Flight Dynamics-I (Performance Analysis)

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai-600036, India.

August 2008
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Index Chapter 1 : Introduction Chapter 2 : Earths atmosphere Chapter 3 : Drag polar Chapter 4 : Engine characteristics Chapter 5 : Performance analysis Appendix A Performance analysis of a piston-engined airplane Appendix B Performance analysis of a subsonic jet transport
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Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Opening remarks The normal operation of a civil transport airplane involves take-off, climb to cruise altitude, cruising, descent, loiter and landing (Fig.1.1). In addition, the airplane may also carry out glide (which is descent with power off), curved flights in horizontal and vertical planes and other flights involving accelerations.

Fig 1.1 Typical flight path of a passenger airplane

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Apart from the flights during controlled operations, an airplane may also be subjected to disturbances which may cause changes in its flight path and produce rotations about its axes. The study of these motions of the airplane either intended by the pilot or those following a disturbanceforms the subject of Flight Dynamics. Flight Dynamics: It is a branch of dynamics dealing with the forces acting and the motion of an object moving in the earths atmosphere. In this course our attention is focused on motion of the airplane. Helicopters, rockets and missiles are not covered . 5

At this stage it may be helpful to recapitulate the anatomy of the airplane . Fig.1.2a and b show the major components of an airplane.

Fig 1.2a Major components of an airplane (From Ref.1.10, chapter 2)

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Fig 1.2b Control surfaces and flaps on an airplane (From Ref.1.10, chapter 2)
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The features that make flight dynamics a separate subject are : i. The motion of an object in flight can take place along three axes and about three axes. This is more complicated than the motions of machinery and mechanisms which are restrained by kinematic constraints, or those of land based or water based vehicles which are confined to move on a surface. ii. The special nature of the forces, like aerodynamic forces, acting on the object (Fig 1.3) whose magnitude and direction changes with the orientation of the airplane , relative to its flight path.

iii. The system of aerodynamic controls used in flight (aileron, elevator, rudder).

Fig 1.3 Forces on an airplane

1.2 Body axes system To formulate and solve a problem in dynamics we need a system of axes. To define such a system we note that an airplane is nearly symmetric in geometry and mass distribution about a plane which is a called the plane of symmetry. This plane is used for defining the body axes system. Figure 1.4b shows a system of axes (OXbYbZb) fixed on the airplane (body axes system) which moves with the airplane. The origin O of the body axes system is the center of gravity (c.g.) of the body which, by assumption of symmetry , lies in the plane of symmetry (Fig.1.4a) . The axis OXb is taken positive in the forward direction. The axis OZb is perpendicular to OXb in the 10 plane of symmetry , positive downwards .

Fig 1.4 a Plane of symmetry and body axis system

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Fig 1.4b. Body axes system, forces , moments and linear and angular velocities (Adapted from Ref.1.2d, chapter 1)
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The axis OYb is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry such that OXbYbZb is a right handed system. Figure 1.4b shows the forces and moments acting on the airplane and the components of linear and angular velocities. The quantity V is the velocity vector. The quantities X,Y,Z are the components of the resultant aerodynamic force, along OXb, OYb and OZb axes. L , M, N are the rolling moment, pitching moment and yawing moment respectively about OXb, OYb and OZb; the rolling moment is denoted by L to distinguish it from lift (L) . u,v,w are the components , along OXb, OYb and OZb of the velocity vector (V). The 13 angular velocity components are indicated by p,q,r.

1.3 Forces acting on an airplane During the analysis of its motion the airplane will be considered as a rigid body. The forces acting on an object in flight are Gravitational forces Aerodynamic forces Propulsive forces. The aerodynamic forces and moments arise due to motion of airplane relative to air. The aerodynamic forces are the drag, the lift and the side force. The moments are the rolling moment, the pitching moment and the yawing moment. The propulsive force is the thrust produced by 14

the engine or the engine propeller combination. In the case of an airplane, the gravitational force is mainly due to the attraction of the earth. The magnitude of the gravitational force is the weight of the airplane (in Newtons). W = mg; where W is the gravitational force, m is the mass of the airplane and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The line of action of the gravitational force is along the line joining the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the airplane and the center of the earth. It is directed towards the center of earth (see next section for further discussion). 15

The value of the acceleration due to gravity (g) decreases with increase in altitude (h) . It can be calculated based on its value at sea level (g0), and using the following formula: (g/g0) = [R / (R + h)]2 Where R is the radius of the earth, R = 6400 km (approx.) and g0 = 9.81ms-2 However for typical airplane flights (h<20 km) , g is generally taken to be constant. ( 1.1)

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1.4 Flat earth and spherical earth models In flight mechanics, there are two ways of dealing with the gravitational force, namely the flat earth model and the spherical earth model. In the flat earth model, the gravitational acceleration is taken to act vertically downwards (Fig 1.5). When the distance over which the flight takes place is small, the flat earth model is adequate. See Miele (Ref 1.1) for details.
Flight path
W=mg

Gravitational force
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Fig.1.5.Flat Earth Model

In the spherical earth model, the gravitational force is taken to act along the line joining the center of earth and c.g. of the airplane. It is directed towards the center of the earth (Fig. 1.6). The spherical earth model is used for accurate analysis of flights involving very long distances.

Fig 1.6. Spherical earth model

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Remark : In this course we use the flat earth model. This is adequate for the following reasons. (a) The distances involved in flights with acceleration are small and the gravitational force can be considered in the vertical direction by proper choice of axes. (b) In un-accelerated flights like level flight we consider the forces at the chosen instant of time and obtain the distance covered etc. by integration. This procedure is accurate as long as we understand that the altitude means
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height of the airplane above the surface of the earth and the distance is measured on a sphere of radius equal to the sum of the radius of earth plus the altitude of airplane. This type of analysis is also called point performance analysis 1.5 Approach The approach used in flight mechanics is to apply Newtons laws to the motion of objects in flight. Let us recall these laws: Newtons first law states that every object at rest or in uniform motion continues to be in that state 20 unless acted upon by an external force.

Newtons second law states that the force acting on a body is equal to its rate of change of momentum. Newtons third law states that to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newtons second law can be written as: F = ma ; a = dV/dt; V = dr/dt. (1.2) Where F = sum of all forces acting on the body, m= mass, a= acceleration, V= velocity, r= the position vector of the object and t= time. (quantities in bold are vectors)
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Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and velocity is the rate of change of position vector. To prescribe the position vector, we need to have a co-ordinate system with reference to which the position vector/displacement is measured. 1.6 Frame of reference A frame of reference (coordinate system) in which Newtons laws of motion are valid is known as a Newtonian frame of reference. Since Newtons laws deal with acceleration, a frame of reference moving with uniform velocity with respect to a Newtonian frame is also a Newtonian frame or inertial frame.
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However, if the reference frame is rotating with some angular velocity (), then, additional accelerations like centripetal acceleration { x ( x r)} and coriolis acceleration (v x ) will come into picture. For further details on non-Newtonian reference frame, see Ref 1.2a. In flight mechanics, a co-ordinate system attached to the earth approximates a Newtonian frame (Fig.1.7). The effects of the rotation of earth around itself and around the sun on this approximation can be estimated as follows. 23

Fig 1.7 Earth fixed and body fixed co-ordinate systems

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We know that the earth rotates about itself once per day. Hence = 2 / (3600x24) = 7.27x10-5s-1; Since r equals 6400 km; the maximum centripetal acceleration (2r) equals 0.034 ms-2. The earth also goes around the sun and completes one orbit in approximately 365 days. Hence = 2 / (365x3600x24) = 1.99x10-7s-1;In this case the radius would be the mean distance between the sun and the earth which is 1.5x1011m. Consequently 2R = 0.006 ms-2. Thus we note that the centripetal accelerations due to rotation of earth about itself and around the sun 25 are small as compared to acceleration due to gravity.

These rotational motions would also bring about coriolis acceleration (v x ). However its magnitude, which depends on the flight velocity, would be much smaller than the acceleration due to gravity in flights up to Mach number of 3. Hence the influence can be neglected. Thus, taking a reference frame attached to the surface of the earth as a Newtonian frame is adequate for the analysis of airplane flight. Figure 1.7 shows such a coordinate system.

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1.7 Equilibrium The above three types of forces (aerodynamic, propulsive and gravitational) and moments govern the motion of an airplane in flight. If the sums of all these forces and moments are zero, then the airplane is said to be in equilibrium and will move along a straight line with constant velocity (see Newton's first law). If any of the forces is unbalanced , then the airplane will have a linear acceleration in the direction of a unbalanced force. If any of the moments is unbalanced, then the airplane will have an angular acceleration about the axis of the unbalanced moment.
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The relationship between the unbalanced forces and the linear accelerations and those between unbalanced moments and angular accelerations are provided by Newtons second law of motion. These relationships are called equations of motion.

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1.8 Equations of motion To derive the equations of motion we need to know the acceleration of a particle on the body. The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and the velocity is the rate of change of position vector with respect to the chosen a frame of reference. The minimum number of coordinates required to prescribe the motion is called the number of degrees of freedom. The number of equations governing the motion equals the degrees of freedom. As an example we may recall that the motion of a particle moving in a plane is prescribed by the x- and ycoordinates of the particle at various instants of time and this motion is described by two equations. 29

Similarly the position of any point on a rigid pendulum is describe by just one coordinate namely the angular position () of the pendulum (Fig.1.8). In this case we have only one equation to describe the motion . In yet another example , if a particle is constrained to move on a sphere, then its position is prescribed by the longitude and latitude . This motion has only two degrees of freedom. To describe its motion we treat the airplane as a rigid body. It may be recalled that in a rigid body the distance between any two points is fixed. Thus r in Fig. 1.9 does not change during the motion. To decide the minimum number of coordinates needed to prescribe the position of a point on a rigid body which 30

Fig. 1.8 Motion of a single degree of freedom system

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Fig 1.9 Position of a point on a rigid airplane

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is translating and rotating, we proceed as follows. A rigid body with N particles may appear to have 3N degrees of freedom, but the constraint of rigidity reduces this number . To arrive at the minimum number of coordinates we approach the problem in a different way. Following Ref.1.2b, we can state that to fix the location of a point on a rigid body we do not need to prescribe its distance from all the points, but only need to prescribe its distance from three points which do not lie on the same line (Fig.1.10a). Thus if the positions of these three points are prescribed with respect to a reference frame , then the position of any point on the body is known. This may indicate nine
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degrees of freedom . This number is reduced to six because the distances r12, r23 and r13 in Fig.1.10a are constants . Another way of looking at the problem is to consider that we prescribe the three coordinates of point 1 with respect to the reference frame. Now the point 2 is constrained, because of rigid body assumption, to move on a sphere centered on point 1 and needs only two coordinates to prescribe its motion. Once the points 1 and 2 are determined, the point 3 is constrained , again due to rigid body assumption, to move on a circle about the axis joining points 1 and 2. Hence only one independent coordinate is needed to prescribe the position of point 3. Thus the number of 34 independent coordinates is six (3+2+1).

Fig 1.10a Position of a point with respect to three reference points (Adapted from Ref.1.2b, Chapter 4)
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From the above discussion it is clear that the coordinates could be lengths or angles. In mechanics the six degrees of freedom associated with a rigid body, consists of the three coordinates of the origin of the body with respect to the chosen frame of reference and the three angles which describe the angular position of a coordinate system fixed on the body (OXbYbZb) with respect to the fixed frame of reference (EXeYeZe) as shown in Fig.1.10b. These angles are known as Eulerian angles. These will be discussed in ch.4 of flight dynamics- II . See also Ch.4 of Ref.1.2b. Remarks: i) The derivation of the equations of motions in a 36 general case with six degrees of freedom (see Ref 1.1)

Fig 1.10b Coordinates of a point on a rigid body

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is rather involved and would be out of place here. ii) Herein, we consider various cases separately and write down the equations of motion in each case. 1.9 Subdivisions of flight dynamics The subject of flight dynamics is generally divided into two main branches viz. Performance Analysis and Stability and control. In performance analysis, we generally consider the equilibrium of forces only. It is assumed that by proper deflections of the controls, the moments can be made zero and that the changes in aerodynamic forces due to deflection of controls are small. The motions considered in 38 performance analysis are steady and accelerations,

when involved, do not change rapidly with time. The following flights are included in performance analysis -Unaccelerated flights Steady level flight Climb, glide and descent -Accelerated Flights Accelerated level flight and climb Take-off and landing Turn, loop and other flights along curved paths which are called maneuvers.
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Roughly speaking, the stability analysis is concerned with the motion following a disturbance. Stability analysis tells us whether an airplane, after being disturbed, will return to its original flight path or not. Control analysis deals with the forces that the deflection of the controls must produce to bring to zero the three moments (rolling, pitching and yawing) and achieve a desired flight condition. It also deals with design of control surfaces and the forces on control wheel/stick /pedals. Stability and control are linked together and are generally studied under a common heading.
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Flight dynamics I of this course deals with performance analysis. By carrying out this analysis we can obtain variation of performance items such as maximum level speed, minimum level speed, rate of climb, angle of climb, distance covered , with a given amount of fuel called Range , time of flight called Endurance , minimum radius of turn, maximum rate of turn, take off distance, landing distance etc. The effects of flight conditions namely the weight , altitude and flight velocity of the airplane can also be examined. This study would also help in solving design problems of deciding the power required, thrust required , fuel required etc. for given specifications like maximum speed, 41

maximum rate of climb, range, endurance etc. Remark: Alternatively, the performance analysis can be considered as the analysis of the motion of flight vehicle considered as a point mass, moving under the influence of applied forces. The stability analysis similarly can be considered as motion of a vehicle of finite size, under the influence of applied forces and moments.

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1.10 General Remarks i) Attitude : As mentioned in section 1.8 the instantaneous position of the airplane , with respect to the earth fixed axes system (EXe Ye Ze) , is given by the coordinates of the c.g. at that instant of time. The attitude of the airplane is described by the angular orientation of the OXbYbZb system with respect to OXeYeZe system or the Euler angles mentioned in section 1.8 (see Ref.1.2c, chapter 10 for details) . Let us consider simpler cases. When an airplane climbs along a straight line its attitude is given 43 by the angle between the axis OXb and

and the horizontal (Fig.1.11a ). When an airplane executes a turn, the projection of OXb axis , in the horizontal plane , makes an angle with reference to a fixed horizontal axis (Fig.1.11b) . When an airplane is banked the axis OYb makes an angle with respect to the horizontal (Fig.1.11c). ii) Flight path: In the subsequent sections, the flight path, also called the trajectory, means the path or the line along which the c.g. of the airplane moves. The tangent to this curve at a point gives the direction of flight velocity at that point on the flight path. The relative wind is in a direction opposite to 44 that of the flight velocity .

Fig 1.11a Airplane in a climb

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Fig 1.11b Airplane in a turn-view from top (Adapted from Ref.1.10, chapter 6)

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Fig 1.11c Angle of bank () (Adapted from Ref. 1.11, chapter 3)

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iii) Angle of attack and side slip While discussing the forces acting on an airfoil, we take the chord of the airfoil as the reference line and the angle between the chord line and the relative wind as the angle of attack(). The aerodynamic forces viz lift (L) and drag (D) , produced by the airfoil, depend on the angle of attack () and are respectively perpendicular and parallel to relative wind direction (Fig.1.11 d). In the case of an airplane the flight path, as mentioned earlier , is the line along which c.g. of the airplane moves . The tangent to the flight path is the direction of flight velocity (V). The relative wind is in a direction opposite to the 48 flight velocity. If the flight path is confined to the

Fig 1.11d Angle of attack and forces on a airfoil

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plane of symmetry, then the angle of attack would be the angle between the relative wind direction and the fuselage reference line (FRL) or OXb axis (see Fig.1.11e) . However in a general case the velocity vector (V) will have components both along and perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. The component perpendicular to the plane of symmetry is denoted by v . The projection of the velocity vector in the plane of symmetry would have components u and w along OXb and OZb axes (Fig.1.11f) . With this background we define the angle of sideslip and angle of attack .
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Fig 1.11e Flight path in the plane of symmetry

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Fig 1.11f Velocity components in a general case and definition of angle of attack and sideslip (Adapted from Ref.1.2d , chapter 1)
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The angle of sideslip ()is the angle between the velocity vector (V) and the plane of symmetry i.e. = sin-1 (v/ |V|); where |V| is the magnitude of V. The angle of attack () is the angle between the projection of velocity vector (V) in the XB-ZB plane and the OXb axis or

= tan
Remark:

w = sin 1 u

w | V | v
2 2

= sin

w u2 + w2

It is easy to show that , if V denotes magnitude of velocity (V) , then u = V cos cos , v= V sin ; w= V sin cos .
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iv) By definition, the aerodynamic drag (D) is parallel to the relative wind direction. The lift force lies in the plane of symmetry of the airplane and is perpendicular to the direction of flight velocity. v) Simplified treatment in performance analysis In a steady flight, there is no acceleration along the flight path and in a level flight, the altitude of the flight remains constant. A steady, straight and level flight, generally means a flight along a straight line at a constant velocity and constant altitude. Sometimes, this flight is also referred to as unaccelerated level flight. To illustrate the simplified54

treatment in performance analysis, we consider the case of unaccelerated level flight. The forces acting on an airplane in unaccelerated level flight are shown in the Fig.1.12. They are: Lift (L) Thrust (T) Drag (D) and Weight (W) of the airplane. It may be noted that the point of action of the thrust and its direction depend on the engine location. However, the direction of the thrust can be taken parallel to the airplane reference axis.
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Fig 1.12 Forces acting in steady level flight

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The lift and drag, being perpendicular to the relative wind, are in the vertical and horizontal directions respectively, in this flight. The weight acts at the c.g. in a vertically downward direction. In an unaccelerated level flight, the components of acceleration in the horizontal and vertical directions are zero. Hence, the sums of the components of all the forces in these directions are zero. Resolving the forces along and perpendicular to the flight path (see Fig.1.12.), we get the following equations of force equilibrium:

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T cos D = 0 T sin + L W = 0

(1.3) (1.4)

Apart from these equations, equilibrium demands that the moment about the y-axis to be zero, i.e., Mcg = 0 Unless the moment condition is satisfied, the airplane will begin to rotate about the c.g. Let us now examine how the moment is balanced in an airplane. The contributions to Mcg come from all the components of the airplane. As regards the wing , the point where the resultant vector of the lift and drag intersects the58 plane of symmetry is known as the centre of

pressure. This resultant force produces a moment about the c.g. However, the location of the center of pressure depends on the lift coefficient and hence the moment contribution of wing changes with the angle of attack as the lift coefficient depends on the angle of attack. For convenience, the lift and the drag are transferred to the aerodynamic center along with a moment (Mac). Recall that moment coefficient about the a.c. (Cmac) is, by definition, constant with change in angle of attack. Similarly, the moment contributions of the fuselage and the horizontal tail change with the angle of attack. The engine thrust also produces a moment 59 about the c.g. which depends on the thrust required.

Hence, the sum of the moments about the c.g. contributed by the wing, fuselage, horizontal tail and engine changes with the angle of attack. By appropriate choice of the horizontal tail setting (i.e. incidence of horizontal tail with respect to fuselage central line ) , one may be able to make the sum of these moments to be zero in a certain flight condition, which is generally the cruise flight condition. Under other flight conditions, generation of corrective aerodynamic moment is facilitated by suitable deflection of elevator (See Fig.1.2b for location of elevator). By deflecting the elevator , the lift on the horizontal tail surface can be varied and the moment produced by the horizontal tail balances 60 the moments produced by all other components.

The above points will now be illustrated with the help of an example. Example 1.1 A jet aircraft weighing 60,000 N has its line of thrust 0.15 m below the line of drag. When flying at a certain speed, the thrust required is 12,000 N and the center of pressure of the wing lift is 0.45 m aft of the airplane c.g.. What is the lift on the wing and the load on the tail plane whose center of pressure is 7.5 m behind the c.g.? Assume unaccelerated level flight and the angle of attack to be small during the flight.
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Solution: The various forces and dimensions are presented in Fig.1.13. The lift on the wing is LW and the lift on the tail is LT. Since the angle of attack () is small, one may take cos = 1 and sin = 0. Thus, from the force equilibrium (Eqs. 1.3 and 1.4), we get: TD=0 LW + LT W = 0 i.e. D = T = 12000 N and LT + LW = 60000 N From Fig.1.13., the moment equilibrium about the c.g. gives: T (zd + 0.15) D.zd 0.45.LW 7.5.LT = 0
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Fig. 1.13 Forces acting on an airplane in steady level flight

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where zd is the distance of drag below the c.g.. Solving these equations, we get, LW = 63574.47 N and LT = -3574.47 N It is seen that A) The lift on the wing is about 63.6 kN while the lift on the tail is only 3.6 kN, in the downward direction. B) The contribution of tail to the total lift is thus small, in this case, about 6% and negative. This negative contribution necessitates the wing lift to be more than the weight of the airplane. This increase the lift results in additional drag called trim drag. 64

C) The distance zd is of no significance in this problem as the drag and thrust form a couple whose moment is equal to the thrust multiplied by the distance between them. D) Generally, the angle of attack () is small. Hence, sin is small and cos is nearly equal to unity. Thus, the equations of force equilibrium reduce to (1.5) T D = 0 and L W = 0. E) It is assumed that the pitching moment equilibrium i.e. Mcg=0 is achieved by appropriate deflection of the elevator. The changes in the lift and drag due to elevator deflections are generally small and in performance analysis, as stated 65 earlier, these changes are ignored and one

considers the simplified picture as shown in Fig.1.14.

Fig.1.14. Simplified picture of the forces acting on an airplane in level flight.

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1.11 Course content Some background material is required performance analysis. We know that: L = (1/2) V2 S CL D = (1/2) V2 S CD Where CL and CD are the lift and drag coefficients. S is the area of the wing. CL and CD depend on , Mach number (M = V / a) and Reynolds number (Re = V l / ) i.e. CD = f(CL,M, Re) The relation between CLand CD at given M and Re is known as the drag polar of the airplane.
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for

Similarly, the density of air () depends on the flight altitude. Further the Mach number depends on the speed of sound, which in turn depends on the ambient air temperature. Thus, for performance analysis, we need to know the variations of pressure, temperature, density, viscosity etc. with altitude in earths atmosphere. For evaluation of performance we also need to know the engine characteristics such as, variations of thrust/ power and fuel consumption with the flight speed and altitude.

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Keeping these aspects in view, following will be the contents of this course Earths Atmosphere (chapter 2) Drag Polar (chapter 3) Engine Characteristics (chapter 4) Performance Analysis. (chapter 5) These topics will be taken up in the subsequent chapters. 1.12 Back ground expected The student is expected to have undergone courses on (a) Vectors (b) Rigid body dynamics (c) Aerodynamics and (d) Aircraft engines.
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References: 1.1 Miele,A. Flight mechanics Vol I Addison Wesley (1962). 1.2a Shames,I.H., Engineering mechanics statics and dynamics, Prentice Hall India (1986). 1.2b Goldstain H Classical mechanics edition Addison Wesley (1980). Second

1.2c Davies, M. (Editor) The standard handbook for aeronautical and astronautical engineers McGraw Hill (2003). 1.2d Etkin , B. and Reid L.D. Dynamics of flight stability and control 3rd edition, John Wiley (1996).
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1.3 Perkins,C.D. and Hage,R.E. , Airplance performance, stability and control John Wiley (1963). 1.4 Dommasch,D.O. Sherby,S.S. and Connolly,T.F. Airplane aerodynamics Pitman (1967). 1.5 Houghton and Carruthers, Aerodynamics for engineering students, Edward Arnold (1982).

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1.6 Hale, F.J., Introduction to aircraft performance, selection and design, John Wiley (1984). 1.7 McCormick B.W, Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight mechanics, John Wiley (1995) 1.8 Anderson, Jr. J.D Aircraft performance and design McGraw Hill International edition (1999). 1.9 Pamadi, B., Performance, stability, dynamics and control of an airplane, AIAA (2004) 1.10 Anderson, Jr. J.D Introduction to flight Fifth edition, McGraw-Hill, (2005). 1.11 Nelson R.C. Flight stability and automatic control second edition WCB/ McGraw- Hill , 72 (1998).

Exercises: 1. Sketch the three views of an airplane and show its axes systems 2. Define with sketches the terms: (a) flight path, (b) flight velocity (c) body axes system (d) angle of attack (e) angle of slide slip and (f) bank angle. 3. Janes All the World Airplanes is a book published annually and contains details of airplanes currently in production in various countries. Refer to this book and study the three view drawings, geometrical details and performance parameters of different types of 73 airplanes.