Maximum Clearing Times ; DR > 30kW, Default Clearing Times35

technical terms is contrasted in Table 3. Table 3. Voltage Terminology Differences

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

See Table 4 for more detail.

Table 4. Description of Momentary Disturbances

Motor Starting Cyclic and Variable Loads Tap Changing

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Disconnection for Faults

Table 6. Major Causes of Failure

The major causes of failures are summarized in Table 6.

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Feeder Reclosing Coordination

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Limitation of Voltage Flicker Induced by the DR

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Present Evaluation and Measurement Techniques

(S/SSC)max, % 0.15 0.23 0.46

Note: A voltage drop followed by a recovery means two voltage changes.

Figure 2. Current Wave of Switched Mode Power Supply

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

Combination distorted waveform

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

TIPS, TECHNIQUES AND RULES OF THUMB

4. Acceptable nonislanding protection (other than through inverter design)

Radial Feeder Substation

Appendix B Discussion of Power Factor

Example from Northeast Power Systems, Inc., Queensbury, NY, www.nepsi.com.

Appendix C Grounding Fundamentals

Ground Fault Neutralizer Grounding

Not all of these configurations provide effective grounding.

Minimizing damage for internal ground faults

Limiting mechanical stress in the generator for external ground faults

Providing a means of generator system ground fault detection

Appendix D - Example One Line Diagrams

Dead Line sensing

Circuit Breaker with Thermal/Magnetic Trip Mechanism

Small Induction Generator

VT (2) Dead Line Sensing for Reclosing

Fuse (3) Revenue Metering M