Professional Documents
Culture Documents
As you see we have a new topic related to disinfection ()التطھير and sterilization
()التعقيم. This topic as you know is part of the medical practice because you cannot
perform any surgical procedure or any treatment associated with the use of any
device whether beginning by a simple injection of a drug or by fixing a tooth in the
mouth or any other procedure without considering that this procedure might be
associated with the introduction of one or other type of microorganism whether
from our skin flora because we are not a sterile object or from the environment. We
have a variety of microorganisms associated with our skin, nose, oral cavity,
intestinal tract and in the lower part of the urethra and any of these floras might be
associated with contamination during a procedure.
The Normal Flora:
A term used to describe a number of bacteria which have been adapted to our body.
Under normal conditions, these bacteria (and to some extent few types of viruses,
parasites and yeast) can occupy and colonize part of our body without causing any
harm. They can reside in any part of our body (e.g. oral cavity, nose, intestines,
extragenitalia, lower part of urethra, skin, etc.) but they are not found in seral parts
of the body (e.g. blood, subcutaneous tissue, etc.) because these parts must be free
of microorganisms.
In general, our body contains a huge number of bacterial normal flora‐ accounts for
99%, while parasite and yeast normal floras do not exceed 1%.
Normal flora is composed of more than 1000 species of bacteria that colonize our
body, beginning with the oral cavity to our intestine. These can be considered as
commensals: bacteria which live under normal conditions in our body without
causing harm but might become pathogenic under certain conditions (opportunistic
parasites).
NOW: refer to picture "Bacteria – Normal Flora" in the doctor's slides.
As you can see in the picture, it only represents certain types of bacteria which might
be part of what we call the normal flora. As you see in this picture from (left to right)
you have a variety of gram +ve cocci, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus. Second you
have gram –ve coccobacilli with filaments. Thirdly, gram variable between gram +ve
and gram –ve represented by Diphtheroids, often not important as pathogens but
stay in certain categories of patients with immunocompromised condition. Any type
of microorganism if introduced in the blood stream or any sterile part of the body
might be associated with infection ranging from a very simple wound infection to a
more dangerous form of sepsis‐ presence of organisms in the blood, in the form of
1
bacteremia, and septicemia, which indicate the presence of organisms in the blood
that can even can be carried to the CNS.
Note: All three words; sepsis, septicemia, and bacteremia refer to the same disease
but each is caused by a different strain of bacteria; sepsis by gram –ve and +ve
bacteria, septicemia by gram –ve bacteria, bacteremia by gram +ve bacteria.
Also in the picture you can see, spore‐forming bacteria, anaerobic bacteria,
facultative anaerobic bacteria, in varied shapes and colours that might be associated
with infection.
At the beginning you should know that we are not living in a sterile environment and
that our body contains a huge number of microorganisms estimated to be 1014
bacterial cells in addition to the presence of few parasites and viruses. Even viruses
can reside for a short period in our respiratory tract, in our intestines, urinogenital
tract, and these might under certain conditions produce infection. However, they
might persist in our bodies only for a short period of time before getting flushed out
of our body. The same for parasites; not all parasites are associated with infection
such as parasites found as part of the intestinal flora.
As you see we have a large number of bacteria and we divide these bacteria into two
major types in accordance with our body; commensals and pathogenic.
Commensals: bacteria which under normal healthy conditions cannot cause disease
unless there is a reason or stimuli, if there is any surgical manipulation in our body
these commensals might gain access to sterile body tissue or blood or fluids and
produce infection. Commensals are composed mainly of obligate anaerobic bacteria
up to 95% associated with facultative anaerobes (5%). Aerobes are very few and only
very few species of bacteria are considered obligate aerobes such as the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These large numbers of bacteria (the commensals)
protect our body indirectly by competing with true obligate pathogens, and affecting
their survival… HOW? By producing a variety of end products, mainly a form of
organic acids such as lactic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and so on, in addition to
other antibiotic‐like substances. One example would be in our intestine in which we
have a group of bacteria called Enterobacteriacea including in particular Escherichia
coli. The E. coli usually produces antibiotic‐like substance called coli C which inhibits
the growth of other types of bacteria or at least reduce the number of bacteria. In
addition there are certain types of bacteria like the obligate pathogens called
Bacteroides fragilis which have a very important role in our body. Mainly it produces
detoxification for certain chemicals and neutralizes the action of certain radicals in
the intestine which are usually produced from the digestion or intake of food. So as
you see this normal flora is important but become more important during surgical
operation in any part of the body such as skin, oral cavity, intestinal cavity, urinary
2
tract, etc. because they can cause infection if the surgeon does not apply antiseptic
techniques.
Four major parts of the body are usually occupied by normal flora:
(1) Skin Flora:
At least a little number of these bacteria which we consider as normal flora of the
body begins from outside our body; skin where we have a variety of gram +ve
bacteria in majority, which include the different types of Staphylococcus spp., and
Propionobacterium sp. which is part of the Diphtheroids group. This group is a large
group of gram +ve bacteria which grow under aerobic conditions and usually survive
in our skin, in the hair follicles, where they might produce superficial infection.
(2) Oral Cavity Flora:
In the oral cavity we have more of gram +ve and gram ‐ve bacteria like Streptococcus
spp., Neisseria spp. but not Neisseria the obligate pathogen like Neisseria gonorrhea,
Corynebacter spp., Haemophilus spp.
(3) Intestinal Flora:
The intestinal tract is divided into small and large intestine, the small intestine
normally contains less number of bacteria and less variation in contrast to the large
intestine, which contains a huge number and types of anaerobic bacteria like
Fusobacterium and Bifidobacterium. Bifidobacterium resides in the intestines of
newly born babies up to the age of 30 days and later slowly it changes from
Bifidobacterium to Fusobacterium, Bacteroides and Streptococci, which is a huge
group of bacteria. We have obligate anaerobic strep called bifidostreptococci? and
other types of streptococci and we also have Clostridium. Clostridia as spore‐forming
is widely distributed in nature, some of these might reach the intestine and might
under certain conditions produce infection. In addition, we have the
Enterobacteriacea group which is a very large group composed of gram ‐ve
facultative anaerobic bacteria which grow rapidly. Examples from this group include:
Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, Klebseilla, Serratia, Providencia, etc. Yeast
represented by Candida is also present, in addition to certain viruses.
Diarrhea results from a change in the normal flora of the colon.
(4) Urinogenital flora:
It is especially important for ladies more than men where it is not necessary to have
any type of microorganism in the urethra of men, whereas the vagina usually should
be occupied by a very useful type of bacteria called Lactobacillus. Lactobacilli
3
produce certain end products especially organic? acids and this protects the vagina
from other invaders‐ foreign types of bacteria. These acids reduce the pH of the
vagina to approx. 4.5 which helps keep the vagina free of pathogens and prevent the
development of infection. However, the lower part of the urethra in both men and
women always has the chance to be contaminated via the rectum, which might
reside certain bacteria from the intestine in its lower part in few numbers. However,
the mucosa of the urethra and the vagina secrete a lysozyme which will affect the
cell wall of these bacteria and keep the number of bacteria low, which prevents the
development of infection. So there is equilibrium in the intestine. Generally our body
is perfected to control the presence of these bacteria by producing a variety of
enzymes starting from the oral cavity to the intestinal tract, vagina, urethra where
these enzymes control the types and numbers of bacteria. Furthermore, we have a
type of flushing system in the urinary tract, usually if there is accumulation of a
certain type of bacteria in the urinary tract, the flow of urine from the bladder, in
association with the prostatic secretions will flush out certain types of bacteria which
reside in the mucosa of the urethra. Our skin is also protected to some extent. First,
by a system which produces saturated fatty acids (sweating), in addition to the
presence of certain types of microorganisms which produce a bactericidal effect
(killing other types of bacteria) by producing certain organic compounds which
prevent the access of other microorganisms.
In short, we have a system in our body and this system keeps our body intact, but
any damage within the skin or mucosa, whether by surgical manipulation or
accidents due to the use of any type of device or instrument, and if this damage
reaches the superficial layer of our skin; epidermis and dermis, then we might be
infected by one or other type of bacteria either from our own skin flora or from the
environment. If we do a culture for any part of this room whether tables, clothing, or
our hands, etc. we will find that we have a lot of different types of bacteria. Our
hygienic condition is also very important, how we wash our hands, and how we try
to reduce these numbers of bacteria. But keep in mind that you must not be living in
a constant fear of getting infected any time; our bodies can cope with the presence
of these bacteria and normally are not susceptible to develop infection. Our immune
system is usually excellent under healthy conditions but if there is any form of
malignancy whether in relation to our blood in form of leukemia, lymphoma, etc. or
any other type of malignancy and by loss of antimicrobial drugs or antitoxin drugs,
our body becomes more susceptible to develop infection even with our own
bacterial flora or viruses.
4
Definitions:
Sepsis: the presence of any form of microorganisms in our sterile body fluids, in the
blood or other parts, or in our tissue. This word is mainly related to sepsis of a
wound or the blood.
Asepsis: the absence of any form of microorganisms from a sterile part of the body.
Antiseptic technique: the use of certain reagents or devices to prevent the access of
certain organisms to a sterile part of the body (blood, tissues, skin, etc.). This
technique is to be applied on a living tissue.
Disinfection: the use of certain fluids or reagents (called disinfectants) to disinfect–
reduce the number of microorganisms on a nonliving object, such as the
thermometer, the floor, etc. Disinfection is not absolute unlike sterilization.
If you have a sterile container this indicates the absence of any type of living cells,
whether small as a virus or large as an animal cell. Sterilization means the absence of
any living organism or microorganism whereas disinfection indicates the reduction in
the number of microorganisms to a safety level for example from 100% to 1%, i.e.
you still might have few cells which might later produce infection.
Both disinfection and sterilization cause damage to microorganisms mainly in
relation to their cell wall, cell membrane, proteins, nucleic acids etc., and therefore
affect replication, transcription etc. so the end effect is usually a killing effect. An
inhibition effect can be expressed in the form of what we call a bacteriostatic effect,
by the use of a certain type of a drug which does not kill the bacteria but only
inhibits its replication by affecting its proteins, nucleic acids, or cytoplasmic
membrane. Later, our body helps get rid of these bacteria by phagocytosis and
production of antibodies. The term bactericidal means that it produces a killing
effect which also includes killing of the spore‐forming bacteria. The spore‐forming
bacteria is more difficult to be killed than other types of bacteria because
endospores of spore‐forming bacteria usually have a double cell membrane and a
special coat which resists to some extent the normal procedure of disinfection.
Boiling of the water for few minutes usually kills the majority of bacteria and
microorganisms present, except the spore‐forming bacteria.
Sanitization: this process is used in relation to food industry; to clean dishes and
equipment. It reduces the presence of microorganisms by 99%.
Refrigeration and Deep freezing: There is a misconception in our country that
refrigeration and deep freezing kill the bacteria while they only stop the growth of
bacteria and might even help protect the bacteria from being killed especially if you
do deep freezing within a short period of time.
5
Desiccation: ()تجفيف a method that usually makes use of sunlight to kill bacteria and
keep food out of reach of these organisms. This method was used in our culture in
the past before the modern methods of preservation of food have been applied.
Physical Control of Microbes:
Sterilization (killing effect) methods:
1) Direct flaming (incineration): where you reduce the components of the bacterial
cells to carbon dioxide.
2) Dry heat by the use of a hot‐air oven: at a temperature of (170‐180) ºC for 2
hours. The majority of vegetative (living) forms of bacteria can be killed at a
temperature of 100 ºC for few minutes (2‐3 minutes) but the spore‐forming type of
bacteria require a higher temperature and more time, therefore we are obliged to
use dry heat in the form of a hot‐air oven to sterilize instruments used in surgery.
Most sterile instruments used in surgery are disposable and only some are
nondisposable.
3) Ionizing Radiation: Nowadays, most of the instruments used in surgery are
sterilized by the use of ionizing radiation (gamma rays) where it produces high‐
energy electron beams that affect mainly nucleic acids and so at the end kill the
microorganism (viruses, parasites, bacteria, etc.).
4) Moist Heat/ Steam under pressure: the use of heat here in a special container
called autoclave where we use boiling water but under pressures. The boiling
temperature of water under normal atmospheric pressure is 100 ºC whereas under
higher pressures you can elevate the boiling temperature of water to (121 or 125 or
132) ºC depending on the pressures used in a closed container. This mechanism
allows the use of a higher temperature and moist steam that will penetrate the cell
wall and the cytoplasmic membrane of most microorganisms and produce a killing
effect. Therefore it is a very effective method used to prepare culture media in our
labs. Autoclave is an important device in the hospitals and clinics to make sure that
all articles used in surgery and inserted in our oral cavities, urinary tract etc. are
sterilized. The use of dry heat, however, is limited to certain articles and not as
important.
All DISPOSABLE articles, such as small tubes in which we collect blood samples, or
containers used for the collection of urine or any other body fluid, or any other
disposable instrument that can be damaged by the use of dry heat or moist heat
such as endoscopes inserted into our respiratory tract or any other part of the body,
are usually cleaned or sterilized by other means such as by ionizing radiation though
6
this method's apparatus are very expensive, or other means by using special gases
which at the end have a killing effect.
5) Filtration: is only used for certain types of drugs. If you want to have a fluid that is
free of any type of microorganism, especially in relation to in‐vitro experiments or if
you want to prepare any chemical fluid, drug or any type of fluid used in experiments
that cannot be sterilized by the use of hot air because it will be damaged or by moist
heat because it might damage the proteins such as the proteins of the blood and
lead to coagulation and inactivation of its components, in these cases the filtration
methods are used.
NOW: refer to picture "Ultraviolet‐Autoclave" in the doctor's slides.
To the left side of this picture is a special container called ultraviolet cabinet (not a
physical but a chemical control of microbes) usually, there is a land and this land
usually produces emission of 260 nm UV beams. Usually these UV beams can control
and kill many types of microorganims but the end effect is related more to
disinfection than sterilization… WHY? Because certain microorganisms whether
bacteria like the spore‐forming bacteria or viruses like the hepatitis B virus or HIV the
causative agent of AIDS cannot be killed by UV light so the UV cabinet equipment
should not be considered for sterilization but only for disinfection, whereas the
autoclave can be used for sterilization which has an end effect of killing all types of
microorganims.
6) Alkylating Gases: here we have two gases used in clinical practice for sterilization
and these gases are toxic and should be used under certain conditions and in special
containers. One gas used is Ethylene oxide, which can catch fire easily therefore it
will be mixed by 10% carbon dioxide or nitrogen in order to reduce its flammability.
These gases at the end have the effect of sterilization because they usually cause
damage not only to the cytoplasmic membrane, but also to the nucleic acids of the
microorganism and so affect the transcription and translation processes and
therefore its replication. However, usually the alkylating gases require a longer
exposure time more than the sterilization by autoclave requires time, which usually
requires 30‐45 minutes whereas by using these gases we need at least 4‐12 hours.
These gases are used for sterilization of sensitive types of instruments such as the
endoscopes which are used widely in clinical practice, heart‐lung machines and any
other instrument used in surgical procedures especially disposable plastic wares.
Another type of gas called formalin gas (formaldehyde gas) which is widely used in
clinical practice especially to preserve certain types of tissues which later must be
sent to the lab for pathological examination. When there is an operation and you
take a biopsy from the liver or from the stomach etc. to be investigated later for the
presence of malignancy, here you have to keep these in a special solution; 2%
aqueous formaldehyde gas in the form of formalin. (Formalin means a water solution
7
of formaldehyde gas (37%)) or we can use glutaraldehyde gas which has the same
effect for the preservation of tissue by preserving the shape of the tissue while killing
the microorganisms, and wiping out their fermentation action. Gases can also be
used to disinfect the patient's room. For example, if a patient is infected with a type
of microorganism which might be dangerous for other patients or for the community
etc. and we want to keep the room clean and free of these microorganisms, let the
gas fill the room for 12‐24 hours long exposure time in order to kill all types of
microorganisms including the spore‐forming type of bacteria.
The End.
8