Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Chapter 4

Traffic

Project appraisal
Ch
Environment

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Traffic
Subgrade

Ch

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Problem Soils Pavement Materials

Pavement DesignNew Roads Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacings Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

Ministry of Works

Chapter 4
Traffic
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments:

4.0 General
This chapter describes the procedure for establishing the design traffic loading, selection of traffic load class and presentation of traffic data. The structural deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly depends on: n magnitude of the loads (axle loads) n contact pressure from the loads (mainly from tyre pressure) n number of load repetitions

Other elements of loading arising from axle combinations, suspension system, tyre types, load distribution over the pavement surface and the type of load, i.e. static, dynamic and breaking, would be difficult to investigate and impossible to apply in practice for the purpose of structural pavement design.

4.0.1
tonnes load

The damage that vehicles do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude of the axle loads as reflected in the system used for determination of design loading, where the damaging effect of an axle loading follows an exponential function. The traffic stream may however, contain heavier loads than the range where these calculation models are valid. Special concessions have therefore been made for roads where a large proportion of the design load consists of very heavy axles.

Magnitude of the loads

4.0.2
contact pressure

kPa

load per area

Contact pressures set up by vehicles in the traffic stream are difficult to estimate practically and thus cannot be expressed with any confidence as a quantity that is useful in structural pavement design. The main factors affecting levels of contact pressure from the traffic are however known. These are primarily related to type of tyres used, tyre pressure and indirectly influenced by the axle loading. Potential damage to the pavement by high contact pressures is offset by the provision of material types with sufficient strength in the base course and surfacing layers. The pavement design procedure indirectly compensates for high contact pressures by setting limits for the material types allowed in the base course and surfacing layers for the respective traffic load classes.

Contact pressure

loads t1 t2 t3 t4.......tn

4.0.3

Depending on site conditions - a sufficiently large number of load repetitions above a certain magnitude causes fatigue of bound layers and deformations in granular pavement layers. The damaging effect of all axles expected to traverse the road is converted into Equivalent Standard Axles (E80) and added up over a chosen design period to become the basis for the structural pavement design. This figure is termed the design traffic loading and is expressed in millions E80. The design traffic loading is the cumulative traffic expected to use the heaviest loaded lane during the design period.

Load repetitions

4.1 Design Period

The design period is defined as the number of years until a terminal value of accepted serviceability is expected to be reached. The design period starts when the completed pavement is opened to public traffic over the entire length of a construction project or a pre-determined part of a project. Any public traffic or construction traffic using the completed pavement before the start of the design period shall be estimated

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Ministry of Works

Chapter 4
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Traffic

separately and included in the design traffic loading for the purpose of pavement design Chapter 4.2 - Design Traffic Loading. Strengthening of the pavement is normally required for the road to carry further traffic at an acceptable level of serviceability after the end of the design period. Normal maintenance is assumed to take place throughout the design period for the design to be valid. Premature failures may result if normal maintenance is neglected during the design period. The specified length of the design period shall be 20 years for new or rehabilitated bitumen surfaced pavements. However, the Ministry of Works may, at its discretion, change the design period depending on circumstances of individual projects. Figure 4.1 illustrates the definition of the design period in relation to terminal serviceability and required maintenance during the design period.
Pavement serviceability
Reseal Pavement rehablitation

Comments:

Design period must not be confused with pavement life or surfacing life since the pavement may have a considerable residual life at the end of the design period. The pavement life may be extended by periodic strengthening of the pavement structure /Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation/.

Terminal value of serviceability

Figure 4.1 Design period

4.2 Design Traffic Loading

The flow chart in Figure 4.2 shows the procedure to determine the design traffic loading.
Traffic count for each direction Chapter 4.2.1 Vehicle equivalency factor Chapter 4.2.3 Proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13t Chapter 4.2.4 Apply traffic growth Chapter 4.2.5 and lane distribution Chapter 4.2.6 Include construction traffic Chapter 4.2.7

Completed pavement on the entire project

Project construction, the pavement being completed in parts.

Design Period

Reseal
)

(no res eal

Worked Example
/Appendix A8.1/

Axle load survey for each direction Chapter 4.2.2

Classify as'heavy' or not Chapter 4.2.4

Vehicle equivalency factor Chapter 4.2.3 Socio -economic studies

Proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than13t Chapter 4.2.4

Design traffic loading

Classify into Traffic Load Class Chapter 4.3

Figure 4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic loading

Ministry of Works

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Chapter 4
Traffic
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments: Light traffic affects the performance of surface treatments and gravel wearing courses, but has an insignificant effect in the context of structural pavement design.

4.2.1

Only heavy vehicles should be counted for the purpose of structural pavement design. Heavy vehicles are defined as those having a registered un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more. Large buses having a seating capacity of 40 or more are included as heavy vehicles. Traffic counts shall be carried out in a manner that results in a grouping of vehicle types into the categories given in Table 4.1. Inclusion of other vehicle categories, or a further sub-division of the categories may be desirable for other purposes. However, manipulation of data shall not obscure the prescribed division into the four heavy vehicle categories.
Table 4.1 Heavy vehicle categories

Traffic counts

H eav y v ehicle category Medi um Goods Vehi cle MGV Heavy Goods Vehi cle HGV Very Heavy Goods Vehi cle VHGV Buses

D efinition - 2 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more - 3 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more - 4 or more axles , i ncl. steeri ng axle, and - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more Seati ng capaci ty of 40, or more

4.2.2

All design of bitumen surfaced road pavements shall be based on projectdedicated axle load surveys. The surveys shall be carried out separately from weigh-bridge measurements undertaken for the purpose of enforcing axle load limits. The measurements shall include minimum one survey of 7 days duration over 24 hours - covering each lane. The method for conducting axle load surveys shall follow current procedures of the Ministry of Works.
It is not necessary to distinguish between single wheels, and between dual wheels and steering axles and fixed axles for the purpose of determining design load. The varying effect on pavement structures from such differences in wheel configuration are likely to be offset by other inherent inaccuracies in all pavement design methods.

Axle load surveys

The required minimum information from the axle load survey shall include the following: n axle loads of all heavy vehicles whether they are empty or loaded n vehicle category n loading in each lane (direction) of the road Each axle in a multi-axle combination (e.g. bogie, triple, etc.) shall be measured separately. The survey point shall be equipped with sufficient capacity to weigh all heavy vehicles that are passing in one direction at a time, both empty and loaded.

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Traffic

4.2.3

The damaging effect of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed by the equivalency factor related to an equivalent standard axle (E80) of 8160 kg load: Equivalency factor = [Axle Load (kg) / 8160] 4.5 The Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) for every vehicle in the axle load survey is determined and an average value is subsequently calculated for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane separately. The average VEF for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane, can then be applied to the results from traffic counts to give the cumulative E80s traffic loading the pavement is subjected to over a given period.

Equivalency factors

Comments:

4.2.4

The proportion of the design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tonnes shall be calculated from axle load survey data. If this proportion is 50% or higher then the design traffic loading is defined as Heavy, denoted by an index to the Traffic Load Class as input to the pavement design catalogue. One should not confuse the proportion of the design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tonnes with the counted proportion of these axles in the traffic stream, the latter being incorrect. A moderate number of very heavy axles will make up a considerable proportion of the design traffic loading. The percentage of the design traffic load (E80) attributed to axles loaded to above 13 tonnes shall be calculated based on detailed data from project dedicated axle load surveys. The axle load data from the lane with the highest value of E80 shall be used. The heavy axles proportion of E80 is calculated as follows:
Heavy Axles Proportion = of E80 [%] Number of E80 from axles of 13 t and heavier in the survey Total number of E80 from all heavy vehicles in the survey x 100

Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes

/Chapters 5, 8, 9 and 10/ set out measures in the design of pavement and improved subgrade layers to offset the effect of a large proportion of very heavy axle loads.

Research is not yet conclusive on issues related to the effect of very heavy axle loads on a variety of pavement types.

4.2.5

Traffic growth
There is a considerable uncertainty and risk of making large errors in estimations of traffic growth since a number of individually uncertain factors are brought together in the analysis. Where little information is available, historical data, origin-destination surveys and records from Ministry of Works and Statistical Bureau are among the sources of information for assessment of traffic growth. The designer may have to resort to the use of growth figures for GDP in the estimation of movement of goods.

General The following estimations of future growth are required: n growth in the number of heavy vehicles n growth in the number of E80 per vehicle (Vehicle Equivalency Factor) Types of traffic The forecasting of traffic growth shall include separate estimates for the 4 vehicle categories. It is necessary to assess future traffic in respect of the following types: n normal traffic: that would use the route regardless of the condition of the road n diverted traffic: that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of the road, but at otherwise unchanged origin and destination n generated traffic: additional traffic occurring due to the improvement of the road

Ministry of Works

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Chapter 4
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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments:

Total growth rate For each heavy vehicle category the total E80 growth rate is calculated from the formula: E80 growth rate = [(1+h/100) x (1+v/100) - 1] x 100 where:
h= v= growth rate in traffic volume for the heavy vehicle category growth rate in vehicle equivalency factor (E80 per vehicle) for the heavy vehicle category

4.2.6

The design traffic loading shall be corrected for the distribution of heavy vehicles between the lanes in accordance with Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes

Lane distribution

C ross section

P av ed width < 3.5 m Mi n. 3.5 m, but less than 4.5 m Mi n. 4.5 m, but less than 6 m

C orrected design Explanatory notes traffic loading E80 D ouble the sum of E80 in both directions The sum of E80 i n both di recti ons 80% of the sum of E80 i n both di recti ons
The d riving p atte rn o n this cro ss se ctio n is ve ry channe lle d Traffic in b o th d ire ctio ns use the same lane

Si ngle carri ageway

To allo w fo r o ve rlap in the ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad

Total E80 i n the 6 m or wider heavi est loaded di recti on More than one lane i n e a ch di recti on 90% of the total E80 i n the studi ed di recti on

Minimal traffic o ve rlap in the ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad

The majo rity o f he avy ve hicle s use o ne lane in e ach d ire ctio n

4.2.7
Loading from construction traffic can have a significant effect on pavements designed for low traffic.

The calculation of design traffic loading shall include construction traffic and public traffic that is expected to use the completed pavement before the start of the design period.

Construction traffic

4.3 Traffic Load Classes (TLC)

After finally determining the design traffic loading, E80, and the heavy axles proportion of E80, the values are placed into their correct class in accordance with Table 4.3.

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Ministry of Works

Chapter 4
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Traffic

Table 4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC

Comments:

Design traffic loading [ E80 x 106 ] < 0.2 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 1 to 3 3 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 50

Traffic Load C lass (TLC ) TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
Insufficient sample of data for these low traffic roads < 0,2 million E80, makes it difficult to achieve a realistic traffic loading design. Hence, a traffic load class TLC 0,2 -H is not established.

Where the heavy (>13 t) axles proportion of E80 is 50% or higher the Traffic Load Class shall be given an index, i.e.:
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H

4.4 Presentation of Data

The following information for each direction of the road shall be presented in the detailed design report for paved roads: n cumulative E80 over the design period n the proportion of the design traffic loading that is a result of axles above 13t (in %) n assumed construction traffic before the start of the design period n the Traffic Load Class for use in the pavement design The above is the minimum information required. Additional information may be necessary. The following details shall be presented, for each of the four heavy vehicle categories classified: n weighing data for all axles on heavy vehicles as obtained in the axle load survey n summary of traffic counts n Vehicle Equivalency Factors used n growth rate in average E80 per vehicle n total growth rate in E80 for each heavy vehicle category The background data used in estimates of growth rates and construction traffic shall be presented.

Ministry of Works

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Traffic
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments:

References
4-1 4-2 4-3 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08. Philadelphia, USA. AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 12 (1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 14 (1985): Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997): Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test. Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA. PINARD M I and KGOBOKO K (1990). Issues associated with the choice of vehicle load limits in Southern Africa. Proc. TRL - Regional Roads Course, Gaborone, Botswana. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design. Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.

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