Evolution Of Settlements: the general case, with special emphasis on the medieval period

We shall not obtain the best insight into things until we actually see them growing from the beginning -Aristotle The study of evolution of settlements holds similar position as that of evolution of our race. The necessity to know the origins of the human being is designated with Defining a city Though the title suggests discourse on the evolution of settlements, the following text deals with the progress of urbanism, its origin and growth. The simple basis for the exclusion is a). the assumption that urbanization was a direct consequence of conscious shift from agricultural to non-agricultural occupation i.e. country to town and b) lack of documentary evidence with a purposed view of distinct characterization between the two. This however poses the problem of definition. What defines a city? Does the contemporary definition and imagery of a city/urban place remains applicable to its historic counterpart? According to Carter, It is not easy to present any applicable definition of a town or city to the contemporary world; it is much more difficult to set out one applicable to all ages Authors have attempted to classify the city as of the Orient and Occident and have conveniently excluded the cities of the Orient claiming that they were not true cities (Max Webster). This definition can be radically criticized for overemphasized community and colonial loyalties. Others have focused on attributes as city walls, religious/social hierarchies, garrisons, territoriality and specialization of population in a certain stratified trade/occupation. Population size once again can be used as a criterion to distinguish early cities from their rural counterparts. Childe has attempted to state clearly the characteristics of a city under these categories: 1. Population size: the urban settlements were of a completely different order of size from anything that previously existed. Estimates of Sumerian cities range from 7000 to 12000. 2. Structure of the population: a key feature was the occupational specialization for the change from the old agricultural order meant that the employment of full time administrators and craftsmen was possible. 3. Public capital: the creation of a community also meant the emergence of public capital which could be devoted to other purposes 4. Record and exact sciences: the need to keep records promoted the beginning of a written script 5. Trade: this is by no means an innovation of the city but the establishment and maintenance of a network of trade routes.

Urban origins: A review of theories Social scientists have attempted to present a general view of the mechanism in which the earliest cities formed. Whether these theories are fundamental in their substance or a mere generalization of the many cities studied so far, is still debatable. The theories are presented as under: 1. Economic theories: This theory expresses itself in two forms- mercantile view, detailing the long distance trade and market view, considering localized exchange which creates the focal point for urban origin. The evidence can be Egyptian hieroglyph for a town being a cross within a circle symbolizing two main functions of early towns. The cross depicting the meeting of routes and the circle depicts the city wall. Another support to the theory is the existence of market towns in medieval Europe. As the evolution of towns during the middle ages was in the form of a trading point/market place it is assumed that such phenomena could have happened at any other point of time in history also, maybe even the origin. The main exponent of this theory was Jean Jacobs whose extensive theorization of an imaginary town called New Obsidian rose out of purely commercial interests. She even provides a real world parallel to Catal Huyuk, a Neolithic town in Antolia whose origins date back to 7560 B.C. 2. Military theories: It can be argued that the city arose out of the need to protect its people from unfavorable circumstances. Once the agglomeration of people happens with in the city and its defenses other urban functions begin to take shape. Catal Huyuk again becomes a brilliant example of a city with prominent defensive structure, people... constructed dwellings without doorways and with sole entry through roof. The efficiency of the defense system is obvious and, whatever discomfort it involved for the inhabitants, there is no evidence of any sack or massacre in 800 years of the existence of Catal Huyuk (Mellaart 1969). Another archeological indication of the view is the discovery of the town of the first Jericho a pre-pottery Neolithic settlement having town walls whose foundations rest on the bedrock. 3. Religious theories: Rias Hassan finds connections between the cultural systems present in the ancient history and rural-urban notion. He equates the Nomadic Culture(Umran Badawi) characteristic of pre-Islamic societies and Civilised Culture(Umran Hadari) characteristic of post-Islamic societies. The logic behind such a proposition is that to overcome the restrictions and limitations of nomadic life and begin the sedentary city life a strong rationale was required and this was provided by Islam. Indeed it facilitated a social solidarity superior to and more lasting than that based on natural kinship (Hasan 1972). Similar philosophy echoes in case of Nationalism in case of modern

period. In city, the nationalist ideology facilitates the agglomeration of people of diverse groups under a unified urban community.

4.

The concept of a Surplus: The concept of material reality cumulating in to the objective and subsequently the ideological plane has established itself considerably in the theory of super-structuralism. Thereby any discussion on origin of cities will either be inclined or disinclined towards the hypothesis. The concept of a surplus therefore becomes of utmost importance if one excavates the subject. Surplus can be defined, in the strictliest economic sense as the difference between the value produced by a worker in a given period and the share of that value necessary to sustain the worker and capital stock. This definition however becomes difficult to process in case of earliest societies thus we introduce the idea of a biological surplus. Biological surplus is defined as the value of produce, over that which is necessary to sustain life. The theory more fundamental and suggests accumulation of surplus called Primitive Accumulation. This in turn leads to specialization and other superstructures emerging. The Hydraulic societies owe their emergence to these theories.

Urban Places of the Medieval Period: The term "Middle Ages" (medium aevum) was coined in the 15th century and reflects the view that this period was a deviation from the path of classical learning, a path supposedly reconnected by Renaissance. The straight jacketing of time is indeed a monumental task more so on a world level. The idea of middle ages and their commencement is thus a matter of perspective and variable accounts exist for the same. The most commonly given start date for the Middle Ages is 476, a date first given by Bruni. This was when Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor in the West, abdicated. Biondo used the sack of Rome in 410 by the Goths as the beginning of the period. In the history of Scandinavia, the Middle Ages followed prehistory during the 11th century, when the rulers converted to Christianity and substantial written records began to appear. A similar shift from prehistory to the Middle Ages occurred in Estonia and Latvia during the 13th century. For Europe as a whole, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 is commonly used as the end date of the Middle Ages. Depending on the context, other events, such as the invention of the moveable type printing press by Johann Gutenberg c. 1455, the fall of Muslim Spain or Christopher Columbus's voyage to America (both 1492), can be used. For Italy, 1401, the year the contract was awarded to build the north doors of the Florence Baptistery, is often used. In contrast, English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485) to mark the end of the period. For Spain, the death of King Ferdinand II (1516) is used.

Timeline of urban development. (Hudson)

The political and economic consequences of historical events have done much to alter the socio-cultural implications. In face of such inconsistencies it is much desirable to provide a background to the medieval period viz-a-viz Europe. The historical background of the political situation in Europe changed considerably during the medieval ages. They saw the gradual decline of the mighty Roman Empire and rise of the church as the sole administrative authority. The Roman Empire had collapsed in the west by the 5th century; the ensuring period was characterized by instability and insecurity. Only in the east did Justinian keep a strong hold on the civic situation in the new city of Byzantium. The subsequent time recorded the decline of roman cities and set in the coming of barbarians mainly peasant communities who despised the cultural legacy of Rome and ignored its towns (Hudson 1970). The church especially in France managed to keep the flame alive in the cities. The next event marks a significant change in the spate of urban developments. This was the coming of market towns in medieval Europe. Probably the best analysis of this process is given by Leo Hubermann in Mans Worldly Goods: The Story Of Wealth Of Nations. Hubermann says The market was under the control of the bishop or the lord where the surplus was sold. Extensive long distance trade was not happening prior 11th century. He accounts three basic problems in this regard

1. Lack of steady demand, leading to slow and little production. 2. Poor quality of roads. They were narrow, rough or muddy and generally unfit for travelling. Then too they were frequented by two kinds of robbers, ordinary brigands and feudal lords. The usurious amount of toll extracted by lords was common practice. When Odo of Tours built a bridge to Loire and made it free, his conduct caused astonishment. 3. Money was scarce and what money was there was different in different places. Weights and measurement varied with places too. But trade did not remain small scale for long. By the 11th and 12th centuries trade became an important part of European settlements. By 14th century historical aggrandizement and widening trade relations allowed Paris to reach a population of 2.5 lakh and London 50 thousand. However the onset of the Great plague or The Great Black Death again caused major wipe outs of population. The process allowed other significant changes as wage increase and guild formations.

Physical Aspects of a Medieval Town: The towns exhibited various features that give an insight into the sociological economical and political structures of that period. The city was typically walled probably a roman influence retained throughout, and acted as a refuge for artisans foreign traders and its own folk population. Its nucleus was generally a monastery, important church, feudal castle or guild hall, the latter especially prominent in Lombardy and Low Countries. Other buildings spread outwards from the market place to the walls, and left room for a formless group of gardens, courts and winding irregularly aligned streets. Ganshof explains the procedural growth with the example of the city of Rheims, located within the critical area between the Loire and Rhine. It dates back to pre-Roman times when it was the oppidum or the central place and later acquired the status of a civitas. He makes a point saying that majority of the fortified civitas were small in area and much of it was occupied by religious buildings. This lack of space was the reason why new merchants quarters developed away from the core of the pre-urban nuclei. The earliest Christian martyrs were also buried outside the city and consequently various complexes of chapels, lodging houses and eventually perhaps and abbey. This formally constituted the suburbium or bourg The market town of Loire is an excellent example of a market town with evolved political power structure. The growth of completely feudal land holdings was transferred to alternate land uses as markets. The town offered much liberty to its inhabitants and also created a much anticipated break from the churchs authority. Medieval structures exhibit numerous examples of the religious currents. The church and structures of the God were developed in a much different pattern than the rest of the urban landscape. The best example of such cumulation is the church Notre Dame de Paris.

Conclusion:

The medieval ages are the departure point of the paper and though studying the intermediate without the precedents appears problematic at first, one can understand the process in the larger context of the rise of Capitalism. The ancient civilizations have mot much influenced the phenomena and are broken by large gaps in the economic expansion. The medieval ages trace the process and highlight the dispossession of people from commonly held resources and hence acquire much larger dimension for the utility of the contemporary world.