Professional Documents
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COMPANY PROFILE
Figure 1.1
India, as a country, has been very lucky with regard to the introduction of telecom products. The first telegraph link was commissioned between Calcutta and Diamond Harbor in the year 1852, which was invented in 1876. First wireless communication equipment were introduced in Indian Army in the year 1909 with the discovery of Radio waves in 1887 by Hertz and demonstration of first wireless link in the year 1905 by Marconi and Vacuum Tube in 1906. Setting up of radio station for broadcast and other telecom facilities almost immediately after their commercial introduction abroad followed this. After independence of India in 1947 and adoption of its constitution in 1950, the government was seized with the plans to lay the foundations of a strong, self-sufficient modern India. On the industrial front, Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was announced in the year 1952. It was recognized that in certain core sectors infrastructure facilities require huge investments, which cannot be met by private sector and as such the idea of Public Sector Enterprises (PSE) was mooted. With telecom and electronics recognized among the core sectors, Indian Telephone Industry, now renamed as ITI Limited, was formed in 1953 to undertake local manufacture of telephone equipment, which were of electro-mechanical nature at that stage. Hindustan Cable Limited was also started to take care of telecom cables.
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountainhead to manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional electronic equipment for Defence, broadcasting, civil Defence and telecommunications as well as the component requirement of entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the years, BEL has grown to a multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with track record of a profit earning PSU. The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with T-CSF of France, the companys equipment designs have had a long voyage through the hybrid, solid-state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the component arena also, the company established its own electron value manufacturing facility. It moved on to semiconductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and then to the manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the component and technology, its manufacturing and products assurance facilities have also undergone sea change. The design groups have CADD facility; the manufacturing has CNC machines and a Mass Manufacture Facility. QC checks are preformed with multi-dimensional profile measurement machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and other operational conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet the stringent requirements of MIL grade systems. Today BELs infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company are spread over the entire Electro-magnetic (EM) sp 3ectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge radar systems and X-ray tubes on the upper edge of the spectrum. Its manufacturing units have special focus towards the products ranges like Defence Communication, Raders, Optical & Opto-electronics,
Telecommunication, sound and Vision Broadcasting, Electronic Components, etc. Besides manufacturing and supply of a wide variety of products, BEL offers a variety of services like Telecom and Rader Systems Consultancy, Contract Manufacturing, Calibration of Test & Measuring Instruments, etc. At the moment, the company is installing MSSR radar at important airports under the modernization of airports plan of National Airport Authority (NAA). BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies from more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of products. A team of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its own R&D Division to bring out new products to the production lines. Central Research Laboratory (CRL) at Bangalore and Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake contemporary design work on state-of-art and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BELs products are of in-house design. BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and peripherals under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s. BEL assembled a limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL. However, following Governments decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL, BEL could not progress in its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were microprocessor based, the company, Continued to develop computers based application, both hardware and software. Most of its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA, software intensive navel ships control and command system is probably one of the first projects of its nature in India and Asia. BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution, Productivity, Quality, Safety, Standardization etc. BEL was ranked No. 1 in the field of Electronics and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in India by the Business Standard in its special supplement The BS 1000 (1997-98). BEL was listed 3rd among the Mini Rattans (Category II) by the Government of India, 49th among Asias top 100 worldwide Defence Companies by the Defence News, USA.
CORPORATE MOTTO
Quality, Technology and Innovation.
CORPORATE MISSION
To be the market leader in Defence Electronics and in other chosen fields and products.
CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
To become a customer-driven company supplying quality products at competitive prices at the expected time and providing excellent customer support. To achieve growth in the operations commensurate with the growth of professional electronic industry in the country. To generate internal resources for financing the investments required for modernization, expansion and growth for ensuring a fair return to the investor. In order to meet the nations strategic needs, to strive for self-reliance by indigenization of materials and components. To retain the technological leadership of the company in Defence and other chosen fields of electronics through in-house research and development as well as through Collaboration/Co-operation with Defence/National Research Laboratories, International Companies, Universities and Academic Institutions. To progressively increase overseas sales of its products and services. To create an organizational culture which encourages members of the organization to real and through continuous learning on the job
MANUFACTURING UNITS
BANGALORE (KANARATAKA)
BEL started its production activities in Bangalore on 1954 with 400W high frequency (HF) transmitter and communication receiver for the Army. Since then, the Bangalore Complex has grown to specialize in communication and Radar/Sonar Systems for the Army, Navy and Air-force. BELs in-house R&D and successful tie-ups with foreign Defence companies and Indian Defence Laboratories has seen the development and production of over 300 products in Bangalore alone. The Unit has now diversified into manufacturing of electronic products for the civilian customers such as DoT, VSNL, AIR and Doordarshan, Meteorological Dept., ISRO, Police, Civil Aviation and Railways. As an aid to Electorate, the unit has developed Electronic Voting Machines that are produced at its Mass Manufacturing Facility (MMF).
PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)
This Unit was started in 1979 to manufacture Image Converter Tubes. Subsequently, Magnesium Manganese-dioxide Batteries, Lithium Sulphur Batteries and X-ray Tubes/Cables were added to the product range. At the present the Laser Range Finders for the Defence services.
PANCHKULA (HARYANA)
To cater the growing needs of Defence Communications, this Unit was established in 1985. Professional grade Radio-communication Equipment in VHF and UHF ranges entirely developed by BEL and required by the Defence services are being met from this Unit.
TALOJA (MAHARASHTRA)
For the manufacture of B/W TV Glass bulbs, this plant was established in collaboration with coming, France in 1986. The Unit is now fully mobilized to manufacture
Multiplier Systems are manufactured here for the Defence services 20 glass bulbs indigenously.
PRODUCT RANGES
The product ranges today of the company are:
RADAR SYSTEMS
3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force. Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force. Tactical Control Radar System for the Army. Battlefield Surveillance Rader for the Army. IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defence and export. ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation. Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.
COMMUNICATIONS
Digital Static Tropo scatters Communication Systems for the Air Force. Digital Mobile Tropo scatters communication System for the Air Force and Army. VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment. Bulk Encryption Equipment. Turnkey communication Systems Projects for Defence & civil users. Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defence. Telemetry /Tele-control Systems.
ANTENNA
Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems. Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications. Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.
MICROWAVE COMPONENT
Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, and Receivers etc. Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers, etc.
DEFENCE PRODUCTS: Naval System Military Communication Equipment Radars Tele Communication & Broadcasting Services Opto Electronics Electronic Warfare Tank Electronics
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
ROTATION PROGRAM
Under this students are introduced to the company by putting them under a rotation program to various departments. The several departments where I had gone under my rotational program are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Test Equipment and Automation P.C.B. Fabrication Quality Control Works-Radar Work Assembly- Communication Magnetics Microwave lab
Rotation period was to give us a brief insight of the companys functioning and knowledge of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at the particular departments was given. The cooperative staff at the various departments made the learning process very interesting , which allowed me to know about the company in a very short time.
Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are compared with the standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to be one set down to NPL. As every instrument has a calibration period after which the accuracy of the instrument falls from the required standards. So if any of the instruments is not working properly, it is being sent here for its correct calibration. To calibrate instruments software techniques are used which includes the program written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the calibration but programming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated by NPL is very costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own calibration unit if it can afford it.
Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for testing and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments mainly used for Defence purpose. A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done with the help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type. The national physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi provides the standard values yearly. BEL follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments are calibrated either half yearly or yearly. After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations. 1. Green O.K , Perfect 2. Yellow Satisfactory but some trouble is present. 3. Red Cant be used, should be disposed off. The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are: 1. WS 102 2. WS 104 3. PS 520 4. PS 809 5. PS 811
6. PS 369 Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard After the inspection of cables, PCBs and other things the defect found are given in following codes. A --- Physical and Mechanical defects. B C D E F G H I J --- Wrong Writing --- Wrong Component / Polarity --- Wrong Component / Mounting --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish --- Bad Soldering --- Alignment Problem --- Stenciling --- Others (Specify) --- Design & Development
After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department which is rectified there.
: Circuits on one side. : Circuit on Both side. : Several layers are interconnected through hole
metallization.
P.C.B. is a non-conducting board on which a conductive board is made. The base material, which is used for PCB plate are Glass Epoxy, Bakelite and Teflon etc.
After through hole metallization, photo tool generation is done which is followed by photo printing. In this the PCB is kept b/w two blue sheets and the ckt. is printed on it. A negative and a positive of a ckt. are developed. To identify b/w the negative and positive, following observation is done. If the ckt. is black and the rest of the sheet is white, it is positive otherwise negative.
Next, pattern plating is done. The procedure for pattern plating follows:
Loading- Cleaner- Water rings- Mild etch- Spray- Water Rinse-Electrolytic- Copper plating- Water rinse- Sulfuric acid-Tin plating- Water rinse- Antitarnic dip- Hot air dry- Unloading. To give strength to the wires so that they can not break. This is done before molding. Varnishing is done as anti fungus prevention for against environmental hazard.
After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed by resist striping and copper etching. The unwanted copper i.e. off the tracks is etched by any of the following chemicals. After this, tin is stripped out from the tracks.
After this solder marking is done. Solder marking is done to mark the tracks to get oxidized & finally etch. To prevent the copper from getting etched & making the whole circuit functionally done.
2.7 There are three types of solder marking done in BEL: 2.7.1Wet solder mask: Due to some demerits this method is totally ruled out.
The demerit was non- alignment, which was due to wrong method applied or wrong machine.
2.7.2Dry pin solder mask: Due to wastage of films about 30% this method
is also not used now.
The catalyst is used as binder and prevents the following, while reducer is used as thinner. The three things are then fully mixed.
After wash out, final baking for one hour at the temp. Of 20degree C is done. After this shearing or routing is done which is followed by debarring and packing.
The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB , cable assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL standards .
The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as: D & E mistakes Shop mistakes
Inspection mistakes
The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is entered in the process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.
After a mistake is detected following actions are taken: 1. Observation is made. 2. Object code is given. 3. Division code is given. 4. Change code is prepared. 5. Recommendation action is taken
WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA II, REPORTER. WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g. EMCCA, MSSR, MFC. EMCCA: EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL APPLICATION.
The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is: o Preparation of part list that is to be assembled. o Preparation of general assembly. o Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about all components.
o Writing lists of all components. In work assembly following things are done :
Material Receive: Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures. Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of
tinned lead solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is tinned nicely by applying flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes easy.
Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing
and bringing all the components before doing the work.
Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of
soldering tools. The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable temperature, one of the wires of the component is soldered so that they dont move from their respective places on the PCB plate. On the other hand of the component is also adjusted so that the PCB does not burn.
Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path,
which are tinned.
Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done. Cleaning: Inspection- This comes under quality work. Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for
4 hrs and three cycles.
Testing: Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable.
Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before
Lacquering mounted plate is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.
CHAPTER 3
MAGNETICS
In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured , which are used in the various Defence equipments i.e. radar , communication equipments. This department basically consists of three sections :
mode or TM mode. This depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and its walls should be perfect conductors. In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where the antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms of S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are tested here.
CHAPTER 4
RADAR
4.1 History of RADAR
Nobody can be credited with "inventing" radar. The idea had been around for a long time--a spotlight that could cut through fog. But the problem was that it was too advanced for the technology of the time. It wasn't until the early 20th century that a radar system was first built. One of the biggest advocators of radar technology was Robert Watson-Watt, a British scientist.
Great Britain made a big effort to develop radar in the years leading up to World War Two. Some people credit them with being pioneers in the field. As it was, the early warning radar system (called "Chain Home") that they built around the British Isles warned them of all aerial invasions. This gave the outnumbered Royal Air Force the edge they needed to defeat the German Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain.
While radar development was pushed because of wartime concerns, the idea first came about as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank in 1912, people were interested in ways to make such happenings avoidable
4.2 Introduction
The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. This acronym of American origin replaced the previously used British abbreviation RDF (Radio Direction Finding). Radar is a system that uses radio waves to detect, determine the distance or speed, objects such as aircraft, ships, rain and map them. Speed detection is measured by the amount of Doppler Effect frequency shift of the reflected signal. A transmitter emits radio waves, which are reflected by the target, and detected by a receiver, typically in the same location as the transmitter. Although the radio signal returned is usually very small, radio signals can easily be amplified, so radar can detect objects at ranges where other emission, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect. Radar is used in many contexts, including meteorological detection of precipitation, air traffic control, police detection of speeding traffic, and by the military.
Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar. The use of radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects via radio waves" was first implemented in 1904 by Christian Hlsmeyer, who demonstrated the feasibility of detecting the presence of ships in dense fog and received a patent
for radar as Reichspatent Nr. 165546. Another of the first working models was produced by Hungarian Zoltn Bay in 1936 at the Tungsram laboratory
transmitter so that it oscillates, or pulses for the right length of time. The pulses so designed are video pulses. These pulses are short range pulses hence cant serve out the purpose of long range work .In order to modify these pulses to long range pulses or the RF pulses, we need to generate the power. The transmitted power is generated in a device called the magnetron which can handle all these short pulses and very high oscillations. The display system usually carried out the control necessary for the operation of whole radar .It has a cathode ray gun, which consists of a electron gun in its neck. The gun shouts electron to the phosphorescent screen at the far end. Phosphorescent screen glows when hit by an electron and the resulting spot can be seen through the glass face. The basic idea behind radar is very simple: a signal is transmitted, it bounces off an object and some type of receiver later receives it. They use certain kinds of
electromagnetic waves called radio waves and microwaves. This is where the name RADAR comes from (Radio Detection And Ranging). Sound is used as a signal to detect objects in devices called SONAR (Sound Navigation Ranging). Another type of signal used that is relatively new is laser light that is used in devices called LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging).
Once the radar receives the returned signal, it calculates useful information from it such as the time taken for it to be received, the strength of the returned signal, or the change in frequency of the signal.
Figure 4.1
A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data recorder, processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter as it transmits a high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted out an antenna. Once the signals are received the switch then transfers control back to the transmitter to transmit another signal. The switch may toggle control between the transmitter and the receiver as much as 1000 times per second. Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for storage on a disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into something useful, which would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth:
Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic waves. Instead, they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in between each pulse. The pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths with some dead time after it in which there are no transmissions. The time between each pulse is called the pulse repetition time (PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The time taken for each pulse to be transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse duration. Typically they can be around 0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50 microseconds long for imaging radars (a display. microsecond is a millionth of a second). In math language, the above can be said... PRT = 1 / PRF or PRF = 1 / PRT And for all you visual learners out there, this is what it looks like...
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Think of this as one pulse. All the pulses will look something like this. On the above diagram, the frequency of the wave is low on the left and it slowly increases, as you look right. The different frequencies of the wave will lie in a range called bandwidth. Radars use bandwidth for several reasons regarding the resolution of a data image, memory of the radar and overuse of the transmitter. For instance, a high bandwidth can yield a finer resolution but take up more memory. When an EM wave hits a surface, it gets partly reflected away from the surface and refracted into the surface. The amount of reflection and refraction depends on the properties of the surface and the properties of the matter, which the wave was originally traveling through. This is what happens to radar signals when they hit objects. If a radar signal hits a surface that is perfectly flat then the signal gets reflected in a single direction (the same is true for refraction). If the signal hits a surface that is not perfectly flat (like all surfaces on Earth) then it gets reflected in all directions. Only a very small fraction of the original signal is transmitted back in the direction of the receiver. This small fraction is what is known as backscatter. The typical power of a transmitted signal is around 1 kilowatt and the typical power of the backscatter can be around 10 watts.
4.7 TYPES OF RADAR Based on function radar can be divided into two types:
4.7.1 PRIMARY RADAR 4.7.2 SECONDRY RADAR
Primary radar or the simple radar locates a target by procedure described in section. But in cases as controlling of air traffic, the controller must be able to identify the aircraft and find whether it is a friend or foe. It is also desired to know the height of aircraft. To give controller this information second radar called the secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is used. This works differently and need the help of the target aircraft it sance out a sequence of pulses to an electronic BLACK BOX called the TRANSPONDER, fitted on the aircraft. The transponder is connected to the aircrafts altimeter (the device which measures the planes altitude) to transmit back the coded message to the radar about its status and altitude. Military aircrafts uses a similar kind of radar system with secrete code to make sure that it is friend or foe, a hostile aircraft does not know what code to transmit back to the ground station for the corresponding receiver code.
Secondary radar system consists of an interrogative and a transponder. The interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft, providing two way data communication on different transmitter and receiver frequency .The transponder on board the aircraft on receipt of a chain of pulses from ground interrogator, automatically transmit the reply, coded for the purpose of identification, is received back to the ground interrogator where it is decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation.
where
Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver. In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same
location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:
This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be considered.
Figure 4.4
Principle of radar distance measurement using pulse round trip time. One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio signal, and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is onehalf the product of round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and the speed of the signal. Range =
c where c is the 2
speed of light in a vacuum, and is the round trip time. For radar, the speed of signal is the speed of light, making the round trip times very short for terrestrial ranging. Accurate distance measurement requires high-performance electronics. The receiver cannot detect the return while the signal is being sent out there is no way to tell if the signal it hears is the original or the return. This means that a radar has a distinct minimum range, which is the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse length. A similar effect imposes a specific maximum range as well. If the return from the target comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot tell the difference. In order to maximize range, one wants to use longer times between pulses, the inter-pulse time. These two effects tend to be at odds with each other, and it is not easy to combine both good short range and good long range in a single radar. This is because the
short pulses needed for a good minimum range broadcast have less total energy, making the returns much smaller and the target harder to detect. This could be offset by using more pulses, but this would shorten the maximum range again. So each radar uses a particular type of signal. Long range radars tend to use long pulses with long delays between them, and short range radars use smaller pulses with less time between them. This pattern of pulses and pauses is known as the Pulse Repetition Frequency (or PRF), and is one of the main ways to characterize a radar. As electronics have improved many radars now can change their PRF.
Figure 4.5
FEATURES
Frequency agility Monopulse processing for height estimation Adaptive sensitivity time control Jamming analysis indication, pulse compression, plot filtering / tracking data remoting Comprehensive BITE facility
features. The system consists mainly of an Antenna, Transmitter cabin and Display cabin mounted on three separate vehicles.
Figure 4.6
4.11.2.2 FEATURES
Frequency agility Pulse compression
Advanced signal processing using MTD and CFAR Techniques Track while scan for 2-D tracking Full tracking capabilities for maneuverings targets Multicolor PPI Raster Scan Display, presenting both MTI and Synthetic Video Integral IFF
Figure 4.7
FEATURES
All weather day and night capability 40 km ranges, giving a large coverage Multiple target handling and engagement capability Local threat evaluation and engagement calculations assist the commander's decision making process, and give effective local fire distribution Highly mobile system, to be used in all kinds of terrain, with short into and out of action times (deployment/redeployment) Clutter suppression
Air traffic control uses radar to track planes both on the ground and in the air, and also to guide planes in for smooth landings. Police use radar to detect the speed of passing motorists. NASA uses radar to map the Earth and other planets, to track satellites and space debris and to help with things like docking and maneuvering. The military uses it to detect the enemy and to guide weapons.
The transmitter must have the ability to generate the required mean RF power and the required peak power The transmitter must have a suitable RF bandwidth. The transmitter must have a high RF stability to meet signal processing requirements The transmitter must be easily modulated to meet waveform design requirements. The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life expectancy and cost of the output device must be acceptable.
The radar transmitter is designed around the selected output device and most of the transmitter chapter is devoted to describing output devices therefore:
Figure 4.8
One main type of transmitters is the keyed-oscillator type. In this transmitter one stage or tube, usually a magnetron, produces the rf pulse. The oscillator tube is keyed by a high-power dc pulse of energy generated by a separate unit called the modulator. This transmitting system is called POT (Power Oscillator Transmitter). Radar units fitted with an POT are either noncoherent or pseudo-coherent.
Power-Amplifier-Transmitters (PAT) are used in many recently developed radar sets. In this system the transmitting pulse is caused with a small performance in a waveform generator. It is taken to the necessary power with an amplifier flowingly (Amplitron, klystron or Solid-State-Amplifier). Radar units fitted with an PAT are fully coherent in the majority of cases.
o
Even every antenna element or every antenna-group is equipped with an own amplifier here.
Pictured is a keyed oscillator transmitter of the historically russian radar set P-37 (NATO-Designator: Bar Lock). The picture shows the typical transmitter system that uses a magnetron oscillator and a waveguide transmission line. The magnetron at the middle of the figure is connected to the waveguide by a coaxial connector. High-power magnetrons, however, are usually coupled directly to the waveguide. Beside the magnetron with its magnetes you can see the modulator with its thyratron. The impulse-transformer and the pulse-forming network with the charging diode and the high-voltage transformer are in the lower bay of this rack.
4.14 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE RADAR SUBSYSTEM 4.14.1 Main Circuit of Radar Subsystem
High Tension Unit Transmitter Unit Lo+Afc Unit Receiver Unit Antenna Video Processor
4.14.2 High Tension UnitThe high tension unit converts the 115v 400Hz 3 Phase mains voltage into a d.c supply voltage of about 4.2kv for the transmitter unit. The exact value of the high voltage depends on the selected PRF(low,high or extra)to Prevent the dissipation of the magnetron from becoming too high PRF the lower the supplied high voltage
The magnetron is a self oscillating RF Power generator. It supplied by the modulator with high voltage Pulses of about 20kvdc, whereupon it Produces X-band Pulses with a duration of about 0.35us. The generated RF Pulses are applied to the receiver unit.
The Pulse repetition frequency of the magnetron pulses is determined by the synchronizations circuit in the video Processor, Which applies start pulses to the sub modulator of the transmitter unit. This sub modulator issues start Pulses of suitable amplitude to trigger the thyraton in the modulator. Which is supplied by the high tension unit, Produces high voltage Pulses of about 20kvDC.As a magnetron is selfoscillating some kind of frequency control is required. The magnetron is provided with a tunning mechanism to adjust the oscillating frequency b/w certain limits. This tunning mechanism is operated by an electric motor being part of the Afc control circuit. Together with circuits in the Lo+Afc units, a frequency control loop is created thus maintaining a frequency of the SSLO and the magnetron output frequency.
The Afc lock Pulses are Pulses are also applied to the COHO. The COHO outputs signals with a freq. of 30Hz, and it is synchronized with the pulse of each transmitter Pulse. In this way a phase reference signal is obtained, required by the Phase sensitive detector in the receiver unit.
SSLO signals, to obtain a 30MHz IF signal is split into two branches.viz, an MTI channel and a linear channel.via directional coupler, a fraction of the low noise amplifier output is branch offer and applied to the broadband jamming detector. The BJD is a wideband device, which amplifies and detects the signal applied. The resulting signal is passed on the SJI-STC circuit (Search jamming indication sensitivity time control) in the video Processor , if jamming occurs, it is used to prevent a polar diagram of a jamming on the PPI Screen, Which shows the direction of the jamming source. In the MTI channel, the IP signal is amplified again by the MTI main amplifier and applied to the phase sensitive detector. The second signal applied to the phase sensitive detector PSD is the phase reference signal from the COHO. The output signal of the PSD consists of video pulse, the amplitudes of which are a function of the phase difference between the two input signal of the PSD. The polarity of the video pulse indicate whether the phase difference is positive or negative. The phase differences between the corlo signal and if echo signals from a fixed target are constant whereas those between the COHO signal and if echo signals from a moving target are subject to change. The PSD output signal is applied to the canceller in the video processor. The linear detector outputs positive video signals which are passed on to the colour PPI drive unit.
4.14.6 Antenna
The antenna is a cosecant square parabolic reflector, rotating with a speed of about 48 r.p.m. in the focus of the reflector is a radiator, which emits the RF pulses from the circulartor and which receives RF echo Pulses. In the waveguide is Polarisation shifter, which causes the polarization of the RF energy to the either horizontally or circularly. The polarization shifter is controlled by the system operator.
The video processor processes the MTI receiver channel, to make the video suitable for presentation on the colour PPI screen and for use by the video extractor. The main circuit comprised by the video processor are : Synchronization circuit. Canceller Floating level circuit Correlator
4.14.9 Canceller
The canceller is a circuit used to suppress the echos of fixed targets or very slow moving targets. The canceller makes use of the difference in phase behavior moving and fixed targets with moving target and phase differs from pulse to pulse, but with fixed targets the phase is constant (i.e. the PSD output is constant). The suppression by the canceller is limited. The higher the PRF of the radar pulses, the better the suppression factor; a further cancellation improvement can be obtained by using a triple canceller instead of a double canceller; here a compromise is to found. The operation of the canceller depends on the selected PRF : Low and high PRF ; The canceller is swithched as double canceller. Extra PRF : The PRF jumps from pulse to pulse between low PRF and high PRF.
The canceller switched to double is a digital three pulse comparison canceller. Videos are : Undelayed video (V0) Video delayed by one PRT (V1) Video delayed by two PRTs (V2)
By addition, multiplication and subtraction these video are combined to obtained a canceller output according to the following formula. V out (double) = 2 V1 (V 0 + V 2) The canceller switched to triple is digital four pulse comparison canceller. This circuit the following videos are obtained : Undelayed Video (V0) Video delayed by one PRT (V1) Video delayed by two PRT (V2) Video delayed by three PRTs (V3)
CHAPTER 5
Timing and control signals required by various functional blocks of the Signal Processor and also the transmitter system are catered for as part of the Signal Processor design feature. To facilitate the validation and testing of the signal processor, a swept Doppler BITE is also provided. Similarly, to monitor on Oscilloscope outputs of MTI, FFT and ZVF blocks, the necessary circuits in the form of D/A converters are also provided. Interface circuits for MTD processed video on PPI as well for MTD data transfer to centroid/RDP processor also form part of the design features.
DIGITAL PULSE COMPRESSION AUTO OFFSET CORRECTION MATCHED FILTER MOVING TARGET INDICATOR FFT PROCESSING ZERO VELCITY FILTER (ZVF) ADAPTIVE THRESHOLDING (CFAR)
The codes used in operation are stored in a PROM band can be selected manually using DIP-switch on the card or automatically when code agility mode is selected. DPC CONTROL CARD # 1 generates the various control signals for signature analysis. Code generation and distribution to the other subunits/subsystems, is done, in DPC CONTROL CARD # 2. This card also receives various signals and distributes them. DPC output analog video is generated for monitoring purposes in DPC CONTROL CARD # 1 & # 2.
The estimation of offset value in I/Q ADC data is done on-line every scan using ADSP processor in AMSC-Master Card. This offset data is subtracted (with proper sign) from the real time I/Q data for every range cell in following scan. During the dead CPI period, when there is no transmission, I/Q samples are taken at 3microsec. interval over several range cells. This way samples are collected over several dead CPIs in a scan. The mean of these samples is computed to get the offset value in each of the channels. These I/Q offset values are passed on to the Auto Offset Correction Card, where the hardware corrects the offset in the two channels on-line in the following scan. Auto Offset Correction Card receives I-ADC and Q-ADC data from IF processor unit corrects the offset in the two channels and passes on to DPC CONTROL CARD # 1. It also buffers and distributes the I-ADC and Q-ADC data to AMSC and ECCM CARD #1.
As the processing requirement is in the batch mode for MTD, the radar real time data has to be reordered and to processing block. This reordering is done in the bulk memory. This circuit consists of two PCBs. The first PCB is the Bulk Memory Control Card. In this PCB, the address generations for both read and write operations; control generation and BITE generation are implemented. In the second card mainly the memory and the corresponding switching buffer is available. The memory in the second board is organized in such a way that while DPC output data is written in one of the memories called bank A, the other memory called bank B, outputs the previous CPI data for processing block. The clock used for the read operation is gated Rck, generated in system timing card. The bank switching is done after every CPI.
The Doppler effect is observed only for radial motion, not for tangential motion. Thus no Doppler effect will be noticed if a target moves across the field of view of radar. A Doppler shift will be apparent if the target is rotating, and the resolution of the radar is sufficient to distinguish leading edge from its trailing edge.
Greater dynamic range can be obtained than was possible with acoustic delay lines. Digital processor can be made reprogrammable. Digital MTI is more stable and reliable than analog MTI, and requires less adjustments during operation in the field.
5.5.7 FFT PROCESSOR FUNCTION BLOCK 5.5.7.1 FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT)
Digital filtering involves the use of Fourier transform. The FFT requires less computational effort, and it has been popular for many applications. It has some limitations, however compared to. The number of samples has to be expressed as 2 n if a filter bank is being generated, all filters have identical responses, they will be uniformly spaced frequencies, and the weighting coefficients are not optimum since they cannot be chosen independently for each filter. The filters possible with a nonFFT filter bank also can achieve greater attenuation of moving clutter (such as rain or chaff) because of the greater flexibility available in their design. There are times, therefore, when the classical Fourier transform may be more advantageous than the FFT even though the FFT might be quicker and require less complexity.
5.5.7.2 HARDWARE
FFT processor has been realized on 12 multilayer PCBs. The PCBs are as follows: FFT Timing and Control Cascade Buffer for FFT Processor 1 ALE Processor 1 Feedback Processor 1 Feed forward Complex multiplier Processor 2 ALE (Architecture same as Processor 1 ALE) Processor 2 Feedback (Architecture same as Processor 1 Feedback) Processor 2 Feed forward (Architecture same as Processor 1 Feed forward) Frequency Domain Window (Real) Frequency Domain Window (Imag.) Magnituder
samples, which are formed by first adding 9 samples and then adding the next 9 samples coherently and non-coherently adding up the sums.
This is the function that generates all the basic timing signals required for use within the Signal Processor as well as other units of the radar. It generates necessary synchronization signals for Transmitter and Sampling clock for IF Processor. The signals thus generated are described below. 20 MHz GENERATOR 20 KHz GENERATOR PRF GENERATOR CPI PAIR GATE NM AND ACP GENERATION
BITE pulses can be introduced continuously (in a ring mode) or once a scan. Multiple BITE pulses can be generated for each of the primary target pulses along range as well as along azimuth. A maximum of 16 pulses can be generated along range and 32 along azimuth. Also, the separation between these multiple pulses can be varied in multiples of 1.8 Km along range and in multiples of 7.5 degree along azimuth. Apart from these, BITE subsystems can be used to generate programmable ECCM sector controls. They are To selectively blank radar transmission in a sector (up to 8 such sectors). To selectively effect data blanking for centroids in any sector (up to 8 such sectors). To selectively choose random frequency or Least Jammed Frequency operating in any sector (up to 8 such sectors). The BITE subsystem is distributed in three PCBs. BITE control card #1 contains BITE Processor. Keyboard interface. Boot memory and data memory PROMs. Clock generation circuitry. Decoders for various registers. Sector control registers. Circuit for generating scan interrupts. Apart from these serial interface circuits and spare input registers and output registers have been provided. BITE Control Card # 2 is identical for target _ 1 and target 2. This card consists of:
Range registers. Azimuth registers. Circuit for Doppler control. Circuit for antenna modulation. Circuit for multiple target pulse generation along range and azimuth. Circuit for pulse width control along range and azimuth. Decoders for various registers.
The function of AMSC-MASTER is to derive the clutter map built up over 8 scans from I & Q ADC data and to transfer this map data to AMSC-SLAVE processor through a serial channel. AMSC-SLAVE receives the map data, stores in its memory as a replica of map memory of MASTER, transfers the map data from RAM to the EEPROM and starts outputting map values every PRT to RF CONTROL card for generating attenuation values.
The derivation of coarse clutter map from zero-velocity filter is done as follows. In every CPI 210 range samples of I & Q data are taken starting with every PRT. The range samples are taken at 3 sec interval. The I & Q samples for each range cell are integrated over 16 PRTs in a CPI. The magnitude of I & Q data is computed for each range cell using 7/8 L + 1/2 S algorithm and stored in external memory. This way magnitude for all the range azimuth cells in a scan is computed and stored in a memory. The computation and accumulation of magnitude is done for over 8 scans and the action is stopped. Since we have256 CPIs in a scan and 200 range cells per CPI, the number of range azimuth cells per scan will be 256 * 200 =51,200 i.e., 51K of external memory is required for storing the map information. External RAM used in the circuit is of 128K words capacity and 8 pages are used to store the map information. The processor selects the memory page using the MSB 3 bits of CPI number. The locations in each page are addressed by the processor using LSB 5 bits of CPI number and 8 bits of range cell address. The data is send to AMSC-SLAVE on a serial port of the processor. The MASTERto-SLAVE communication is synchronous (same serial clock is used for both the processors). Mode of communication is duplex mode, where in the word sent by MASTER is echoed back by SLAVE. The MASTER processor checks for the correctness of the received word before sending the next word. If there is any error,
the word is repeated. The AMSC block operates in three modes. MODE # 1: No clutter map generation and no transfer of data in this mode the slave has to only output the map values stored in RAM every PRT. This is normal mode of operation. MODE # 2: No clutter map generation, only data stored in AMSC-MASTER EEPROM is transferred to AMSC-SLAVE. MODE # 3: Clutter map generation and transfer of data to SLAVE by MASTER. Slave processor has to receive the data and store in its external memory. Once the data transfer is completed, the data is outputted with every PRT. For each word of data to be transferred, three 16-bit words are sent to slave. First word gives the page number of the memory, second word gives the address of the memory where data has to be stored and the third word is the data which has to be stored in the address location given by the second word. The MSB three bits of each word are used to code the word as page number, address and data. The slave has to decode the three bits and take appropriate action like selecting memory page number or forming address pointer to load the data or load the data into specific location of the memory. The process of derivation of clutter map has to be done with full transmitter power ON and a 30dB uniform attenuation applied to the front end, which is done by the slave processor.
AMSC action is initiated by AMSC-INIT switch on the display front panel. AMSCINIT switch resets both MASTER and SLAVE processors. If AMSC-INIT switch is held pressed for one scan, MASTER processor should go in for derivation of clutter map. If this facility is not given, any accidental pressing of the switch during Radar operation causes 30dB front end attenuation being applied by the SLAVE processor and the detection will suffer for 8 scans.
The hardware in AMSC card senses whether the AMSC-INIT switch is pressed for one scan and set a flag. After initialization with reset, the MASTER processor waits for one scan time and polls the flag. If the flag is active, it starts with MODE # 3. If not it will go to MODE # 2. Sampling of data for map generation starts with the first CPI encountered after initialization with reset. This first CPI number read from counter is stored. The functions of processor in each CPI are: Read the CPI number. Read current I/Q values of each range cells ; accumulate will previous I/Q values stored in internal memory. Compute the magnitude of accumulated I and Q values of previous CPI.
The magnitudes obtained for each frequency are compared and the frequency corresponding to minimum magnitude gives the LJF. This is done in every CPI. Also the magnitude corresponding to the present CPI-LJF, is compared with that of the previous CPI-LJF and if it is less than 5 times that of previous one, only then the current LJF is put-out, else the previous LJF itself is output as the LJF for the next CPI.
Jammer duty ratio count and jammer bandwidth count are generated using certain algorithms comparing the magnitude (after MTI operation) over a 8 CPI bracket. Depending on the values of these counts the jammer is classified as Low, Medium or High duty as well as Narrow bandwidth, Medium bandwidth or Wide bandwidth. In each case 2 bits of data are generated and the classification is indicated on the frequency indication panel (in system control unit), using LEDs.
Figure 5.1
The block diagram on the figure illustrates the principle of a fully coherent radar. The fundamental feature is that all signals are derived at low level and the output device serves only as an amplifier. All the signals are generated by one master timing source, usually a synthesizer, which provides the optimum phase coherence for the whole system. The output device would typically be a klystron, TWT or solid state. Fully coherent radars exhibit none of the drawbacks of the pseudo-coherent radars, which we studied in the previous section.
5.10.1 Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the highpower pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the receiver.
5.10.3 IF-Amplifier
After conversion to the intermediate frequency, the signal is amplified in several IFamplifier stages. Most of the gain of the receiver is developed in the IF-amplifier stages. The overall bandwidth of the receiver is often determined by the bandwidth of the IF-stages.
coherent reference signal to the Phase Sensitive Detector and also through a frequency divider generates the system PRF in the Synchronizer.
5.10.8 Waveform-Generator
The Waveform-Generator generates the transmitting pulse in low- power. It generates the transmitting signal on an IF- frequency. It permits generating predefined waveforms by driving the amplitudes and phase shifts of carried microwave signals. These signals may have a complex structure for a pulse compression.
CHAPTER 6
MAGNETRON
Figure 6.1
In 1921 Albert Wallace Hull invented the magnetron as a powerful microwawe tube. Magnetrons function as self-excited microwave oscillators. Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the magnetron to produce the high-power output required in radar equipment. These multicavity devices may be used in radar transmitters as either pulsed or cw oscillators at frequencies ranging from approximately 600 to 30,000 megahertz. The relatively simple construction has the disadvantage, that the Magnetron usually can work only on a constructively fixed frequency.
Figure 6.2
The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the interaction space. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons. The magnetic field is usually provided by a strong, permanent magnet mounted around the magnetron so that the magnetic field is parallel with the axis of the cathode.
Figure 6.3
The form of the cavities varies, shown in the Figure 6.3. The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or coaxial line. a) slot- type b) vane- type c) rising sun- type d) hole-and-slot- type
1. phase: Production and acceleration of an electron beam 2.phase: Velocity-modulation of the electron beam 3.phase: Forming of a Space-Charge Wheel 4. phase: Dispense energy to the ac field
Figure 6.4
When the magnetron is adjusted to the cutoff, or critical value of the plate current, and the electrons just fail to reach the plate in their circular motion, it can produce oscillations at microwave frequencies.
Figure 6.5
Well, the electrons which fly toward the anode segments loaded at the moment more In the figure 5 is shown only the assumed high-frequency electrical ac field. This ac field work in addition to the to the permanently available dc field. The ac field of each individual cavity increases or decreases the dc field like shown in the figurepositively are accelerated in addition. These get a higher tangential speed. On the other hand the electrons which fly toward the segments loaded at the moment more negatively are slow down. These get consequently a smaller tangential speed. 6.2.3 Phase: Forming of a Space-Charge Wheel
On reason the different speeds of the electron groups a velocity modulation appears therefore.
Figure 6.6
The cumulative action of many electrons returning to the cathode while others are moving toward the anode forms a pattern resembling the moving spokes of a wheel known as a Space-Charge Wheel, as indicated in figure 6. The space-charge wheel rotates about the cathode at an angular velocity of 2 poles (anode segments) per cycle of the ac field. This phase relationship enables the concentration of electrons to continuously deliver energy to sustain the rf oscillations. One of the spokes just is near an anode segment which is loaded a little more negatively. The electrons are slowed down and pass her energy on to the ac field. This state isn't static, because both the ac- field and the wire wheel permanently circulate. The tangential speed of the electron spokes and the cycle speed of the wave must be brought in agreement so.
Figure 6.7
Recall that an electron moving against an E field is accelerated by the field and takes energy from the field. Also, an electron dispense energy to a field and slows down if it is moving in the same direction as the field (positive to negative). The electron spends energy to each cavity as it passes and eventually reaches the anode when its energy is expended. Thus, the electron has helped sustain oscillations because it has taken energy from the dc field and given it to the ac field. This electron describes the path shown in figure 7 over a longer time period looked. By the multiple breaking of the electron the energy of the electron is used optimally. The effectiveness reaches values up to 80%.
Strapping
Figure 6.8
.
Figure 6.9
So that a stable operational condition adapts in the optimal pi mode, two constructive measures are possible:
6.3.1Strapping Rings
The frequency of the mode is separated from the frequency of the other modes by strapping to ensure that the alternate segments have identical polarities. For the pi mode, all parts of each strapping ring are at the same potential; but the two rings have alternately opposing potentials. For other modes, however, a phase difference exists between the successive segments connected to a given strapping ring which causes current to flow in the straps.
inner conductor of a coaxial line into a loop. The loop is then soldered to the end of the outer conductor so that it projects into the cavity, as shown in figure 10, view (A). Locating the loop at the end of the cavity, as shown in view (B), causes the magnetron to obtain sufficient pickup at higher frequencies.
Figure 6.10
The segment-fed loop method is shown in view (C) of figure 11. The loop intercepts the magnetic lines passing between cavities. The strap-fed loop method (view (D), intercepts the energy between the strap and the segment. On the output side, the coaxial line feeds another coaxial line directly or feeds a waveguide through a choke joint. The vacuum seal at the inner conductor helps to support the line. Aperture, or slot, coupling is illustrated in view (E). Energy is coupled directly to a waveguide through an iris.
Figure 6.11
The resonant frequency of a magnetron may be changed by varying the inductance or capacitance of the resonant cavities.
Tuner frame anode block addition al inductiv e tuning element s
Figure 6.12
An example of a tunable magnetron is the M5114B used by the ATC- Radar ASR910. To reduce mutual interferences, the ASR-910 can work on different assigned frequencies. The frequency of the transmitter must be tunable therefore. This magnetron is provided with a mechanism to adjust the Tx- frequency of the ASR910 exactly.
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Pulse Compression
This is a method which combines the high energy of a long pulse width with the high resolution of a short pulse width. The pulse is frequency modulated, which provides a method to further resolve targets which may have overlapping returns. The pulse structure is shown in the figure 1.
Figure 7.1
Since each part of the pulse has unique frequency, the returns can be completely separated. This modulation or coding can be either
o o
Now the receiver is able to separate targets with overlapping of noise. The received echo is processed in the receiver by the compression filter. The compression filter readjusts the relative phases of the frequency components so that a narrow or
compressed pulse is again produced. The radar therefore obtains a better maximum range than it is expected because of the conventional radar equation.
Figure 7.2
The ability of the receiver to improve the range resolution over that of the conventional system is called.0 The pulse compression ratio (PCR). For example a pulse compression ratio of 50:1 means that the system range resolution is reduced by 1/50 of the conventional system. Alternatively, the factor of improvement is given the symbol PCR, which can be used as a number in the range resolution formula, which now becomes:
Rres = c0 Pw ( 2 PCR)
The compression ratio is equal to the number of sub pulses in the waveform, i.e., the number of elements in the code. The range resolution is therefore proportional to the time duration of one element of the code. The maximum range is increased by the PCR.
The minimum range is not improved by the process. The full pulse width still applies to the transmission, which requires the duplexer to remained aligned to the transmitter throughout the pulse. Therefore Rmin is unaffected.
Table 7.1
Disadvantages Advantages lower pulse-power high wiring effort therefore suitable for Solid-State-amplifier higher maximum range bad minimum range good range resolution time-sidelobes better jamming immunity difficulter reconnaissance
Figure 7.3
The compression filter are simply dispersive delay lines with a delay, which is a linear function of the frequency. The compression filter allows the end of the pulse to catch up to the beginning, and produces a narrower output pulse with a higher amplitude. As an example of an application of the pulse compression with linear FM waveform the RRP-117 can be mentioned.
Filters for linear FM pulse compression radars are now based on two main types.
Digital processing (following of the A/D- conversion). Surface acoustic wave devices.
Figure 7.4
7.3 Time-Side-Lobes
The output of the compression filter consists of the compressed pulse accompanied by responses at other times (i.e., at other ranges), called time or range sidelobes. The figure shows a view of the compressed pulse of a chirp radar at an oscilloscope and at a ppi-scope sector. Amplitude weighting of the output signals may be used to reduce the time sidelobes to an acceptable level. Weighting on reception only results a filter mismatch and some loss of signal to noise ratio. The sidelobe levels are an important parameter when specifying a pulse compression radar. The application of weighting functions can reduce time sidelobes to the order of 30 db's.
Figure 7.5
Phase-coded waveforms differ from FM waveforms in that the long pulse is subdivided into a number of shorter sub pulses. Generally, each sub pulse corresponds with a range bin. The sub pulses are of equal time duration; each is transmitted with a particular phase. The phase of each sub-pulse is selected in accordance with a phase code. The most widely used type of phase coding is binary coding. The binary code consists of a sequence of either +1 and -1. The phase of the transmitted signal alternates between 0 and 180 in accordance with the sequence of elements, in the phase code, as shown on the figure. Since the transmitted frequency is usually not a multiple of the reciprocal of the sub pulse width, the coded signal is generally discontinuous at the phase-reversal points. The selection of the so called random 0, phases is in fact critical. A special class of binary codes is the optimum, or Barker, codes. They are optimum in the sense that they provide low sidelobes, which are all of equal magnitude. Only a small number of these optimum codes exist. They are shown on the beside table. A computer
based study searched for Barker codes up to 6000, and obtained only 13 as the maximum value. It will be noted that there are none greater than 13 which implies a maximum compression ratio of 13, which is rather low. The sidelobe level is -22.3 db.
Figure 7.6
CW radar continually transmits energy toward the desired target and receives a reflection of this "continuous wave." These kinds of radar are useful for determining a target's velocity by using the Doppler effect to compare differences in the
transmitted and received signals. These radar systems, however, have difficulty determining the target's range, or how far way it is. Pulsed radar, on the other hand, sends out a series of short RF pulses. By measuring how long it takes to receive the returns from these pulses, system operators can estimate the range to the target. Pulse Doppler radar, in addition, uses Doppler shifts with radar pulses to determine the velocities of moving targets. These systems can determine the velocities, angles, and ranges of targets. These added capabilities, however, make pulse Doppler radar much more compute-intensive than simple pulsed radar. Phased array radar systems, meanwhile, arrange large numbers of transceiver modules arranged on flat or curved surface. The system controls the phase or a slight variation in the transmit and receive time of groups of transceiver modules with computer commands, and in essence "steers" the radar beams quickly, enabling the phased array radar to scan specific areas quickly, "stare" at targets of interest, or do a variety of other tasks, all without the need to move the transceiver array mechanically. The ability of phased array radar systems to manipulate their groups of transceivers also gives this system an "adaptive array" capability, which not only can steer beams quickly, but also enables the system to shift the focus of radar beams to "null out" electronic interference or jamming. Precise radar images most often come from synthetic aperture radar systems. These so-called "side-looking" aircraft-mounted systems such as the U.S. Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System known as Joint STARS produce two-dimensional images, where one dimension is the range, or distance from the radar to the target using Doppler processing, and the other dimension is the azimuth, which requires a physically large antenna to focus the transmitted and received RF signal into a sharp beam. Synthetic aperture radar, better known as SAR collects data over a long distance, and processes the data as if it came from a physically long antenna. SAR requires extremely fast processing and very fast signal sampling rates.
After all this, the way in which a radar system processes information also can change the nature of the radar system itself. Take radar pulse compression, for example. This is a technique that makes the most of the radar's sensitivity and resolution by balancing the effects of radar pulse duration, radar pulse power, and radar pulse bandwidth. Pulse compression uses Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processing to massage the signal as it comes in from the A-D converters. "With pulse compression, you need to take an FFT of the radar signal to remove as much stuff that doesn't belong to the return signals as possible," explains Rodger Hosking, vice president of Pentek Inc. of Upper Saddle River, N.J., which supplies single-board processors to radar designers. "So they send out a 'chirp', or a unique signal that doesn't exist in nature," Hosking continues. "You convert what comes back into frequency domain, and take the frequency domain of your outgoing pulse and correlate the two. You extract only the part of the signal coming back that has to do with the outgoing pulse. Then you do an inverse FFT, and you get a very nice 'blip'." Until recently, Hosking explains, that kind of processing has been done in analog, and in DSPs. "It's a very demanding problem to do in real time."
combine to produce a challenge of staggering computational intensity for all but the simplest radar systems. Today's radar systems digitize their signals very quickly after receiving them. After analog-to-digital conversion, advanced algorithms process the signals to eliminate noise by filtering out unwanted portions of the signal, perform Doppler calculations to help determine range, and do many other operations to prepare the data for further processing later that will do tasks like enter radar signatures into databases and display the information on graphical screens. In the front-end "pre-processing" stage, the processor of choice increasingly is the field programmable gate array (FPGA) from companies such as Xilinx Inc. in San Jose, Calif., and Actel Corp. in Sunnyvale, Calif. This is primarily a move away from DSPs on the front end, experts say. At the same time, systems designers rely more heavily than ever before on high-end general-purpose processors such as the Altivec on the back end.
want, to keep them chunking away at that front-end data," he says, and enable designers to change the front-end processor for different platforms. "Our customers, the prime contractors, all are looking to put FPGAs as close to the radar sensing elements as possible the antennas, transmitters, and receivers to do pre-processing," says Philip Lindsay, northeast regional sales manager at Thales Computers Inc. in Raleigh, N.C. FPGAs, he says, are valuable for "massaging the data and lining it up so it is amenable to quick-corner turns, or quick FFTs, or quick FIRs [finite responses] so it can be processed almost immediately by the CPUs. They get the data as they need it, and you reduce latency." The radar signal-processing challenge is not fundamentally different today from how it was decades ago; what is changed is the processing approaches, which is where FPGAs come in today, says Larry Nork, director of radar business development at Mercury Computer Systems in Chelmsford, Mass.
Figure 7.7
The Lockheed Martin Medium Extended Air Defence System (MEADS) uses a UHF surveillance radar and X-band Multifunction Fire Control Radar. "In radar signal processing. What you needed in the past you need today, but you might do it more efficiently today," Nork explains. "You take channel equalization, phase compensation, and follow that up with pulse compression done with convolution processing where you have an FFT and a complex multiply, then do a
inverse FFT, and that allows you to match filter processing on the radar return. Those are data-independent functions that are performed in a streaming fashion no mater what is coming into the input of the radar receiver, where the same function is repeated time after time, with no need for programmability. So you can add efficiency to the processing by using FPGAs, as opposed to using a programmable RISC processor." Still, Radstone's Heptonstall cautions that the necessary investment in FPGAs is relatively high, and implementers also must invest a lot of time providing the FPGA function. The FPGA programmer must write his own VHDL FFT code to engineer that solution, while today's DSPs often are easier to program than are FPGAs. Many systems designers insist that DSPs still have a role in radar processing; the trick is to determine the niche that FPGAs and DSP processors serve, says Bernard Pelon, director of product research at CSPI Inc., a radar processing supplier in Billerica, Mass. Either the FPGA or DSP might do better on some classes of problems, but might be more difficult to use, he says. "That may be why we begin to look at FPGAs and specialized processors. We need to understand where each applies and balance them out." No matter the choice of the FPGA or DSP, Pelon points out that both represent a step away from trends toward general-purpose processors that are not application specific, although he says FPGAs are farther away from the general-purpose ideal than are today's DSPs. "In both cases you lose generality; there is no question that they are not general-purpose hardware," he says. "What we are facing is a nonstandard world. The FPGA inside is a profusion of non-standard things, such as how you connect your gates, so with the specialized DSP there is an advantage. Now we need to define a standard internal FPGA bus, and we are nowhere close to that." As far as CSPI is concerned, "we lean to FPGA and specialized DSP; there is space for both, Pelon says. They are both in the spatial function side." He points to new generations of DSPs, such as the Analog Devices TigerSHARC, and the FastMATH and FastMIPS architectures from Intrinsity Inc. in Austin, Texas, that might cause radar designers to take another look at DSPs either for front- or back-end processing.
Aside from its advantages in speed, the PowerPC Altivec also offers designers the benefits of a standard off-the-shelf architecture that is well understood throughout the industry. "The benefit of standard hardware and software is concurrent engineering," says CSPI's Pelon. "If I have a piece of software that you can run on any workstation, then you can have several players doing concurrent engineering, and that couldn't be done in the past. That translates into minimizing development time, which is very important in terms of effective results and solutions and quality." Another factor running in the Altivec's favor is the new crop of fast switchednetwork architectures, such as RapidIO, Infiniband, and StarFabric, which promise to boost the Altivec's power when many processors combine on a network. In terms of fabric, none of this can work without a very fast fabric to connect general-purpose processor nodes with some of the more specialized nodes," Pelon says. "We need more than ever a high-speed interconnect."
Figure 7.8
"In our advanced ground and airborne systems, where we not only deal with volume and weight, but also in advanced technologies such as digital advanced
beamforming, we use a hybrid or FPGA approach, primarily on the front end," Insky explains. "For backend data processing, we use general-purpose processors" such as the PowerPC. "There are niches," Insky points out. "I see an evolution to more use of FPGAs than the dedicated DSPs, but we still have a product that relies heavily on DSPs" an airborne system that uses the Analog Devices SHARC, he says. It is primarily driven by application and in our applications now, we see continued use of FPGAs."
"We've seen with the introduction of the TigerSHARC, our competitive environment changed 180 degrees; historically when we introduced the SHARC, we competed with Texas Instruments [DSPs}. Now with the introduction of the TigerSHARC, we are competing with the Altivec," says Darren Taylor, vice president of sales and marketing at BittWare Inc., a single-board DSP designer in Concord, N.H. "The TigerSHARC serves very well in some of these radar applications; we are seeing it across the board for radar systems," particularly for air traffic control, overthe-horizon, and 3D-based radar applications, Taylor says. The European radar manufacturer Alenia Marconi, for example, is using the TigerSHARC as their processor of choice for next-generation 3D air traffic control radar systems, Taylor says. "They did this because of the ability to do the continuous data movement and processing." Taylor admits that the Altivec G4 general-purpose processor can crunch data faster than the TigerSHARC can, "but you need to get the data in and the data out," he says. "That is where the TigerSHARC does much better in the real world." In addition, Taylor says, the TigerSHARC is more attractive in terms of power consumption. "The G4s are huge consumers of power" from five to 20 watts per chip, he says. "You are limited to the number of processors you can get on a board."