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ASSIGNMENT

Comparison and Contrast between Greek Tragedy and Greek Comedy

Submitted to:

Prof. Nadia Anwar

Submitted by:

Rana Ahmad Shaheed

Comparison and Contrast between Greek Tragedy and Greek Comedy

Before drawing a comparison or contrast between Greek tragedy and comedy, we must, first of all, know what tragedy and comedy really are. Encyclopedia Britannica defines tragedy as a "branch of drama that treats in a serious and dignified style the sorrowful events encountered or caused by a heroic individual. By extension, the term may be applied to other literary works, such as the novel, or more loosely, to any human catastrophe"(888). The study of tragedy may lead us to define it as a form of art based on human calamities and catastrophes whereby, paradoxically, the audience may get pleasure. As far as comedy is concerned, Aristotle says about comedy: "Comedy is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is the species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful" (Chiaro 7). The major focus of comedy is on laughter and ridicule and it serves the purpose of releasing the cares and worries of human beings through pure entertainment and amusement though it may not be forgetful of teaching them some lesson or bringing some change in the society through satire, humour, caricature etc. Kenneth MacKinnon, while discussing the problem of defining tragedy holds the opinion, "A definition of tragedy as a dramatic genre is expectedly elusive. What may be more surprising is that a definition even of ancient Greek tragedy is extremely hard to maintain"(31). He believes so on account of the different plot constructions

and different ethical, social and political questions raised by the three famous Greek tragedians, Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, through their interpretations of mythical materials. ibid Perhaps the most famous definition of tragedy has been given by Aristotle in his famous book Poetics in which he states: "Tragedy is a representation of an action that is worth serious attention, complete in itself, and of some amplitude; in language enriched by a variety of artistic devices appropriate to the several parts of the play; presented in the form of action, not narration; by means of pity and fear bringing about the purgation (catharsis) of such emotions" (MacKinnon 32). The word tragedy has been originated from a Greek word trag(o)-aoidi meaning "goat-song" and possibly refers to the sacrifice of a goat in the vegetation and fertility rituals associated with the god Dionysus in whose honour tragedies were performed. The materials of Greek tragedy were usually drawn from popular myths of gods and men found in Homer's poems and elsewhere (Encyclopedia Britannica 888). Thus, the interest of the audience was less in the myths, because they already knew them, but more in the presentation of those myths on the stage. This presentation would actually make them enjoy the drama and constitute an opinion about the dramatists. Nietzsche believes that tragedy originated from the chorus. He says, " that tragedy arose from the tragic chorus and was originally chorus and nothing but chorus" (85). The chorus was the part and parcel of tragedy and in the initial period of tragedy, they might sing as goats or for the prize of a goat or they might perform around a sacrificial goat. In a tragedy, the number of the Chorus members was from twelve to fifteen.

Thespis is said to have been the inventor of the first speaker i.e. the first actor on the stage. Owing to this, actors are, sometime, also called Thespians. He separated himself from the chorus and acted individually and, thus, became the first actor in the history of drama. "By separating himself from the choral group, Thespis demonstrated a new awareness of the individual" (Perry 79). Aeschylus introduced the second actor and gave more dignity and significance to dialogues and, thus, made dramatic action possible. Aeschylus's contribution to Greek tragic drama with regard to the actors and their costumes can be highlighted in these words, "He placed them on a stage, somewhat above the ground, covered their faces with masks, put buskins on their feet, dressed them in trailing robes and made them speak in a more lofty style" (Chalmers 8). Sophocles introduced the third actor and also made some notable changes with special reference to the stage scenery. He also increased the chorus number from twelve to fifteen. In Greek tragedy, we find references to Greek culture, politics, law, religion etc. We also observe that the Greek tragedians would, somewhat invariably, refer to their culture and rituals in their dramas. For them, these had some close affinity with theatrical performances and were not some opposed attitudes to the world. "Today, for example, we perceive a great difference between participating in a ritual where issues of belief are paramount, and attending a theatrical performance where suspension of disbelief is at issue" (Rehm 3). The litigiousness of Athens also served as a great source of material for Greek tragedy and left its mark on it. The trial of Orestes in Aescylus' Eumenides and the indictment of Polymnestor in Euripides' Hecuba are its proofs (Rehm 4). The epic poems of Homer were instrumental in giving a pattern to Greek tragedy so much so that Plato called Homer 'the supreme master of tragic poetry.' (Rehm10) The

recitation of the Homeric epics gave the tragedians of the sixth century BC the power to enkindle the flames of audiences' dramatic imaginations. The usual structure of a Greek tragedy is hereunder: Prologue (exposition): It is the introductory speech given to the audience at the beginning of the play. Parados (entry of chorus):This is the song of the chorus when it enters the stage. It often relates to the action of the play and helps in giving a proper understanding of the drama to the audience. Episodes: The episodes consist of exchange of dialogues and the action of the play. There are usually four or five episodes in a Greek drama which are separated by the songs of the chorus, strophe and antistrophe which are the movements of the chorus from right to left and vice versa. Choric Interludes: These are the songs of the chorus which follow each of the interludes and give some comments regarding the action, emotions and the plot of the play. Exodus: It constitutes the last scene of the play and brings the play to its end. Greek tragedies were performed in late March or early April in a religious festival, the City Dionysia, which was held in the honour of Dionysus every year. "Drama originated in the religious festivals honouring Dionysus, the god of wine and agricultural fertility" (Perry 79). There used to be held a contest between three dramatists who would present their trilogies in the festival along with a satyr play. The trilogies were usually interconnected by virtue of their themes and mythical

material, though, subsequently, Euripides was supposed to have presented three unrelated plays. Out of all the Greek trilogies, only one is extant i.e. The Oresteia by Aeschylus. "Oedipus the King is often rated the greatest drama of the Greeks" (Joliffe 72). The main feature of the Greek tragedy is the struggle of its hero against cosmic forces which, ultimately, lead him towards his catastrophe and tragic doom. "But what impressed the Greek spectators (and today's readers of Greek drama) was not the vulnerability or weakness of human beings but their courage and determination in the face of these forces" (Perry 90) "Greek tragedy often shows the results of human attempts to escape fate or the will of the gods" (61). Oedipus, the King which highlights the insignificance and helplessness of human beings in comparison with their inexorable fate is the most appropriate example of this. Shakespeare has beautifully presented this idea in King Lear. "Like flies to a wanton boy are we to gods/They kill us for their sport." Aristotle writes in his Poetics that the tragic downfall of the hero, who is neither an angel nor an utterly depraved person, is brought about by some tragic flaw in him. He calls it hamartia which may be a tragic mistake or a miscalculation on the part of the hero. "Like the natural philosophers, Greek dramatists saw an inner logic in the universe and called it Fate or Destiny" (Perry 90). Hubris or overweening pride was considered a big sin by the Greek playwrights, therefore, the proud, overbearing, narrow-minded and stubborn were punished in Greek tragedies. Sophocles believed that it was required to maintain a balance in the universe. Ibid. He says:

"The man who goes his way Overbearing in the word and deed Who fears no injustice, Honours no temples of gods_ May an evil destiny seize him. And punish his ill-starred pride." (Perry 90) For showing the dead bodies of the murdered people, ekkuklema, which was a large platform with wheels, was used. For instance, in Agamemnon, Clytemnestra's and Aegisthus's dead bodies were carried on the ekkuklema and brought on the stage. Another device used in the Greek dramas was a mechane or machine which was a device used to lift an actor into the air, usually representing flight. This stage machine was particularly used to bring gods on to the stage from above hence the Latin term deus ex machina ("god out of the machine"). Euripides used the mechane in Medea for a human being. It was often used by Aeschylus as well. As far as the Greek comedy and its characteristics are concerned, the Greek comedy was one of the major dramatic forms in the classical Greece along with tragedy and satyr play. It is divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy and New Comedy. The Middle Comedy and New Comedy are largely lost; only a few fragments of both the periods have survived. Likewise, an enormous part of Old Comedy has also been lost but we are fortunate to have at least some record of it still extant in the form of Aristophanes' eleven surviving plays.

The Greek comedy, we may say, has always been somewhat underrated as compared with the Greek tragedy because the Athenians, especially wiser Greeks, such as, Socrates did not set any value upon comedies, comic writers or comic actors (Chalmers 3). Moreover, it is very difficult to form an opinion about the Greek comedy on the basis of the works of Aristophanes, the only writer whose works are still extant. Aristophanes, in his comedies, attacked Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, the three great tragedians of Greece, and also attacked the state or even gods. His plays, such as, The Wasps, The Frogs, The Clouds, The Birds, Lysistrata are the examples of it. In The Clouds, he makes fun of Socrates and in The Frogs, he even treats god Dionysus with derision. About the origin of comedy, Chalmers writes that the origin of comedy is as obscure as that of tragedy; however, he believes that both tragedy and comedy began in the festivals of the vintage and were distinguished from each only by a burlesque or serious chorus. Comedy was produced after tragedy and was an imitation of the works of Aeschylus to a great extent. "It is in reality nothing more than an action set before the sight by the same artifice of representation. Nothing is different but the object, which is merely ridicule"(Chalmers 7). Furthermore, Chalmers states that comedy had its origin from Homer whose satirical poem Margetes was regarded as a comic one by Aristotle. Thus, the design of comedy was derived from both Homer and Aeschylus. (8, 9) Eupolis, Cratinus and Aristophanes were the three most eminent writers of the Old Comedy and Aristophanes is regarded as the greatest of them. However, we cannot call him the inventor of comedy because he had his predecessors regarding comedy and must have been influenced by them.

Menander was perhaps the most popular of all the writers of new comedy but, unfortunately, only some fragments are left out of his several works which are supposed to be approximately no fewer than one hundred and eighty. It is said that Terence translated all these comedies. (Chalmers 6) It is very hard to find some reliable and impeccable evidence with regard to the history of New Comedy or Old Comedy. Aristophanes, along with some other writers of the latter phase of Old Comedy, is considered the earliest Middle Comic writer. The Middle Comedy was different from the Old Comedy on account of the role of chorus which had become very insignificant. Moreover, in it, public characters were neither personified on the stage nor could the writer make any personal remarks about anyone. The targets of scorn were general rather than particular. The New Comedy influenced much of Western European literature, in particular the comic drama of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Congreve and Wycherley. Comedy was a representation of real actions and the comic writers would not spare anyone who could be the target of scorn. They would not hesitate to ridicule even the chief magistrates or the very judges whose verdict could decide the fate of comedies or comic writers. (Chalmers 11) Later on, this licentiousness of poets was restrained by a law which forbade the poets to use any person's name on the stage. The usual structure of a Greek tragedy is as follows: Prologue: It is an introductory speech. Parode (Enterance Ode): It heralds the entrance of the chorus who may take the side of the protagonist or go against him.

Agon: It is based on argumentation between two characters and usually the first character wins the argument. Agon may finish with a choral song. Parabasis: Here, the chorus members remove their masks, come forward and address the audience. The other characters are not on stage at this time. Episodes: These are nearly the same as are found in tragedies. However, they are generally focused on the outcome of Agon. Exode: It is the last scene of the play which is based on some revelry or celebration. Despite some similarities, Greek tragedy and comedy have sharp differences. The first and the foremost difference is their theme. Tragedy focuses on something very serious and painful whereas comedy is based on something amusing and, perhaps, trivial. The language of a tragedy is more formal and poetic than that of a comedy. Their structure, though it has some similarities, also differs. In a tragedy, we cannot have more than three actors but in a comedy, there can be even the fourth one. The number of the chorus members in a tragedy is twelve to fifteen but in a comedy, it is twenty four. The masks and dresses of the actors of comedy and tragedy are also different, besides, the comic actor would wear a big phallus and very tight dresses which would make them look very ludicrous. In short, the purpose of a tragedy was to evoke pity and fear but comedy aimed at producing laughter. To put the whole discussion in a nutshell, we can say that tragic writers presented characters as ideal ones whereas the comic writers depicted them as real

ones. Tragedy started with joy and ended in sorrows whereas, in comedy, it was the vice versa.

Works Cited
Chalmers, Alexander. The Works of Samuel Johnson, L.L.D: A Dissertation upon the Greek Comedy. 2 Mar. 2010. http://books.google.com.pk/ Chiaro, Delia. The Language of Jokes: Analysing Verbal Play. London: Routledge. 1992. Joliffe, H.R. Tales from the Greek Drama. 3rd Printing. Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. 1998. MacKinnon, Kenneth, Greek Tragedy into Film. Cranbury: Associated University Presses. 1986. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. Ed. Guess, Raymond and Speirs, Ronald. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1999. Perry, Marvin, Margaret Jacob, Myrna Chase, James Jacob, Theodore H. Von Laue Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. 9th edition. Vol. 1. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company: Boston. 2009. The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th edtion. Vol. II. The University of Chicago. 1986.

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