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INTRODUCTION:Electricity is generated by thermal power, hydro power and nuclear power. At generating plants electricity is produced at low voltage. The generator terminal voltage is stepped up by power station transformer to higher voltage for transmission over long distances. For a given amount of power a high voltage reduces the current and thus resistive loss in conductor of wire. So transmission is done at high voltage. Now the voltage is continuously stepped down at transmission and distribution sub-stations .but due to capacitance and reactance OF conductor bars power is lost in form of reactive power. The load of substation is also variable. So continuous monitoring become essential. To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission system are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance for the customers.

TRANSMISSION

LINE

Transfer of electrical energy , from generating power plants to substations located near to population centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk substations and customers.
Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become high voltage transmission networks. y High-voltage transmission lines are used to transmit electric po wer over relatively long distances, usually from a central generating station to main substations. They are also used for electric power transmission from one central station to another for load sharing. High voltage (HV) transmission lines are made of hig h voltage overhead and underground conducting lines of either copper or aluminum. y One of the key concerns in transmission of electricity is power loss in transmission lines (called line loss or transmission loss), dissipated as heat due to the resistance of the conductors. The smaller the surface area of the conductors, the smaller the loss to heat dissipation. High voltages require less surface area, resulting in reduced line loss. With high -voltage lines, the voltage can be stepped up at the generating station, transmitted through the transmission grid to a load center, and there stepped down to the lower voltages required by distribution lines.

BULK POWER TRANSMISSION

A transmission substation decreases the voltage of incoming electricity, allowing it to connect from long distance high voltage transmission, to local lower voltage distribution. It also reroutes power to other transmission lines that serve local

markets. A transmission substation may include phase -shifting or voltage regulating transformers. 1. Transmission efficiency is improved by using step-up transformer, which reduces the current in the conductors, while keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the power input. The reduced current flowing through the line reduces the losses in the conductor. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current (amperage) by a factor of 2 will lower the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of 4. 2. A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for partic ular projects.

* Grid input
At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between

about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by country) for transmission over long distances.

* Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces th e current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross -sectional area) is reduced 10-fold to match the lower current the losses are still reduced 10-fold. Long distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase conductors can be significant. The currents that flow in these components of the circuit impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current flow causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive

current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high power factors.

Transmission grid exit

At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 kV to 115 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage (varying by country and customer requirements .

High-voltage direct current

High voltage direct current (HVDC) is u sed to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is required to be transmitted over very long distances, it is more economical to transmit using direct current instead of alternating current. For a long transmission line, the lower losses and reduced constructi on cost of a DC line can offset the additional cost of converter stations at each end. Also, at high AC voltages, significant (although economically acceptable) amounts of energy are lost due to corona discharge, the capacitance between phases or, in the case of buried cables, between phases and the soil or water in which the cable is buried.

* Limitations
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The origins of the limits vary depending on the length of the l ine. For a short line, the heating of conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may be damaged by overheating. For intermediate-length lines on the order of 100 km (62 mi), the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line. For longer AC lines, system stability sets the limit to the power that can be transferred. A solution for overhead lines is also available. In this case the optical fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire of overhead transmission lines (OPPC). The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR) or also called Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution enables not only to continuously monitor the temperature of a high voltage cable circuit in real time, but to safely utilize the existing network capacity to

its maximum. Furthermore it provides the ability to the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system upon major changes made to its initial operating conditions.

* Control
To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission system are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance for the customers.

Failure protection
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully rather than all at once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below the demand. Blackouts occur when the supply fails completely. Rolling blackouts, or load shedding, are intentionally -engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for electricity exceeds the supply.

ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION:An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission and distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to low or the reverse using transformers. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps.

Image of an electrical substation

substations are used for some or all of the following purposes:

1. connection of generators, transmission or distribution lines, and loa ds to each other; 2. transformation of power from one voltage level to another; 3. interconnection of alternate sources of power; switching for alternate connections and isolation of failed or overloaded lines and equipment; 4. controlling system voltage and pow er flow; reactive power compensation; suppression of overvoltage; and detection of faults, monitoring, recording of information, power measurements, and remote communications .

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION:Substations are referred to by the main duty they perform. Broadly speaking, they are classified as:

Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage control devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAr compensator and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow

Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub transmission lines. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets, in a city) and eventually power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises. Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.

Substations are also referred to in a variety of other ways:

Transformer substations are substations whose equipment includes

transformers.

Switching substations are substations whose equipment is mainly for various

connections and interconnections, and does not include transformers.

Customer substations are usually distribution substations on the premis es of a

larger customer, such as a shopping center, large office or commercial building, or industrial plant.

Converter stations are complex substations required for high -voltage directcurrent (HVDC) transmission or interconnection of two ac systems which, for a variety of reasons, cannot be connected by an ac connection. The main function of converter stations is the conversion of power from ac to dc and vice versa. The main equipment includes converter valves usually located inside a large hall, transformers, filters, reactors, and capacitors. Most substations are installed as air -insulated substations, implying that the bus-bars and equipment terminations are generally open to the air, and utilize insulation properties of ambient air for insulation to ground.

A substation includes a variety of equipment.

The principal items are

1..transformers,
2.circuit breakers, 3.disconnect switches, 4.bus-bars, shunt reactors, 5.shunt capacitors, 6. current and potential transformers, and 7.control and protection equipment.

132 KV/33KV SUB-STATION RUABANDHA

This substation is taking input from 220KV S/S Bhilai. It has 9 feeders of 33 KV output Respectively:1. NEHRU NAGAR 2. JAWAHAR NAGAR. 3. PULGAON. 4. BORSI 5. DURG 6. CIVIL LINE 7. UTAI 8. BAGHERA 9. RUABANDHA And two feeder of 132KV OUTPUT 1. GUNDERDEHI 2. J.P.CEMENT

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TRANSFORMER

Step-down power transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils without changing it s frequency .

principle
The transformer is based on two principles: y firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) secondly ,that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil ( electromagnetic induction). y Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. y A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. y If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding ( V S) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary ( NP) as follows:

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By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP.

Detailed operation
The simplified descript ion above neglects several practical factors, in particular 1. the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, an d 2. the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. y Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance. y When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have nea r-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. y The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages V P and V S measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the " back EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

Energy losses

. An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be

100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures.

. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and th ose rated for electricity
distribution usually perform better than 98% .

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The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no -load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no -load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, whic h encourages development of low loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer).] Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance
y Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

Hysteresis losses
y Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Eddy currents
y Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. [39]

Magnetostriction
y Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers, and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores.

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Mechanical losses
y In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half -cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat .There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.

Construction
1. Cores Laminated steel cores

. Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of
high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free space, and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current, and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.

. Cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and
their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation.

. The effect of laminations is to conf ine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that
enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses,
]

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t are re a orio s and e ensive to constr ct. T in aminations are enerally used on igh fre uency transformers ith some ty es of very thin steel laminations a le to operate up to 10 H .

y Ai
A physical core is not an a solute re uisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the indings in close proximity to each other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. The air hich comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. The leakage inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution. They have however very high bandwidth, and are fre uently employed in radio-fre uency applications,

2 Wi

"

"



 

in tin th co

greatl reduces edd -current losses



  

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The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire , such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil -impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.

3.coolant

Cut-away view of three-phase oil-cooled transformer. The oil reservoir is visible at the top. Radiative fins aid the dissipation of heat. y High temperatures will damage the winding insulation . Small transformers do not generate significant heat and are cooled by air circulation and radiation of heat. y Power transformers rated up to several hundred kVA can be adequately cooled by natural convective air-cooling, sometimes assisted by fans . In larger transformers, part of the design prob lem is removal of heat. y Some power transformers are immersed in transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings. The oil is a highly refined mineral oil that remains stable at transformer operating temperature. Indoor liquid-filled transformers must use a non-flammable liquid, or must be located in fire resistant rooms . Air-cooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at

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capacity ratings where oil-cooled construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building construction cost. y The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection; some large transformers employ forced circulation of the oil by electric pumps, aided by external fans or wate r-cooled heat exchangers.[ y Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use . Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire -resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault.

Terminals
Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high -voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil. ]

Applications
1. A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economic transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand . 2. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.

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CURRENT TRANSFORMER

A CT for operation on a 110 kV grid In electrical engineering , a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measurin g instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.
DESIGN

y Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces current flow in the secondary winding circuit. y A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. y The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped man y times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window -type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single -turn primary winding. When

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conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur. y High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT wind ow.

RATING
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 400 0 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy. Usage y Current transformers are used extensively for measu ring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. y Along with voltage leads, revenue -grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watt hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service, and every residence with greater than 200 amp service. Safety precautions Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently

BURDEN
The most common source of excess burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. O ften, substation meters are located significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge

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conductor creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by using CT with 1 ampere secondaries which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices (used for remote measurement).

HOW DO POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS WORK?

The Task of Measuring Voltage y In the world of electricity, the typical measurement is that of voltage. A volt meter will measure the voltage, usually within a range of up to hundreds of volts. In the power industry, the transmission of electricity occurs at thousands and tens of thousa nds of volts. This would destroy nearly all typical voltmeters. How then, do technicians measure the high voltages they encounter every day? The trick is to use a potential transformer. y The potential transformer works along the same principle of other transformers. It converts voltages from high to low. It will take the thousands of volts behind power transmission systems and step the voltage down to something that meters can handle. These transformers work for single and three phase systems, and are attac hed at a point where it is convenient to measure the voltage. The biggest feature that a potential transformer has over regular transformers is that the voltage conversion is constant and linear. That is to say, if the first day of operation 50,000 volts is stepped to 50 volts, then on the last day of operation 50,000 steps to 50 volts. Linearity states that when the voltage drops in a linear fashion, then the stepped down voltage drops accordingly. This features ensures that the meter will scale accordingly. The potential transformer makes the measure of very high voltages much more easier.

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ISOLATORS
The present invention relates to electrical isolators. It is commonly required to isolate two parts of an electrical circuit from each other, that is to say to avoid any direct electrical connection between the isolated parts, whilst still providing means for the transmission of signals from one part to the other. Such isolating transmission means are commonly called electrical isolators and commonly utilize a transformer in which the primary and secondary windings are connected respectively to the two isol ated parts of the circuit. Some types of isolators include:
y y y

Horizontal Isolation types Vertical Isolation types Moving Bushing types

CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance u p to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

Operation
y All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; y in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large curre nts or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually

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energized by a separate battery, although some high -voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. y Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically -stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy require d may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. y The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. y Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high voltage circuit breakers have repla ceable contacts. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit.

High-voltage circuit breakers

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers

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are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protection relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.
y y y y y

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , AREVA, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Kon ar HVS, BHEL, CGL.

LIGHTNING ARRESTERS

Lightning arresters are protective devices for limiting surge voltages due to lightning strikes or equipment faults or other events, to prevent damage to equipment and disruption of service. Also called surge arresters. Lightning arresters are installed on many different pieces of equipment such as power poles and towers, power transformers, circuit breakers, bus structures, and steel superstructures in substations. when ever the lightening occurs, there is a voltage around some thousands of voltage appear on line (3500V to 5000V) for a fraction of seconds(25 to 30micro sec.s) which is more than enough to damage all the equipment in the grid

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connected to it so when a li htening arrester is connected then is provides low resistance path such that all that high voltage is directed towards the earth resulting the protection of all the equipments connected to the grid.

How does wave trap works i a substation

Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote su station and diverting them to the telecom/teleprotection panel in the su station control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU . This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication among various su stations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals are primarily teleprotection signals and in addition, voice and data communication signals The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation busbars. If there were not to be there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible

CAPACITOR BANK

A capacitor bank is generally composed of several single-phase or three-phase unit capacitors assembled and interconnected to produce high power assemblies called "capacitor banks".

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in electricity , to improve the power factor we have to install capacitor bank in some substation . As the load and it s KVAR is variable .capacitor bank adjust itself instantly according to load requirement. if one is to obtain a uniform &'set' p.f. all along. This is best achieved by an automatic control that switches in & out, segments of a designed capacitor bank. A control panel serving this purpose is called on APFC panel or Automatic Power Factor Controlling panel. It controls the load power factor by sensing various available

BATTERY ROOM IN SUBSTATION

y A battery room is a room in a facility used to house batteries for large-scale custom-built backup or uninterruptible power systems providing electric power for telecommunication . y the batteries provide direct current (dc) electricity primarily for uninterruptible power supply (ups) equipment, which in turn provides continuous, uninterrupted alternating current (ac) power for the facility. the batteries may provide power for minutes, hours or days depending on the electrical system design, although most commonly the batteries power the ups during brief electric u tility outages lasting only seconds. y electrical utilities y battery rooms are also found in electric power plants and substations where reliable power is required for operation of switchgear, critical standby systems, and possibly black start of the station. y often batteries for large switchgear line -ups are 125 v or 250 v nominal systems, and feature redundant battery chargers with independent power sources. y for stations that are capable of black start, power from the battery system may be required for many purposes including switchgear operation .

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Safety precaution y Separate battery rooms may be provided to protect against loss of the
station due to a fire in a battery bank.

y Good substation grounding is very important for effective relaying and

insulation of equipment; but the safety of the personnel is the governing criterion in the design of substation grounding. It usually consists of a bare wire grid, laid in the ground; all equipment grounding points, tanks, support structures, fences, shielding wires and poles, and so forth, are securely connected to it.

y The grounding resistance is reduced enough that a fault from high voltage to y Good overhead shielding is also essential for outdoor substations, so as to
virtually eliminate the possibility of lightning directly striking the equipment. Shielding is provided by overhead ground wires stretched across the substation or tall grounded poles.

ground does not create such high potential g radients on the ground, and from the structures to ground, to present a safety hazard.

y Floor of substation should be properly covered with coarse aggregate to avoid

the chances of electricity flow in rainy season.