Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere.

Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the twentieth century breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology. Those events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's atmosphere; temperature, air pressure, water vapor, and the gradients and interactions of each variable, and how they change in time. Different spatial scales are studied to determine how systems on local, region, and global levels impact weather and climatology. Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. Interactions between Earth's atmosphere and the oceans are part of coupled ocean-atmosphere studies. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture and construction. The word "meteorology" is from Greek metros "lofty; high (in the sky)" (from meta- "above" and er "to lift up") and - -logia "-(o)logy".

Atmospheric composition research

In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovers that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.[22] In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli publishes Hydrodynamics, initiating the kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases.[23] In 1761, Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls phlogisticated air, and together they developed the phlogiston theory.[24] In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovers oxygen and develops an explanation for combustion.[25] In 1783, in Lavoisier's book Reflexions sur le phlogistique,[26] he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory.[27][28] In 1804, Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defends caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzes the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.

Equipment

Satellite image of Hurricane Hugo with a polar low visible at the top of the image. Main article: Meteorological instrumentation

Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first ones to be measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be seen but can be felt. The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the rain gauge, the anemometer, and the hygrometer.[53] Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station, a ship or a weather buoy. The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. Usually, temperature, pressure, wind measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively.[54] Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes. Supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the World Meteorological Organization. Remote sensing, as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. The common types of remote sensing are Radar, Lidar, and satellites (or photogrammetry). Each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. RADAR and LIDAR are not passive because both use EM radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere.[55] Weather satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing satellites

circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to El Nio.

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Meteorology

The blanket of air around the earth is called the atmosphere. All our weather happens in the bottom layer of the atmosphere called the troposphere, which is six to ten miles thick. Meteorology is the study of the changes in temperature, air pressure, moisture, and wind direction in the troposphere. The Sun Starts it All There is one basic reason we have weather, and that is the sun. Weather systems start because the sun's energy heats up some parts of Earth more than others. Most of the time the sun shines most directly on the middle of Earth, with less heating at the north and south poles. Earth is tilted on its axis at exactly the right angle to have seasons, with different parts of Earth being heated more or less during different times of the year. Land heats up faster than water, setting up temperature differences between oceans and continents. This unequal heating creates variations in temperature and air pressure, winds, and ocean currents. Air Masses and Fronts The winds move heat from the tropical regions toward the poles in a never-ending effort to reach a temperature balance. In the process, fronts set up between warm and cold air masses and a stream of fast-moving air high up in the sky called the "jet stream" forms. Disturbances develop along the fronts and in the jet stream that trigger centers of low and high air pressure. The fronts and low pressure areas make air rise to form clouds

The Lowdown About What's Up High Go here for the meanings of all the "Weather Dude" terms in the song.

and precipitation. Earth's Amazing Water Earth is also unique in that all three forms of water--liquid, solid and gas--exist naturally. Heating from the sun helps evaporate water from the oceans as a source for clouds and precipitation. The sun-powered circulations of evaporation, condensation and precipitation move Earth's water from the oceans to the atmosphere to land and back between these three forms. What else does the Sun do? Heating from the sun can also trigger thunderstorms. Clusters of thunderstorms over warm ocean waters can turn into hurricanes. The sun is behind all the changes in our weather, and if the sun were to suddenly go out, our weather machine would stop too.

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What Makes Rain? Hear a Music Clip Download the song from Amazon.com Lyrics to Song Get the most out of these pages with the Weather Dude Music CD Questions and Answers about Rain and Humidity Rain forms in different ways

Copyright 2004 Nick Walker/Small Gate Media Precipitation

In cold air way up in the sky, rain clouds will often form. Rising warm air carries water vapor high into the sky where it cools, forming water droplets around tiny bits of dust in the air. Some vapor freezes into tiny ice crystals which attract cooled water drops. The drops freeze to the ice crystals, forming larger crystals we call snowflakes. When the snowflakes become heavy, they fall. When the snowflakes meet warmer air on the way down, they melt into raindrops.

depending on the climate

In tropical climates, cloud droplets combine together around dust or sea salt particles. They bang together and grow in size until they're heavy enough to fall.

Weather Dude Fun Fact: Can you guess the shape of raindrops? They are actually shaped like hamburgers! As they fall, the air pushes on the bottoms of the drops, causing the bottoms to flatten out while the tops remain round.

Look at the figure above. Sometimes there is a layer of air in the clouds that is above freezing, or 32 degrees F. Then closer to the ground the air temperature is once again below freezing. Snowflakes partially melt in the layer of warmer air, but then freeze again in the cold air near the ground. This kind of precipitation is called sleet. It bounces when it hits the ground. If snowflakes completely melt in the warmer air, but What happens when temperatures are below freezing near the ground, rain may you get too much rain freeze on contact with the ground or the streets. This is called at once? freezing rain, and a significant freezing rain is called an ice storm. Ice storms are extremely dangerous because the layer of ice on the streets can cause traffic accidents. Ice can also build up on tree branches and power lines, causing them to break and our lights to go out. There is another kind of precipitation that comes from thunderstorms called hail. Go here for more about it. Experiment: Be a Tropical Rain Maker! Try this experiment, but only with adult supervision:: Boil water in a tea kettle. Watch the steam come out and go into the air. (Evaporation) Put ice in a metal pie pan. Hold the pan over the steam and watch the drops form on the bottom of the pan. (Condensation)

As the drops grow in size, they will get heavy and start to fall. (Precipitation)

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