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Java Concepts and Tips (for C programmers) N.

Guydosh 2/28/02 The following is based some commentary on the concepts presented in Appendix A (Java Primer) in Applied Operating Systems Concepts, by Silberschatz. These comments are not complete, but hopefully should serve as a review or introduction. They relate or compare Java concepts to corresponding ANSI C concepts. If you need a tutorial review or would like to download the JDK package, see the Useful Links link on the CS 350 web site. The tutorial given at: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/information/download.html appears to be useful. Download the tutorial.zip package and expand it out on your hard drive for the tutorial. The following pertains to standalone java programs not applets. General Comments

The source code for a java Program is a collection of formal structures called classes. A class in java is similar to a structure in C language. A C language structure contains only data declarations/definitions, whereas a java class contains both data declarations and function declarations. The function definitions are called methods in java. Java functions can only exist as methods within a class. See code samples in this document for examples. There are two important special methods: a constructor method, and the main method. The constructor has a function name which is the same as the name of the class. The purpose of he constructor is to initialize the data variables within the class containing the constructor. There may be more than one constructor (with the same name) in a class. Multiple constructors are distinguished by having different input parameter lists. Note that technically a constructor is not a method since it does not return a value. It more closely resembles a pascal procedure. Methods, on the other hand, are essentially C functions since they return a value. The main method defines the logical entry point of he Java program. A Java program may consists of multiple files containing the various classes; the name of the file containing main() must match tha class name in which it appears. Every stand-alone program (run from the command line) must contain a main() method. One property of a Java method which distinguishes it from an ANSI C function is the way parameters are passed to the function. In ANSI C when a variable is passed to a function, it is passed by copy. A copy of the current value is passed to the function. If the variable is modified on the inside of the function, it has no affect on the corresponding variable on the outside. This is obviously a problem if the variable represents a large data structure. The only way an outside variable could be modified is by passing a pointer (the address of the variable) to it to the function. In Java, only primitive variables are passed by value. Objects, on the other hand, are passed by reference to a method. Any modifications to the object are immediately reflected in the original object on the outside. A reference to an object is

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defined as the name of the object. A reference is logically similar to a pointer in C. When you pass a reference to a method, you pass a copy of the reference (not the object being referenced). As long as you do not change the value of the reference pased, then changing the internals of the referenced object, will be reflected to the object outside of the method that was passed. See below for more on objects. How to instantiate or allocate an object from a class definition. Objects are at the heart of java programming. An object is a particular instantiation or allocation of a class in much the same way that when we define a variable against a declaration of a C data structure, the declaration becomes allocated in memory (defined). Each time a variable is defined against this C data structure, we have another instantiation or allocation of the structure. Now in Java, a class is allocated or instantiated to an object by the new operator. Taking an example from the sample Java code below, we have a class defined called Manager. The constructor for Manager is also called Manager () with three parameters. We may now instantiate manager to an object called boss using the new operator: Manager boss = new Manager(Pat, Supervisor, 30000); The left side of the assignment declares boss to be of type Manager (the class), and the right hand side allocates this variable boss to be an instantiation of Manager. Now an important event takes place (besides the allocation of memory). Whenever an object is instantiated with new, the constructor is invoked using the parameters specified in the new statement, and the resulting object is initialized by invoking the constructor. This initialization is the current state of the object. Multiple instantiations of an object generally have different states. How to access data variables and call methods in a class Once an object has been instantiated, we can now refer to data variables and methods, in the object in much the same way we reference data variables in a C structure namely by using the dot notation to get at stuff inside. In our example below, we may invoke the computeRaise() method in Manager (object boss) as follows: boss.computeRaise(); Data is referenced the same way as in C data structures. If you want to call a method from within the object in which it is defined, there is no need to use the dotted qualifier. If you want to make it explicit to refer to the local object the dotted qualifier this could be used: this.computeRaise(); this is a reference to the object in which it is used. Scope of methods and variables: Variables and methods defined with the key word public can be referenced outside of the defining class using the above dot notation. If they are defined with the private key word, the can only be accessed inside the defining class. .Summary and a few loose ends: o A class consists of methods and data declarations. One of the methods which has the same name as the name of the class is the constructor, which gets executed whenever an object instantiation of the class is allocated using the new operator.

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o A program consists of a number of classes compiled from *.java to *.class using the javac compiler. One of the classes, say xyz.java must have a main method. When you compile this one: javac xyz.java, all the other classes referenced by xyz will get compiled also. It is xyz which gets run from the command line using the java command: java xyx . aspects: Inherentance: The primer considers three

In all cases below, an abstract method is a method which is not defined, but only declared (used in an interface or an abstract class to be defined later). It essentially has the format of a prototype statement in C language. We consider inheritance in three general categories: o A general class: Extending some arbitrary base class to a derived class: You can extend any class (to another class) by adding (augmenting) variables and methods to the base class. The format is: public class base-class {} public class derived-class extends base-class {} where base-class is the base class The derived class derived-class will use the super statement it initialize base-class from which it is derived. You can have many different derived classes. o An interface: Implementing an interface to a implemented class: An interface is like a class that contains only abstract methods and no data definitions except constants. You can create a class by implementing an interface. This is done by defining all the abstract methods, and adding any required variable data definitions in the resulting implemented class. The format is: public interface interface-name {} public class implemented-class implements interface-name {} where interface-name is the name of the interface and implemented-class is the name of the class which got implemented. The resulting class implemented-class will use NOT the super statement it initialize interface from which it is derived because the latter has no implemented methods. You can have many different implemented classes. See page 775. o An abstract class: Extending an abstract class to a derived class: **** this is what is used in programming with threads ********

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An abstract class is like an interface, but can contain both abstract methods and fully defined methods including variable data definitions. You can extend an abstract class (to a class). The derived class implements the abstract methods of the abstract class. The format is: public abstract abstract-class-name {} public class derived-class extends abstract-class-name {} where abstract-class-name is the name of the abstract class. The derived class derived-class will use the super statement it initialize abstract class from which it is derived. You can have many different derived classes. The importance of inheritance in our study of threads is that threads are created from an abstract thread class by using inheritance. An example will now be given from Applied Operating Systems Concepts, 1st ed., by Silberschatz to illustrate these ideas. public abstract class Employee { public Employee (String n, String t, double s) { // consructor name = n; title = t; salary = s; } public void printInfo() { System.out.println(Name: + name); System.out.println(Title: + title); System.out.println(Salary: + salary); } public abstract void computeRaise(); private String name; private String name; private double salary; } // end of class Employee

public class Manager extends Employee { public Manager (String n, String t, double s) { //constructor super(n, t, s); // calls constructor on class Employee } public void computeRaise() { salary += salary * .05 + BONUS;

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} private static final double BONUS = 2500; // end of class Manager

public class Developer extends Employee { public Developer (String n, String t, double s, int np) { //constructor super(n, t, s); // calls constructor on class Employee numOfPrograms = np; } public void computeRaise() { salary += salary * .05 + numOfPrograms * 25; } private int numOfPrograms; } // end of class Developer public class Test // this is the class containing the main method { public static void main(String args[]) { Employee[] worker = new Employee[3]; worker[0] = new Manager(Pat, Supervisor, 30000); worker[1] = new Developer(Tom, Programmer, 28000, 20); worker[2] = new Developer(Jay, Intern, 26000, 8); for (i = 0; i <3; i++) { worker[i].computeRaise(); worker[i].printInfo(); } private int i; } } // end of main // end of class Test

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