BRI DGE CI RCUI TS

2.1
SECTI ON 2
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
Wa l t Kest er
I NTRODUCTI ON
This sect ion discusses t he fundament al concept s of br idge cir cuit s, and is followed by
a sect ion on pr ecision op amps (Sect ion 3). Sect ion 4 focuses on t he det ailed
applicat ion cir cuit s r elat ing t o st r ain gage-based sensor s. Sect ions 2 and 4 can be
r ead sequent ially if t he r eader alr eady under st ands t he design issues r elat ing t o op
amps which ar e cover ed in Sect ion 3.
Resist ive element s ar e some of t he most common sensor s. They ar e inexpensive t o
manufact ur e and r elat ively easy t o int er face wit h signal condit ioning cir cuit s.
Resist ive element s can be made sensit ive t o t emper at ur e, st r ain (by pr essur e or by
flex), and light . Using t hese basic element s, many complex physical phenomena can
be measur ed; such as fluid or mass flow (by sensing t he t emper at ur e differ ence
bet ween t wo calibr at ed r esist ances) and dew-point humidit y (by measur ing t wo
differ ent t emper at ur e point s), et c.
Sensor element s' r esist ances can r ange fr om less t han 100 t o sever al hundr ed k,
depending on t he sensor design and t he physical envir onment t o be measur ed (See
Figur e 2.1). For example, RTDs (Resist ance Temper at ur e Devices) ar e t ypically
100 or 1000. Ther mist or s ar e t ypically 3500 or higher .
RESISTANCE OF POPULAR SENSORS
n Strain Gages 120 , 350 , 3500
n Weigh-Scale Load Cells 350 - 3500
n Pressure Sensors 350 - 3500
n Relative Humidity 100k - 10M
n Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) 100 , 1000
n Thermistors 100 - 10M
Figure 2.1
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.2
Resist ive sensor s such as RTDs and st r ain gages pr oduce small per cent age changes
in r esist ance in r esponse t o a change in a physical var iable such as t emper at ur e or
for ce. Plat inum RTDs have a t emper at ur e coefficient of about 0.385%/C. Thus, in
or der t o accur at ely r esolve t emper at ur e t o 1C, t he measur ement accur acy must be
much bet t er t han 0.385 for a 100 RTD.
St r ain gages pr esent a significant measur ement challenge because t he t ypical
change in r esist ance over t he ent ir e oper at ing r ange of a st r ain gage may be less
t han 1% of t he nominal r esist ance value. Accur at ely measur ing small r esist ance
changes is t her efor e cr it ical when applying r esist ive sensor s.
One t echnique for measur ing r esist ance (shown in Figur e 2.2) is t o for ce a const ant
cur r ent t hr ough t he r esist ive sensor and measur e t he volt age out put . This r equir es
bot h an accur at e cur r ent sour ce and an accur at e means of measur ing t he volt age.
Any change in t he cur r ent will be int er pr et ed as a r esist ance change. In addit ion,
t he power dissipat ion in t he r esist ive sensor must be small, in accor dance wit h t he
manufact ur er 's r ecommendat ions, so t hat self-heat ing does not pr oduce er r or s,
t her efor e t he dr ive cur r ent must be small.
MEASURING RESISTANCE INDIRECTLY
USING A CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
V
OUT
I R R + + ( )
R + R
I
Figure 2.2
Br idges offer an at t r act ive alt er nat ive for measur ing small r esist ance changes
accur at ely. The basic Wheat st one br idge (act ually developed by S. H. Chr ist ie in
1833) is shown in Figur e 2.3. It consist s of four r esist or s connect ed t o for m a
quadr ilat er al, a sour ce of excit at ion (volt age or cur r ent ) connect ed acr oss one of t he
diagonals, and a volt age det ect or connect ed acr oss t he ot her diagonal. The det ect or
measur es t he differ ence bet ween t he out put s of t wo volt age divider s connect ed
acr oss t he excit at ion.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.3
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
V
O
R4
R1
R3
R2
V
B
V
O
R
R R
V
B
R
R R
V
B

+ +

+ +
1
1 4
2
2 3


+ +



_ _
, ,
+ +



_ _
, ,

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
V
B
1
4
2
3
1
1
4
1
2
3
AT BALANCE,
V
O
IF
R
R
R
R
0
1
4
2
3
+
-
Figure 2.3
A br idge measur es r esist ance indir ect ly by compar ison wit h a similar r esist ance.
The t wo pr inciple ways of oper at ing a br idge ar e as a null det ect or or as a device
t hat r eads a differ ence dir ect ly as volt age.
When R1/R4 = R2/R3, t he r esist ance br idge is at a null, ir r espect ive of t he mode of
excit at ion (cur r ent or volt age, AC or DC), t he magnit ude of excit at ion, t he mode of
r eadout (cur r ent or volt age), or t he impedance of t he det ect or . Ther efor e, if t he r at io
of R2/R3 is fixed at K, a null is achieved when R1 = KR4. If R1 is unknown and R4
is an accur at ely det er mined var iable r esist ance, t he magnit ude of R1 can be found
by adjust ing R4 unt il null is achieved. Conver sely, in sensor -t ype measur ement s, R4
may be a fixed r efer ence, and a null occur s when t he magnit ude of t he ext er nal
var iable (st r ain, t emper at ur e, et c.) is such t hat R1 = KR4.
Null measur ement s ar e pr incipally used in feedback syst ems involving
elect r omechanical and/or human element s. Such syst ems seek t o for ce t he act ive
element (st r ain gage, RTD, t her mist or , et c.) t o balance t he br idge by influencing t he
par amet er being measur ed.
For t he major it y of sensor applicat ions employing br idges, however , t he deviat ion of
one or mor e r esist or s in a br idge fr om an init ial value is measur ed as an indicat ion
of t he magnit ude (or a change) in t he measur ed var iable. In t his case, t he out put
volt age change is an indicat ion of t he r esist ance change. Because ver y small
r esist ance changes ar e common, t he out put volt age change may be as small as t ens
of millivolt s, even wit h V
B
= 10V (a t ypical excit at ion volt age for a load cell
applicat ion).
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.4
In many br idge applicat ions, t her e may be t wo, or even four element s which var y.
Figur e 2.4 shows t he four commonly used br idges suit able for sensor applicat ions
and t he cor r esponding equat ions which r elat e t he br idge out put volt age t o t he
excit at ion volt age and t he br idge r esist ance values. In t his case, we assume a
const ant volt age dr ive, V
B
. Not e t hat since t he br idge out put is dir ect ly pr opor t ional
t o V
B
, t he measur ement accur acy can be no bet t er t han t hat of t he accur acy of t he
excit at ion volt age.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND LINEARITY ERROR FOR
CONSTANT VOLTAGE DRIVE BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS
R R
R R+ R
R+ R
R+ R R+ R R+ R
R R R+ R R R R R
R R R
V
B
V
B
V
B
V
B
V
O
V
O
V
O
V
O
(A) Single-Element
Varying
(B) Two-Element
Varying (1)
(C) Two-Element
Varying (2)
(D) All-Element
Varying
Linearity
Error:
V
O
:
0.5%/% 0.5%/% 0 0
V
B
4
R
R
2
R +
V
B
2
R
R
2
R +
V
B
2
R
R
V
B
R
R
R
Figure 2.4
In each case, t he value of t he fixed br idge r esist or , R, is chosen t o be equal t o t he
nominal value of t he var iable r esist or (s). The deviat ion of t he var iable r esist or (s)
about t he nominal value is pr opor t ional t o t he quant it y being measur ed, such as
st r ain (in t he case of a st r ain gage) or t emper at ur e ( in t he case of an RTD).
The sensitivity of a br idge is t he r at io of t he maximum expect ed change in t he
out put volt age t o t he excit at ion volt age. For inst ance, if V
B
= 10V, and t he fullscale
br idge out put is 10mV, t hen t he sensit ivit y is 1mV/V.
The single-element varying br idge is most suit ed for t emper at ur e sensing using
RTDs or t her mist or s. This configur at ion is also used wit h a single r esist ive st r ain
gage. All t he r esist ances ar e nominally equal, but one of t hem (t he sensor ) is
var iable by an amount R. As t he equat ion indicat es, t he r elat ionship bet ween t he
br idge out put and R is not linear . For example, if R = 100 and R = 0.1 (0.1%
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.5
change in r esist ance), t he out put of t he br idge is 2.49875mV for V
B
= 10V. The
er r or is 2.50000mV 2.49875mV, or 0.00125mV. Conver t ing t his t o a % of fullscale
by dividing by 2.5mV yields an end-point linear it y er r or in per cent of appr oximat ely
0.05%. (Br idge end-point linear it y er r or is calculat ed as t he wor st er r or in % FS fr om
a st r aight line which connect s t he or igin and t he end point at FS, i.e. t he FS gain
er r or is not included). If R = 1, (1% change in r esist ance), t he out put of t he br idge
is 24.8756mV, r epr esent ing an end-point linear it y er r or of appr oximat ely 0.5%. The
end-point linear it y er r or of t he single-element br idge can be expr essed in equat ion
for m:
Single-Element Var ying
Br idge End-Point Linear it y Er r or % Change in Resist ance 2
It should be noted that the above nonlinearity refers to the nonlinearity of the bridge
itself and not the sensor. In pr act ice, most sensor s exhibit a cer t ain amount of t heir
own nonlinear it y which must be account ed for in t he final measur ement .
In some applicat ions, t he br idge nonlinear it y may be accept able, but t her e ar e
var ious met hods available t o linear ize br idges. Since t her e is a fixed r elat ionship
bet ween t he br idge r esist ance change and it s out put (shown in t he equat ions),
soft war e can be used t o r emove t he linear it y er r or in digit al syst ems. Cir cuit
t echniques can also be used t o linear ize t he br idge out put dir ect ly, and t hese will be
discussed shor t ly.
Ther e ar e t wo possibilit ies t o consider in t he case of t he t wo-element var ying br idge.
In t he fir st , Case (1), bot h element s change in t he same dir ect ion, such as t wo
ident ical st r ain gages mount ed adjacent t o each ot her wit h t heir axes in par allel.
The nonlinear it y is t he same as t hat of t he single-element var ying br idge, however
t he gain is t wice t hat of t he single-element var ying br idge. The t wo-element
var ying br idge is commonly found in pr essur e sensor s and flow met er syst ems.
A second configur at ion of t he t wo-element var ying br idge, Case (2), r equir es t wo
ident ical element s t hat var y in opposite dir ect ions. This could cor r espond t o t wo
ident ical st r ain gages: one mount ed on t op of a flexing sur face, and one on t he
bot t om. Not e t hat t his configur at ion is linear , and like t wo-element Case (1), has
t wice t he gain of t he single-element configur at ion. Anot her way t o view t his
configur at ion is t o consider t he t er ms R+R and RR as compr ising t he t wo
sect ions of a cent er -t apped pot ent iomet er .
The all-element varying br idge pr oduces t he most signal for a given r esist ance
change and is inher ent ly linear . It is an indust r y-st andar d configur at ion for load
cells which ar e const r uct ed fr om four ident ical st r ain gages.
Br idges may also be dr iven fr om const ant cur r ent sour ces as shown in Figur e 2.5.
Cur r ent dr ive, alt hough not as popular as volt age dr ive, has an advant age when t he
br idge is locat ed r emot ely fr om t he sour ce of excit at ion because t he wir ing r esist ance
does not int r oduce er r or s in t he measur ement . Not e also t hat wit h const ant cur r ent
excit at ion, all configur at ions ar e linear wit h t he except ion of t he single-element
var ying case.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.6
OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND LINEARITY ERROR FOR
CONSTANT CURRENT DRIVE BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS
R R
R R+ R
R+ R
R+ R R+ R R+ R
R R R+ R R R R R
R R R
V
O
V
O
V
O
V
O
I
B
I
B
I
B
I
B
V
O
:
Linearity
Error:
0.25%/% 0 0 0
I
B
R
4
R
R
4
R +
I
B
2
R
I
B
R
I
B
2
R
(A) Single-Element
Varying
(B) Two-Element
Varying (1)
(C) Two-Element
Varying (2)
(D) All-Element
Varying
R
Figure 2.5
In summar y, t her e ar e many design issues r elat ing t o br idge cir cuit s. Aft er select ing
t he basic configur at ion, t he excit at ion met hod must be det er mined. The value of t he
excit at ion volt age or cur r ent must fir st be det er mined. Recall t hat t he fullscale
br idge out put is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he excit at ion volt age (or cur r ent ). Typical
br idge sensit ivit es ar e 1mV/V t o 10mV/V. Alt hough lar ge excit at ion volt ages yield
pr opor t ionally lar ger fullscale out put volt ages, t hey also r esult in higher power
dissipat ion and t he possibilit y of sensor r esist or self-heat ing er r or s. On t he ot her
hand, low values of excit at ion volt age r equir e mor e gain in t he condit ioning cir cuit s
and incr ease t he sensit ivit y t o noise.
Regar dless of it s value, t he st abilit y of t he excit at ion volt age or cur r ent dir ect ly
affect s t he over all accur acy of t he br idge out put . St able r efer ences and/or r at iomet r ic
t echniques ar e r equir ed t o maint ain desir ed accur acy.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.7
BRIDGE CONSIDERATIONS
n Selecting Configuration (1, 2, 4 - Element Varying)
n Selection of Voltage or Current Excitation
n Stability of Excitation Voltage or Current
n Bridge Sensitivity: FS Output / Excitation Voltage
1mV / V to 10mV / V Typical
n Fullscale Bridge Outputs: 10mV - 100mV Typical
n Precision, Low Noise Amplification / Conditioning
Techniques Required
n Linearization Techniques May Be Required
n Remote Sensors Present Challenges
Figure 2.6
AMP LI FYI NG AND LI NEARI ZI NG BRI DGE OUTP UTS
The out put of a single-element var ying br idge may be amplified by a single pr ecision
op-amp connect ed in t he inver t ing mode as shown in Figur e 2.7. This cir cuit ,
alt hough simple, has poor gain accur acy and also unbalances t he br idge due t o
loading fr om R
F
and t he op amp bias cur r ent . The R
F
r esist or s must be car efully
chosen and mat ched t o maximize t he common mode r eject ion (CMR). Also it is
difficult t o maximize t he CMR while at t he same t ime allowing differ ent gain
opt ions. In addit ion, t he out put is nonlinear . The key r edeeming feat ur e of t he
cir cuit is t hat it is capable of single supply oper at ion and r equir es a single op amp.
Not e t hat t he R
F
r esist or connect ed t o t he non-inver t ing input is r et ur ned t o V
S
/2
(r at her t han gr ound) so t hat bot h posit ive and negat ive values of R can be
accommodat ed, and t he op amp out put is r efer enced t o V
S
/2.
A much bet t er appr oach is t o use an inst r ument at ion amplifier (in-amp) as shown in
Figur e 2.8. This efficient cir cuit pr ovides bet t er gain accur acy (usually set wit h a
single r esist or , R
G
) and does not unbalance t he br idge. Excellent common mode
r eject ion can be achieved wit h moder n in-amps. Due t o t he br idge's int r insic
char act er ist ics, t he out put is nonlinear , but t his can be cor r ect ed in t he soft war e
(assuming t hat t he in-amp out put is digit ized using an analog-t o-digit al conver t er
and followed by a micr ocont r oller or micr opr ocessor ). Inst r ument at ion amplifier s
such as t he AD620, AD623, and AD627 can be used in single supply applicat ions
pr ovided t he r est r ict ions on t he gain and input and out put volt age swings ar e
obser ved. (For a det ailed discussion of t hese impor t ant consider at ions, see Sect ion
3).
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.8
USING A SINGLE OP AMP AS A BRIDGE AMPLIFIER
FOR A SINGLE-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
V
B
+V
S
R R
R
R+ R
R
F
R
F
+

V
S
2
Figure 2.7
USING AN INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
WITH A SINGLE-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
V
B
R R
R
+

IN AMP
REF
V
OUT
R
G
+V
S
-V
S
* R+ R
* SEE TEXT REGARDING
SINGLE-SUPPLY OPERATION
V
B
4
R
R
2
R +
V
OUT
= GAIN
Figure 2.8
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.9
Var ious t echniques ar e available t o linear ize br idges, but it is impor t ant t o
dist inguish bet ween t he linear it y of t he br idge equat ion and t he linear it y of t he
sensor r esponse t o t he phenomenon being sensed. For example, if t he act ive element
is an RTD, t he br idge used t o implement t he measur ement might have per fect ly
adequat e linear it y; yet t he out put could st ill be nonlinear due t o t he RTD's
nonlinear it y. Manufact ur er s of sensor s employing br idges addr ess t he nonlinear it y
issue in a var iet y of ways, including keeping t he r esist ive swings in t he br idge small,
shaping compliment ar y nonlinear r esponse int o t he act ive element s of t he br idge,
using r esist ive t r ims for fir st -or der cor r ect ions, and ot her s.
Figur e 2.9 shows a single-element var ying act ive br idge in which an op amp
pr oduces a for ced null, by adding a volt age in ser ies wit h t he var iable ar m. That
volt age is equal in magnit ude and opposit e in polar it y t o t he incr ement al volt age
acr oss t he var ying element and is linear wit h R. Since it is an op amp out put , it
can be used as a low impedance out put point for t he br idge measur ement . This
act ive br idge has a gain of t wo over t he st andar d single-element var ying br idge, and
t he out put is linear , even for lar ge values of R. Because of t he small out put signal,
t his br idge must usually be followed by an second amplifier . The amplifier used in
t his cir cuit r equir es dual supplies because it s out put must go negat ive.
LINEARIZING A SINGLE-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
METHOD 1
V
B
R R
R
R+ R
+

+V
S
-V
S
V
OUT
V
B
R
R




1 1
] ]
1 1

2
Figure 2.9
Anot her cir cuit for linear izing a single-element var ying br idge is shown in Figur e
2.10. The bot t om of t he br idge is dr iven by an op amp, which maint ains a const ant
cur r ent in t he var ying r esist ance element . The out put signal is t aken fr om t he r ight -
hand leg of t he br idge and amplified by a non-inver t ing op amp. The out put is
linear , but t he cir cuit r equir es t wo op amps which must oper at e on dual supplies. In
addit ion, R1 and R2 must be mat ched for accur at e gain.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.10
LINEARIZING A SINGLE-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
METHOD 2
+

+V
S
-V
S
R
R+ R
R
R
+

+V
S
-V
S
V
B
R2
R1
V
OUT
V
OUT
V
B
R
R
R
R




1 1
] ]
1 1
+ +



1 1
] ]
1 1
2
1
2
1

Figure 2.10
A cir cuit for linear izing a volt age-dr iven t wo-element var ying br idge is shown in
Figur e 2.11. This cir cuit is similar t o Figur e 2.9 and has t wice t he sensit ivit y. A dual
supply op amp is r equir ed. Addit ional gain may be necessar y.
LINEARIZING A TWO-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
METHOD 1 (CONSTANT VOLTAGE DRIVE)
V
B
R
R
R+ R
+

+V
S
-V
S
V
OUT
V
B
R
R




1 1
] ]
1 1

R+ R
Figure 2.11
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.11
The t wo-element var ying br idge cir cuit in Figur e 2.12 uses an op amp, a sense
r esist or , and a volt age r efer ence t o maint ain a const ant cur r ent t hr ough t he br idge
(I
B
= V
REF
/R
SENSE
). The cur r ent t hr ough each leg of t he br idge r emains const ant
(I
B
/2) as t he r esist ances change, t her efor e t he out put is a linear funct ion of R. An
inst r ument at ion amplifier pr ovides t he addit ional gain. This cir cuit can be oper at ed
on a single supply wit h t he pr oper choice of amplifier s and signal levels.
LINEARIZING A TWO-ELEMENT VARYING BRIDGE
METHOD 2 (CONSTANT CURRENT DRIVE)
R
R
+

IN AMP
REF
V
OUT
R
G
+V
S
-V
S
*
R+ R
* SEE TEXT REGARDING
SINGLE-SUPPLY OPERATION
+

R+ R
+V
S
-V
S
*
V
REF
R
SENSE
I
B
I
B
V
OUT
=
I
B
R
2
GAIN
Figure 2.12
DRI VI NG BRI DGES
Wir ing r esist ance and noise pickup ar e t he biggest pr oblems associat ed wit h
r emot ely locat ed br idges. Figur e 2.13 shows a 350 st r ain gage which is connect ed
t o t he r est of t he br idge cir cuit by 100 feet of 30 gage t wist ed pair copper wir e. The
r esist ance of t he wir e at 25C is 0.105/ft , or 10.5 for 100ft . The t ot al lead
r esist ance in ser ies wit h t he 350 st r ain gage is t her efor e 21. The t emper at ur e
coefficient of t he copper wir e is 0.385%/C. Now we will calculat e t he gain and offset
er r or in t he br idge out put due t o a +10C t emper at ur e r ise in t he cable. These
calculat ions ar e easy t o make, because t he br idge out put volt age is simply t he
differ ence bet ween t he out put of t wo volt age divider s, each dr iven fr om a +10V
sour ce.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.12
ERRORS PRODUCED BY WIRING RESISTANCE
FOR REMOTE RESISTIVE BRIDGE SENSOR
+ -
0 23.45mV
(5.44mV 28.83mV)
V
O
350
350
350
R
COMP
21
350 353.5 FS
+10V
R
LEAD
10.5 ( (10.904) )
R
LEAD
10.5 ( (10.904) )
STRAIN GAGE
100 FEET, 30 GAGE COPPER WIRE = 10.5 @ 25 C
TC = 0.385%/ C
ASSUME +10 C TEMPERATURE CHANGE
NUMBERS IN ( ) ARE @ +35 C
OFFSET ERROR OVER TEMPERATURE = +23%FS
GAIN ERROR OVER TEMPERATURE = 0.26%FS
Figure 2.13
The fullscale var iat ion of t he st r ain gage r esist ance (wit h flex) above it s nominal
350 value is +1% (+3.5), cor r esponding t o a fullscale st r ain gage r esist ance of
353.5 which causes a br idge out put volt age of +23.45mV. Not ice t hat t he addit ion
of t he 21 R
COMP
r esist or compensat es for t he wir ing r esist ance and balances t he
br idge when t he st r ain gage r esist ance is 350. Wit hout R
COMP
, t he br idge would
have an out put offset volt age of 145.63mV for a nominal st r ain gage r esist ance of
350. This offset could be compensat ed for in soft war e just as easily, but for t his
example, we chose t o do it wit h R
COMP
.
Assume t hat t he cable t emper at ur e incr eases +10C above nominal r oom
t emper at ur e. This r esult s in a t ot al lead r esist ance incr ease of +0.404
(10.50.00385/C10C) in each lead. Note: The values in parentheses in the
diagram indicate the values at +35C. The t ot al addit ional lead r esist ance (of t he t wo
leads) is +0.808. Wit h no st r ain, t his addit ional lead r esist ance pr oduces an offset
of +5.44mV in t he br idge out put . Fullscale st r ain pr oduces a br idge out put of
+28.83mV (a change of +23.39mV fr om no st r ain). Thus t he incr ease in t emper at ur e
pr oduces an offset volt age er r or of +5.44mV (+23% fullscale) and a gain er r or of
0.06mV (23.39mV 23.45mV), or 0.26% fullscale. Not e t hat t hese er r or s ar e
pr oduced solely by t he 30 gage wir e, and do not include any t emper at ur e coefficient
er r or s in t he st r ain gage it self.
The effect s of wir ing r esist ance on t he br idge out put can be minimized by t he 3-wir e
connect ion shown in Figur e 2.14. We assume t hat t he br idge out put volt age is
measur ed by a high impedance device, t her efor e t her e is no cur r ent in t he sense
lead. Not e t hat t he sense lead measur es t he volt age out put of a divider : t he t op half
is t he br idge r esist or plus t he lead r esist ance, and t he bot t om half is st r ain gage
r esist ance plus t he lead r esist ance. The nominal sense volt age is t her efor e
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.13
independent of t he lead r esist ance. When t he st r ain gage r esist ance incr eases t o
fullscale (353.5), t he br idge out put incr eases t o +24.15mV.
Incr easing t he t emper at ur e t o +35C incr eases t he lead r esist ance by +0.404 in
each half of t he divider . The fullscale br idge out put volt age decr eases t o +24.13mV
because of t he small loss in sensit ivit y, but t her e is no offset er r or . The gain er r or
due t o t he t emper at ur e incr ease of +10C is t her efor e only 0.02mV, or 0.08% of
fullscale. Compar e t his t o t he +23% fullscale offset er r or and t he 0.26% gain er r or
for t he t wo-wir e connect ion shown in Figur e 2.13.
3-WIRE CONNECTION TO REMOTE
BRIDGE ELEMENT (SINGLE-ELEMENT VARYING)
+ -
0 24.15mV
(0 24.13mV)
V
O
350
350
350
350 353.5 FS
+10V
R
LEAD
10.5 ( (10.904) )
R
LEAD
10.5 ( (10.904) )
STRAIN GAGE
100 FEET, 30 GAGE COPPER WIRE = 10.5 @ 25 C
TC = 0.385%/ C
ASSUME +10 C TEMPERATURE CHANGE
NUMBERS IN ( ) ARE @ +35 C
OFFSET ERROR OVER TEMPERATURE = 0%FS
GAIN ERROR OVER TEMPERATURE = 0.08%FS
I = 0
Figure 2.14
The t hr ee-wir e met hod wor ks well for r emot ely locat ed r esist ive element s which
make up one leg of a single-element var ying br idge. However , all-element var ying
br idges gener ally ar e housed in a complet e assembly, as in t he case of a load cell.
When t hese br idges ar e r emot ely locat ed fr om t he condit ioning elect r onics, special
t echniques must be used t o maint ain accur acy.
Of par t icular concer n is maint aining t he accur acy and st abilit y of t he br idge
excit at ion volt age. The br idge out put is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he excit at ion
volt age, and any dr ift in t he excit at ion volt age pr oduces a cor r esponding dr ift in t he
out put volt age.
For t his r eason, most all-element var ying br idges (such as load cells) ar e six-lead
assemblies: t wo leads for t he br idge out put , t wo leads for t he br idge excit at ion, and
t wo sense leads. This met hod (called Kelvin or 4-wir e sensing) is shown in Figur e
2.15. The sense lines go t o high impedance op amp input s, t hus t her e is minimal
er r or due t o t he bias cur r ent induced volt age dr op acr oss t heir lead r esist ance. The
op amps maint ain t he r equir ed excit at ion volt age t o make t he volt age measur ed
bet ween t he sense leads always equal t o V
B
. Alt hough Kelvin sensing eliminat es
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.14
er r or s due t o volt age dr ops in t he wir ing r esist ance, t he dr ive volt ages must st ill be
highly st able since t hey dir ect ly affect t he br idge out put volt age. In addit ion, t he op
amps must have low offset , low dr ift , and low noise.
KELVIN (4-WIRE) SENSING MINIMIZES ERRORS
DUE TO LEAD RESISTANCE
6-LEAD
BRIDGE
R
LEAD
R
LEAD
+SENSE
SENSE
+FORCE
FORCE
+
+
+V
B

V
O
Figure 2.15
The const ant cur r ent excit at ion met hod shown in Figur e 2.16 is anot her met hod for
minimizing t he effect s of wir ing r esist ance on t he measur ement accur acy. However ,
t he accur acy of t he r efer ence, t he sense r esist or , and t he op amp all influence t he
over all accur acy.
A ver y power ful ratiometric t echnique which includes Kelvin sensing t o minimize
er r or s due t o wir ing r esist ance and also eliminat es t he need for an accur at e
excit at ion volt age is shown in Figur e 2.17. The AD7730 measur ement ADC can be
dr iven fr om a single supply volt age which is also used t o excit e t he r emot e br idge.
Bot h t he analog input and t he r efer ence input t o t he ADC ar e high impedance and
fully differ ent ial. By using t he + and SENSE out put s fr om t he br idge as t he
differ ent ial r efer ence t o t he ADC, t her e is no loss in measur ement accur acy if t he
act ual br idge excit at ion volt age var ies. The AD7730 is one of a family of sigma-delt a
ADCs wit h high r esolut ion (24 bit s) and int er nal pr ogr ammable gain amplifier s
(PGAs) and is ideally suit ed for br idge applicat ions. These ADCs have self- and
syst em calibr at ion feat ur es which allow offset and gain er r or s due t o t he ADC t o be
minimized. For inst ance, t he AD7730 has an offset dr ift of 5nV/C and a gain dr ift of
2ppm/C. Offset and gain er r or s can be r educed t o a few micr ovolt s using t he syst em
calibr at ion feat ur e. (A mor e det ailed discussion of t hese ADCs can be found in
Sect ion 8).
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.15
CONSTANT CURRENT EXCITATION
MINIMIZES WIRING RESISTANCE ERRORS
4-LEAD
BRIDGE
R
LEAD
+

R
LEAD
R
SENSE
V
REF
V
O
I
I
I
I =
V
REF
R
SENSE
Figure 2.16
DRIVING REMOTE BRIDGE USING KELVIN (4-WIRE)
SENSING AND RATIOMETRIC CONNECTION TO ADC
+5V
AV
DD
GND
+ A
IN
A
IN
+ V
REF
V
REF
R
LEAD
R
LEAD
6-LEAD
BRIDGE
AD7730
ADC
24 BITS
+SENSE
SENSE
V
O
+FORCE
FORCE
DV
DD
+5V/+3V
Figure 2.17
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.16
Maint aining an accur acy of 0.1% or bet t er wit h a fullscale br idge out put volt age of
20mV r equir es t hat t he sum of all offset er r or s be less t han 20V. Figur e 2.18 shows
some t ypical sour ces of offset er r or t hat ar e inevit able in a syst em. Par asit ic
t her mocouples whose junct ions ar e at differ ent t emper at ur es can gener at e volt ages
bet ween a few and t ens of micr ovolt s for a 1C t emper at ur e differ ent ial. The
diagr am shows a t ypical par asit ic junct ion for med bet ween t he copper pr int ed cir cuit
boar d t r aces and t he kovar pins of t he IC amplifier . This t her mocouple volt age is
about 35V/C t emper at ur e differ ent ial. The t her mocouple volt age is significant ly
less when using a plast ic package wit h a copper lead fr ame.
The amplifier offset volt age and bias cur r ent ar e ot her sour ces of offset er r or . The
amplifier bias cur r ent must flow t hr ough t he sour ce impedance. Any unbalance in
eit her t he sour ce r esist ances or t he bias cur r ent s pr oduce offset er r or s. In addit ion,
t he offset volt age and bias cur r ent s ar e a funct ion of t emper at ur e. High per for mance
low offset , low offset dr ift , low bias cur r ent , and low noise pr ecision amplifier s such
as t he OP177 or AD707 ar e r equir ed. In some cases, chopper -st abilized amplifier s
such as t he AD8551/AD8552/AD8554 may be t he only solut ion.
TYPICAL SOURCES OF OFFSET VOLTAGE
+ V
B
V
OS
V
O
+

T1
T2
COPPER
TRACES
KOVAR
PINS
I
B
+
I
B

THERMOCOUPLE VOLTAGE
35V/ C (T1 T2)
AMP
Figure 2.18
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.17
AC br idge excit at ion as shown in Figur e 2.19 can effect ively r emove offset volt ages
in ser ies wit h t he br idge out put . The concept is simple. The net br idge out put
volt age is measur ed under t wo condit ions as shown. The fir st measur ement yields a
measur ement V
A
, wher e V
A
is t he sum of t he desir ed br idge out put volt age V
O
and
t he net offset er r or volt age E
OS
. The polar it y of t he br idge excit at ion is r ever sed,
and a second measur ement V
B
is made. Subt r act ing V
B
fr om V
A
yields 2V
O
, and
t he offset er r or t er m E
OS
cancels as shown.
Obviously, t his t echnique r equir es a highly accur at e measur ement ADC (such as t he
AD7730) as well as a micr ocont r oller t o per for m t he subt r act ion. If a r at iomet r ic
r efer ence is desir ed, t he ADC must also accommodat e t he changing polar it y of t he
r efer ence volt age. Again, t he AD7730 includes t his capabilit y.
AC EXCITATION MINIMIZES OFFSET ERRORS
+ V
B
+ V
B
E
OS
E
OS
+
+
V
O
V
O
+

V
A
= V
O
+ E
OS
+
-
+

V
B
= V
O
+ E
OS
V
A
V
B
= (V
O
+ E
OS
) ( V
O
+ E
OS
) = 2 V
O
E
OS
= SUM OF ALL OFFSET ERRORS
REVERSE
DRIVE
VOLTAGES
NORMAL
DRIVE
VOLTAGES
Figure 2.19
P-Channel and N-Channel MOSFETs can be configur ed as an AC br idge dr iver as
shown in Figur e 2.20. Dedicat ed br idge dr iver chips ar e also available, such as t he
Micr el MIC4427. Not e t hat because of t he on-r esist ance of t he MOSFETs, Kelvin
sensing must be used in t hese applicat ions. It is also impor t ant t hat t he dr ive
signals be non-over lapping t o pr event excessive MOSFET swit ching cur r ent s. The
AD7730 ADC has on chip cir cuit r y t o gener at e t he r equir ed non-over lapping dr ive
signals for AC excit at ion.
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.18
SIMPLIFIED AC BRIDGE DRIVE CIRCUIT
+ V
B
V
O
+ V
B
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
+ SENSE
SENSE
V
3,4
V
1,2
V
1,2
V
3,4
Q1,Q2 ON Q1,Q2 ON
Q3,Q4 ON Q3,Q4 ON
Figure 2.20
BRI DGE CI RCUI TS
2.19
REFERENCES
1. Ramon Pallas-Ar eny and J ohn G. Webst er , Sen sor s a n d Si gn a l
Con d i t i on i n g, J ohn Wiley, New Yor k, 1991.
2. Dan Sheingold, Edit or , Tr a n sd u cer I n t er fa ci n g Ha n d b ook , Analog
Devices, Inc., 1980.
3. Walt Kest er , Edit or , 1992 Amp li fi er Ap p li ca t i on s Gu i d e, Sect ion 2, 3,
Analog Devices, Inc., 1992.
4. Walt Kest er , Edit or , Syst em Ap p li ca t i on s Gu i d e, Sect ion 1, 6, Analog
Devices, Inc., 1993.
5. AD7730 Dat a Sheet , Analog Devices, available at ht t p://www.analog.com.