A Seminar Report on

TITLE of Seminar Report

Submitted by

(YOUR NAME)
BCA VI Semester

For the award of degree of Bachelor of Computer Applications

Under the Supervision of

NAME
Designation of the supervisor

Department of Computer Science Lachoo Memorial College of Science & Technology

Jodhpur

2011

Department of Computer Science

Lachoo Memorial College of Science & Technology

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar entitled

Seminar Name
has been presented by

YOUR NAME

in partial fulfillment of the degree of BCA Examination 2011, under our supervision and guidance.

Name

Name Director

Supervisor Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this occasion to thank the Almighty God for the blessing me with his grace and taking my endeavor to a successful culmination. I extend sincere and heart felt thanks to my esteemed guide Mr. Vabhav Gupta and Director, Computer Science, Prof. Rajeev Mathur, for providing me with the right guidance and advice at crucial junctures and for allowing me to use the facilities available. I would also like to thank the other faculty members in this regard. I express sincere gratitude and respect to my parents, who, though not directly related to this effort have been a constant source of inspiration. Finally yet importantly, I would like to thank my friends for the support and encouragement they have given me during the course of this work.

ABSTRACT
Many embedded systems have substantially different design constraints than desktop computing applications. No single characterization applies to the diverse 3

spectrum of embedded systems. However, some combination of cost pressure, long life-cycle, real-time requirements, reliability requirements, and design culture dysfunction can make it difficult to be successful applying traditional computer design methodologies and tools to embedded applications. Embedded systems in many cases must be optimized for life-cycle and business-driven factors rather than for maximum computing throughput. There is currently little tool support for expanding embedded computer design to the scope of holistic embedded system design. However, knowing the strengths and weaknesses of current approaches can set expectations appropriately, identify risk areas to tool adopters, and suggest ways in which tool builders can meet industrial needs.

Introduction An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is completely encapsulated by the device it controls. Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system performs pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since the system is dedicated to a specific task, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass-produced, so the cost savings may be multiplied by millions of items. Handheld computers or PDAs are generally considered embedded devices because of the nature of their hardware design, even though they are more expandable in software terms. This line of definition continues to blur as devices expand. Examples of embedded systems

automatic teller machines (ATMs) avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and other integrated systems in aircraft and missiles cellular telephones and telephone switches computer equipment such as routers and printers engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles home automation products, like thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and security monitoring systems handheld calculators household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television sets, DVD players/recorders medical equipment handheld computers videogame consoles

The first recognizably modern embedded system was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. Each flight

to the moon had two. They ran the inertial guidance systems of both the command module and LEM. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project. The use of the then new monolithic integrated circuits, to reduce the size and weight, increased this risk.

The first mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from discrete transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits. This program alone reduced prices on quad nand gate ICs from

Characteristics
Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a generalpurpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reason such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. For high volume systems such as portable music players or mobile phones, minimizing cost is usually the primary design consideration. Engineers typically select hardware that is just good enough to implement the necessary functions. For example, a digital set-top box for satellite television has to process large amounts of data every second, but most of the processing is done by custom integrated circuits. The embedded CPU "sets up" this process, and displays menu graphics, etc. for the set-top's look and feel. The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is stored in ROM or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs with limited hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little RAM memory. Embedded systems reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the Software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for Personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as Disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided. Recovery from errors may be achieved with techniques such as a watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the watchdog.

User interfaces
Embedded systems range from no user interface at all - dedicated only to one task - to full user Interfaces similar to desktop operating systems in devices such as PDAs. In between are devices with small character- or digit-only displays and a few buttons. Therefore usability considerations vary widely. On larger screens, a touch-screen or screen-edge soft buttons also provides good flexibility while minimizing space used. The advantage of this system is that the meaning of the buttons can change with the screen, and selection can be very close to the natural behavior of pointing at what's desired.

Basic Electronic Components

Resistors

Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltages and currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has very high resistance. Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the air.) A low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That is why wires are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point without any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This keeps the wires from coming in contact with other wires and creating short circuits. High voltage power lines are covered with thick layers of plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous when the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other things by insulation. Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms who played with electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common resistor values are from 100 ohms to 100,000 ohms. Each resistor is marked with colored stripes to indicate its resistance. Variable Resistors

Variable resistors are also common components. They have a dial or a knob that allows you to change the resistance. This is very useful for many situations. Volume controls are variable resistors. When you change the volume you are changing the resistance which changes the current. Making the resistance higher will let less current flow so the volume goes down. Making the resistance lower will let more current flow so the volume goes up. The value of a variable resistor is given as its highest resistance value. For example, a 500 ohm variable resistor can have a resistance of anywhere between 0 ohms and 500 ohms. A variable resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short). Capacitors

Now suppose you want to control how the current in your circuit changes (or not changes) over time. Now why would you? Well radio signals require very fast current changes. Robot motors cause current fluctuations in your circuit which you need to control. What do you do when batteries cannot supply current as fast as you circuit drains them? How do you prevent sudden current spikes that could fry your robot circuitry? The solution to this is capacitors.

Capacitors are like electron storage banks. If your circuit is running low, it will deliver electrons to your circuit. In our water analogy, think of this as a water tank with water always flowing in, but with drainage valves opening and closing. Since capacitors take time to charge, and time to discharge, they can also be used for timing circuits. Timing circuits can be used to generate signals such as PWM or be used to turn on/off motors in solar powered BEAM robots. Quick note, some capacitors are polarized, meaning current can only flow one direction through them. If a capacitor has a lead that is longer than the other, assume the longer lead must always connect to positive. Power surge /drainage management

The problem with using robot components that drain a large amount of power is sometimes your battery cannot handle the high drain rate, Motors and servos being perfect examples. This would cause a system wide voltage drop, often resetting your microcontroller, or at least causing it to not work properly. Just a side note, it is bad to use the same power source for both your circuit and your motors. So don't do it. Or suppose your robot motors are not operating at its full potential because the battery cannot supply enough current, the capacitor will make up for it. The solution is to place a large electrolytic capacitor between the source and ground of your power source. Get a capacitor that is rated at least twice the voltage you expect to go through it. Have it rated at 1mF-10mF for every amp required. For example, if your 20V motors will use 3 amps, use a 3mF-30mF 50V rated capacitor. Exactly how much will depend on how often you expect your motor to change speed and direction, as well as momentum of what you are actuating. Just note that if your capacitor is too large, it may take a long time to charge up when you first turn your robot on. If it is too small, it will drain of electrons and your circuit will be left with a deficit. It is also bad to allow a large capacitor to remain fully charged when you turn off your robot. Some things could accidentally short and fry. So use a simple power on LED in your motor circuit to drain the capacitor after your robot is turned off. If your capacitor is not rated properly for voltage, then can explode with smoke. Fortunately they do not overheat if given excessive amounts of current. So just make sure your capacitor is rated higher than your highest expected. Capacitors can also be used to prevent power spikes that could potentially fry circuitry. Next to any on/off switch or anything that that could affect power suddenly should have a capacitor across it? Capacitors can eliminate switch bouncing. When you flip a mechanical switch, the switch actually bounces several times within a microsecond range. Normally this is too small of a time for anyone to care (or even notice), but note that a microcontroller can take hundreds of readings in a single microsecond. So if your robot was counting the number of times a switch is flipped, a single flip can count as dozens. So how do you stop this? Use a small ceramic capacitor! Just experiment until you find the power capacitance value. Diodes

Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction. They have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on the positive leg is higher than on the negative leg then current flows through the diode (the resistance is very low). When the voltage is lower on the positive leg than on the negative leg then the current does not flow (the resistance is very high). The negative leg of a diode is the one with the line closest to it. It is called the cathode. The positive end is called the anode.

Usually when current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on the positive leg is 0.65 volts higher than on the negative leg. Switches Switches are devices that create a short circuit or an open circuit depending on the position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means short circuit (current flows through the switch, and lights light up.) When the switch is OFF, that means there is an open circuit (no current flows, lights go out. When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is OFF there is no connection. The LED

An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be yellow, green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode. The important thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that current can only flow in one direction.

The Transistor

Transistors are basic components in all of today's electronics. They are just simple switches that we can use to turn things on and off. Even though they are simple, they are the most important electrical component. For example, transistors are almost the only components used to build a Pentium processor. A single Pentium chip has about 3.5 million transistors. The ones in the Pentium are smaller than the ones we will use but they work the same way. Transistors that we will use in projects look like this:

The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E). Sometimes they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor. Transistors always have one round

side and one flat side. If the round side is facing you, the Collector leg is on the left, the Base leg is in the middle, and the Emitter leg is on the right. Transistor Symbol The following symbol is used in circuit drawings (schematics) to represent a transistor.

Basic Circuit The Base (B) is the On/Off switch for the transistor. If a current is flowing to the Base, there will be a path from the Collector (C) to the Emitter (E) where current can flow (The Switch is On.) If there is no current flowing to the Base, then no current can flow from the Collector to the Emitter. (The Switch is off.) Below is the basic circuit we will use for all of our transistors.

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Relays

A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. They are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and automation systems.

How do relays work?

All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit. A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit.

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Types of Relays
There are two basic classifications of relays: 1. Electromechanical Relay 2. Solid State Relay. Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is required, multiple poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with equal ease. 1. Electromechanical Relays General Purpose Relay: The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch contacts can handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and can be single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other consumer electronic equipment and appliances.

Power Relay: The power relay is capable of handling larger power loads 10-50 amperes or more. They are usually single-pole or double-pole units.

Contactor: A special type of high power relay, its used mainly to control high voltages and currents in industrial electrical applications. Because of these high power requirements, contactors always have double-make contacts.

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Time-Delay Relay: The contacts might not open or close until some time interval after the coil has been energized. This is called delay-onoperate. Delay-on-release means that the contacts will remain in their actuated position until some interval after the power has been removed from the coil. A third delay is called interval timing. Contacts revert to their alternate position at a specific interval of time after the coil has been energized. The timing of these actions may be a fixed parameter of the relay, or adjusted by a knob on the relay itself, or remotely adjusted through an external circuit. 2. Solid State Relays

These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a switch. The light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is applied to the devices output, the light is turned on and shines across an open space. On the load side of this space, a part of the device senses the presence of the light, and triggers a solid state switch that either opens or closes the circuit under control. Often, solid state relays are used where the circuit under control must be protected from the introduction of electrical noises. Advantages of Solid State Relays include low EMI/RFI, long life, no moving parts, no contact bounce, and fast response. The drawback to using a solid state relay is that it can only accomplish single pole switching.

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Classification:
Embedded systems are divided into autonomous, realtime, networked & mobile categories.

Autonomous systems: They function in standalone mode. Many embedded systems

used for process control in manufacturing units& automobiles fall under this category.

Realtime embedded systems: These are required to carry out specific tasks in a
specified amount of time. These systems are extensively used to carryout time critical tasks in process control. Networked embedded systems: They monitor plant parameters such as temperature, pressure and humidity and send the data over the network to a centralized system for on line monitoring. Mobile gadgets: Mobile gadgets need to store databases locally in their memory. These gadgets imbibe powerful computing & communication capabilities to perform realtime as well as nonrealtime tasks and handle multimedia applications. The embedded system is a combination of computer hardware, software, firmware and perhaps additional mechanical parts, designed to perform a specific function. A good example is an automatic washing machine or a microwave oven. Such a system is in direct contrast to a personal computer, which is not designed to do only a specific task. But an embedded system is designed to do a specific task with in a given timeframe, repeatedly, endlessly, with or without human interaction. \\APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS\\ DIGITAL AUDIO PLAYERS: Pocket sized mp3 player have recently been available and very popular.We can download mp3 musuic files frm internet onto out desktop computer and then tranfer these files to flash memory of such an audio player by connecting to desktop computer via the parallel port or more typicall,a USB port. A 64mb flash memorycard can hold 45hrs of cd quality music. VIDEO GAME PLAYER:These r very hgh end embedded system,as they need to process video signals at very fastrate.Both hardware and software requirements are very high for these systems.unlike other consumer items,these systems use 64bit precision.The software also need to be very powerful in order to generate necessary animations, and high resolution graphic display is displayed.Writing embedded software for video games is one of the most challenging programming tasks. OTHER COMMON ITEMS: The embedded system taken electrical signals as input.Genrally sensors or transducers are used to convert the phycisal entity into an electronic signal.For instance,a Thermostat IC is used to sense the temperature and convert it into an electrical signal,the amplitude of signal being proportional to temperature.In applications such as those using video or voice tansducers convert the voice or video signal into an equivalent electrical signal.

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//A REAL TIME EXAMPLE// Depending on application ,the designer choose neccesary modules and carries out the design.While designing,reliability,performance and cost need to be kept in mind some typical process control applications include detection and identification of characteristics of gas sample,controlling the appliances in nuclear plants and telemetry and tele command units in satellite communication system.Automation application include fuel injection control, climate control and antilock brating system. Some embedded system have to update in very hostile environment for instance, with very high temperature or very low temperature choice of components plays an improtanat rple for such system.Most componenets work well in temperatures ranging from 0-5c.if the system has to operate at low temperature,military grade components need to be choosen. if an LCD display is to be used note that it will not work beyond -5c,as liquid in LCD becomes solid. BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS: Much of program in health care industry is due to development in evelution industry.Hospatals are full of embedded systems including X-RAY control units EEC,ECG units and other equipment used for diagnosyic testing such as COLONOSCOPY ENDOSCOPY Now a days pc based EEC and ECG equipment,which belong to different type of embedded system, is becoming available.these systems use PC add-on-card which takes ECG signals and process them ,PC monitor is used for display PC secondary storage is used to store ECG's record.

PROCESSOR: The processor here can be of 3types

.micro_controller .microprocessor .digital signal processor MICRO CONTROLLER:A typical micro controller contains cpu,interrupts etc integrated in a same integrated circuit.They form the ideal solutions for Embedded circuitry as they need only little additional circuit. MICROPROCESSOR: Microprocessors have higher clock speeds and word length.so they are capable of .addressing higher memory, .can perform mathematical operations, .can move data and make decisions to move to a particular location. DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR:To process and video signals the hardware or software needs to perform an opertion called FILTERING. DSP carries out such mathematical computations switches using a special module called MULTIPLIER and ACCUMILATOR.

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MICROCONTROLLER v/s MICROPROCESSOR

Microprocessor and microcontroller are two popular terms in world of computer. However,microprocessor and microcontroller has different functions and features. Microprocessors generally require external components or circuits to implement program memory, RAM memory and Input/Output. Intel's 8085, 80386 and Pentium are examples of microprocessors. Microcontrollers incorporate program memory, RAM memory and input/output port into one chip. Microchip's PIC series and Atmel's AVR series are examples of microcontrollers. One of the main differences is that microcontrollers are usually designed to perform a small set of specific functions, for example as in the case of a Automatic Braking System which performs a small set of input processing functions, whereas microprocessors tend to be designed to perform a wider set of general purpose functions. For example, microcontrollers are widely used in modern cars where they will each perform a dedicated task, i.e. a microcontroller to regulate the brakes on all four wheels, or a microcontroller to regulate the car air conditioning, or a microcontroller for automatic gate systems. These microcontrollers will perform few other tasks (if any) other than those specified. Compare to a microprocessor in a PC which performs a wide range of tasks related to the general requirements of a PC such as performing the necessary calculations for a very wide set of software applications, performing Input/Output for the main subsystems, peripheral control and etc.

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