MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Blasting down a track in a dragster is an exhilarating example of straight-line motion, but what exactly, besides the noise, thrills the driver?

16

CHAPTER

MOTION

ALONG

A STRAIGHT

LINE

2-1 MOTION
Negative direction

+----...
-1 0 Origin.J

Positive direction

The world, and everything in it, moves. Even seemingly stationary things, such as a roadway, move with the Earth's rotation, the Earth's orbit around the sun, the sun's orbit around the center of the Milky Way, and the galaxy's migration relative to other galaxies. The classification and comparison of motions (called kinematics) are often challenging. What exactly do you measure, and how do you compare? Here are two examples of motion. In 1977, Kitty O'Neil set records for "terminal speed" and "elapsed time" for a dragster on a 440-yd run. From a standstill, she reached 392.54 mi/h (about 632.1 km/h) in a sizzling time of 3.72 s. In 1958, Eli Beeding, Jr. rode a rocket sled when it was shot along a track from a standstill to a speed of 72.5 mi/h (= 117 km/h) in the fantastic time of 0.04 s (less than the blink of an eye). How can we compare the two motions to see which must have been the more thrilling (or more frightening) - by final speeds, by elapsed time, or by some other quantity? Before we attempt an answer, we first examine some general properties of motion that is restricted in three ways. 1. The motion is along a straight line only. The line may be vertical (a falling stone), horizontal (a car on a level highway), or slanted, but it must be straight. 2. The cause of the motion will not be specified until Chapter 5. In this chapter you study only the motion itself. Does the object speed up, slow down, stop, or reverse direction; and, if the motion does change, how is time involved in the change? 3. The moving object is either a particle (a pointlike object such as an electron) or an object that moves like a particle (every portion moves in the same direction and at the same rate). A pig slipping down a straight playground slide might be considered to be moving like a particle; however, a rotating playground merry-go-round would not because different points around its rim move in different directions.

-3

-2

FlGURE 21 Position is determined on an axis that is marked in units of length and that extends indefinitely in opposite directions.

positive direction of the axis is in the direction of increasing numbers, which is toward the right as the figure is drawn. The opposite direction is the negative direction. For example, a particle might be located at x = 5 m, which means that it is 5 m in the positive direction from the origin. Were it at x = - 5 m, it would be just as far from the origin but in the opposite direction. A change from one position Xl to another position x2 is called displacement Ilx, where (2-1) (The symbol 11, which represents a change in a quantity, means that the initial value of that quantity is to be subtracted from the final value.) When numbers are inserted for the position values, a displacement in the positive direction (toward the right in Fig. 2-1) always comes out positive, and one in the opposite direction (left in the figure) negative. For example, if the particle moves from Xl = 5 m to X2 = 12 m, then Ilx = (12 m) - (5 m) = + 7 m. The plus sign indicates that the motion is in the positive direction. If we ignore the sign (and thus the direction), we have the magnitude of Ilx, which is 7 m. If the particle then returns to X = 5 m, the displacement for the full trip is zero. The actual number of meters covered is immaterial; displacement involves only the original and final positions. Displacement is an example of a vector quantity, which is a quantity that has both a direction and a magnitude. We explore vectors more fully in Chapter 3 (in fact, some of you may have already read that chapter), but here all we need is the idea that displacement has two features: (1) its magnitude is the distance (such as the number of meters) between the original and final positions, and (2) its direction on an axis, from an original position to a final position, is represented by a plus or minus sign.

2-2 POSITION

AND DISPLACEMENT

To locate an object means to find its position relative to some reference point, often the origin (or zero point) of an axis such as the x axis in Fig. 2-1. The

2-3 AVERAGE

VELOCITY

AND AVERAGE

SPEED

17

2-3 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED

A compact way to describe position is with a graph of position x plotted as a function of time t-a graph of x( t). As a simple example, Fig . 2-2 shows x( t) for a jack rabbit (which we treat as a particle) that is stationary at x = - 2 m. Figure 2-3a, also for a rabbit, is more interesting, because it involves motion. The rabbit is apparently first noticed at t = 0 when it is at the position x = - 5 m. It moves toward x = 0, passes through

!------+---+-+-!-----!-----!----

t (s)

If a member of this troupe were now to march back to where she started, her average velocity would be zero, because her net displacement would then be zero.

FIGURE 2-2 The graph of x( t) for a jack rabbit that is stationary at x = - 2 m. The value of x is - 2 m for all times t.

that point at t = 3 s, and then moves on to increasingly larger positive values of x. Figure 2-3b depicts the actual motion of the rabbit and is something like what you would see. The graph is more abstract and quite unlike what you see, but it is richer in information. It also reveals how fast the rabbit moves. Several quantities are associated with the phrase "how fast." One of them is the average velocity V, which is the ratio of the displacement Lix that occurs during a particular time interval Lit to that interval:*

I---+----:+---+--+-~~-+_-----' (s) t (2-2)

(a)

~k ,ji!, ~,/}~> ~;"---------""~;:,,,~,.~(-"--~:,,,;,?;x (m)

0
3 (b)

2
4 Time t (s)

On a graph of x versus t, is the slope of the straight line that connects two points on the x(t) curve: one point corresponds to X2 and t2, and the other point corresponds to Xl and t1. Like displacement, has both magnitude and direction. (Average velocity is another example of a vector quantity.) Its magnitude is the magnitude of the line's slope. A positive v (and slope) tells us that the line slants upward toward the right; a negative (and slope), that the line slants upward to the left. The average velocity always has the same sign as the displacement because Lit is a positive number.

FIGURE 2-3 (a) The graph of x(t) for a moving jack rabbit. (b) The path associated with the graph. The scale below the x axis shows the times at which the rabbit reaches various x values.

*In this book, a bar over a symbol usually means an average value of the quantity that the symbol represents.

18

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Gas station Stalled

7 61----t---

FIGURE 2-4
t

1 sand

Calculations 4 s.

of average velocity

between

FIGURE 2-5 Sample Problem 2-1. The lines marked

"Driving" and "Walking" are the position-time plots for the driver-walker in Sample Problem 2-1. The slope of the straight line joining the origin and point P is the average velocity for the trip.

Figure 2-4 shows the calculation of for the rabbit of Fig. 2-3 for the time interval t = 1 s to t = 4 s. The average velocity during that time interval is = + 6 m/3 s = + 2 mz's, which is the slope of the straight line that connects the point on the curve at the beginning of the interval with the point on the curve at the end of the interval.

Finally, we insert !:!.x and !:!.t into Eq. 2-2:

_
v

=-

!:!.x 6.4 mi = --"" + 11 mi/h. !:!.t 0.571 h

(Answer)

To find graphically, we must first plot x( t), as in Fig. 2-5 where the start and finish points on the curve are the origin and P, respectively. Your average velocity is the slope of the straight line connecting those points. The dashed lines show that the slope also gives = 6.4 mi/0.57 h = + 11 mi/h.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-1

You drive a beat-up pickup truck down a straight road for 5.2 mi at 43 mi/h, at which point you run out of fuel. You walk 1.2 mi farther, to the nearest gas station, in 27 min (= 0.450 h). What is your average velocity from the time that you started your truck to the time that you arrived at the station? Find the answer both numerically and graphically.
SOLUTION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2-2

Suppose that you next carry the fuel back to the truck, making the return trip in 35 min. What is your average velocity for the full journey, from the start of your driving to your arrival back at the truck with the fuel?
SOLUTION

To calculate

v we need

your displacement

!:!.x, from start to finish, and the elapsed time !:!.t. Assume, for convenience, that your starting point is at the origin of an x axis (so Xl = 0) and that you move in the positive direction. You end up at X2 = 5.2 mi + 1.2 mi = + 6.4 mi, and so, !:!.x = X2 - Xl = + 6.4 mi. To get the driving time, we rearrange Eq. 2-2 and insert the data about the driving:

!:!.t =

-=- =
v

!:!.x

5.2 mi 43 mi/h

0.121 h.

As previously, we must find your displacement !:!.x from start to finish and then divide it by the time interval Az between start and finish. In this problem, however, the finish is back at the truck. You started at Xl = O. Back at the truck you are at position X2 = 5.2 mi. And so !:!.X is 5.2 - 0 = 5.2 mi. The total time !:!.t you take in going from start to finish is

So the total time, start to finish, is

!:!.t =

5.2 mi 43 mi/h 0.121 h

27 min h

+ +

35 min 0.583 h

!:!.t

0.121 h

0.450 h

0.571 h.

+ 0.450

l.l5 h.

-----------------------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2-3 AVERAGEVELOCITY AND AVERAGESPEED

19

So
_ Llx 5.2 mi v = A = -5 h ut 1.1

= + 4.5

mi /h.

(Answer)

This is slower than the average velocity computed in Sample Problem 2-1 because here the displacement is smaller and the time interval longer.

2-2, the given data allow you to find your net displacement Llx and the corresponding time interval Llt.) Identify the unknown and its symbol. (In these sample problems, the unknown is your average velocity, symbol v.) Then find the connection between the unknown and the data. (The connection is Eq. 2-2, the definition of average velocity.) TACTIC 3: WATCH THE UNITS Be sure to use a consistent set of units when putting numbers into the equations. In Sample Problems 2-1 and 2-2, which involve a truck, the logical units in terms of the given data are miles for distances, hours for time intervals, and miles per hour for velocities. You may need to make conversions. TACTIC 4: THINK ABOUT YOUR ANSWER Look at your answer and ask yourself whether it makes sense. Is it far too large or far too small? Is the sign correct? Are the units appropriate? In Sample Problem 2-1, for example, the correct answer is 11 miz'h. If you find 0.00011 miz h, -11 miz h, 11 mils, or 11,000 mil h, you should realize at once that you have done something wrong. The error may lie in your method, in your algebra, or in your arithmetic. Check the problem carefully, being sure to start at the very beginning. In Sample Problem 2-1, your answer must be greater than your speed of walking (2-3 mi/h) but less than the speed of the truck (43 miz'h). Finally, the answer to Sample Problem 2-2 must be less than that to Sample Problem 2-1 for two reasons: the displacement's magnitude is smaller in 2-2 and the time required is longer. TACTIC 5: READING A GRAPH Figures 2-2, 2-3a, 2-4, and 2-5 are examples of graphs that you should be able to read easily. In each graph, the variable on the horizontal axis is the time t, the direction of increasing time being to the right. In each, the variable on the vertical axis is the position x of the moving particle with respect to the origin, the direction of increasing x being upward. Always note the units (seconds or minutes; meters, kilometers, or miles) in which the variables are expressed, and note whether the variables are positive or negative. TACTIC 6: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES If you were going to divide 137 jelly beans among 3 people, you would not think of giving each person exactly 137/3 or 45.66666666 ... beans. You would give each person 45 beans and draw straws to see who would not get one of the remaining two. We need to develop that same kind of common sense in dealing with numerical calculations in physics. In Sample Problem 2-1, for example, if you calculate the average velocity with your calculator wide open, you get = 11.20840631 miy'h. This number has 10

Average speed
"how fast" a particle

s is a different

way of describing moves. Whereas average veloc-

ity involves the particle's displacement age speed involves the total distance example, the number of meters run), of direction. That is, total distance

,lx, the avercovered (for independent

s=

,It

(2-3)

Average speed also differs from that it does not include direction

average velocity in and thus lacks any

algebraic sign. Sometimes is the same (except for the absence of a sign) as But, as demonstrated in Sample Problem 2-3, when an object doubles back on its path, the results can be quite different.

v.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-3

In Sample Problem 2-2, what is your average speed? SOLUTION From the beginning of your drive to your return to the truck with the fuel, you covered a total of 5.2 mi + 1.2 mi + 1.2 mi = 7.6 mi, taking 1.15 h, and so _ 7.6 mi s = -1.15 h

6.6 mi /h.

(Answer)

PROBLEM SOLVING

--'M,.....-TACTIC 1: READ THE PROBLEM CAREFULLY For beginning problem solvers, no difficulty is more common than simply not understanding the problem. The best test of understanding is this: Can you explain the problem, in your own words, to a friend? Give it a try. TACTIC 2: UNDERSTAND WHAT IS GIVEN AND WHAT IS REQUESTED Write down the given data, with units, using the symbols of the chapter. (In Sample Problems 2-1 and

20

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

significant figures. The original data in the problem have only tw.osignificant figures.

In general, no final result should have more significant figures than the original data from which it was derived. If multiple steps of calculation are involved , you should retain more significant figures than the original data have. However, when you come to the final result, you should round off according to the original data with the least significant figures. We did that in Sample Problem 2-1 to get 11 = 11 mi/h. (Hereafter, the answer to a sample problem might be presented with the symbol = instead of =, but rounding off may still be involved.) It is hard to escape the feeling that you are throwing away good data when you round off in this way but, in fact, you are doing the opposite; you are throwing away useless and misleading numbers. You may be able to set your calculator to do this rounding for you. Regardless of how you set it, your calculator continues to compute wide open internally, displaying only the rounded result that you ask it to show you. When a number such as 3.15 or 3.15 X 103 is provided in a problem, the number of significant figures is apparent. But how about the number 3000? Is it known to only one significant figure (it could be written as 3 X 103)? Or is it known to as many as four significant figures (it could be written as 3.000 X 103)? In this book, we assume that all the zeros in such provided numbers as 3000 are significant, but you had better not make that assumption elsewhere.

TACTIC 7: SIGNIFICANTFIGURESAND DECIMALPLACES Don't confuse these. Consider the lengths 35.6 m, 3.56 m, 0.356 m, and 0.00356 m. They all have three significant figures but, in sequence, they have one, two, three, and five decimal places.

2-4 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

You have now seen two ways to describe how fast something moves: average velocity and average speed, both of which are measured over a time interval Az. But the phrase "how fast" more commonly refers to how fast a particle is moving at a given instant-its instantaneous velocity v (or simply velocity) . The velocity at any instant is obtained from the average velocity by shrinking the time interval I:lt closer and closer to O. As I:lt dwindles, the average velocity approaches a limiting value, which is the velocity at that instant: I:lx
-=-

v=

lim
tit->O

dx dt

I:lt

(2-4)

Velocity is another vector and thus has an associated direction. Table 2-1 shows an example of the limiting process. The first column gives the position x of a parti-

TABLE 2-1 THE LIMITING PROCESS BEGINNING POINT

XI

ENDPOINT
"2

INTERVALS

VELOCITY

(m) 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

tl (s)

(m)

o (s)
3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.200 1.100 1.050 1.040 1.030

L1x (m)
4.00 3.75 3.00 1.75 0.760 0.388 0.196 0.158 0.119

L1t (s)
2.00 1.50 1.00 .!2
.;::
<=:

L1x/ L1t (m/s)

+ 2.0 +2.5 + 3.0 +3.5 +3.8 + 3.9 +3.9 +4.0 +4.0

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

9.00 8.75 8.00 6.75 5.760 5.388 5.196 5.158 5.119

il

<i

0.50 0.200 0.100 0.050 0.040 0.030

a limiting value has been reached

2-4 INSTANTANEOUS

VELOCITY

AND SPEED

21

cle at t = 1 s, which is when a time interval D..t begins. The third and fourth columns give the values of x and t at the end of D..t. And the fifth and sixth columns give the displacement D..x and the interval D..t (which we are shrinking). As D..t shrinks, (= D..x/ D..t, in the last column) gradually changes until it reaches a limiting value of + 4.0 m/s. That value is the instantaneous velocity vat t = 1 s. In the language of calculus, the instantaneous velocity is the rate at which a particle's position x is changing with time at a given instant. According to Eq. 2-4, the velocity of a particle at any instant is the slope of its position curve at the point representing that instant. Speed is the magnitude of a velocity; that is, speed is velocity that has been stripped of any indication of direction, either in words or via an algebraic sign.* A velocity of + 5 m/s and one of - 5 m/ s both have an associated speed of 5 m/ s. The speedometer in a car measures the speed, not the velocity, because it cannot ascertain anything about the direction of motion.

25'----~~--~---4---X~=~2~4+m--~,i ... at t=8.0s V ; ~ 20 -I

Ii

~---6II_c~~~~-=-~a:
-:-ct:,.-x-+----l

15

~ 10

:---+---1 ::"i'J/tb+-+~-+-j---+---1,
_ x- 4.0 m

I !

II~l'Vi:
,
"I

!I /(

x~r'\ ~

345

6 Time (8) (a)

4
<,

5
c0

"'

3 2

'0

I---+--+il ,-- I
,/\' I
a 0 ,

s:
.
!

Slope of x(t)

~
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2-4
0

+-+-7-\+-1I , j,--f---1-- Iii I v

i ;

1j

1\

I\ ~
I

u
~

!\ 345

d t

Figure 2-6a is an x(t) plot for an elevator cab that is initially stationary, then moves upward (which we take to be the positive direction), and then stops. Plot v(t) as a function of time. The slope, and so also the velocity, is zero in the intervals containing points a and d, when the cab is stationary. During the interval be the cab moves with a constant velocity, arid the slope of x(t) is
SOLUTION v=-= ~

Time (s) Slope of v(t)

a (b)

3_Acc~~e~ra~ti~~'~ln~4- + __ +_'__
2 0 a ' '\

~_.

"_. .
c

II

v
v

1~--l~-+---I----l-~+---~--~-+---+--~

aCt)

d,

'~ -1

2
-f

19
1

OJ -2 ~---!---+-4 I

ilx ilt

24 m - 4.0 m 8.0 s - 3.0 s

=

+4.0m/s.

< -31---+------+---- t. +1+1,,,+,---+I

1----1---+

Decele :ationl---.-/

The plus sign indicates that the cab is moving in the positive x direction. These values are plotted in Fig. 2-6b. In addition, as the cab initially begins to move and then later slows to a stop, v varies as indicated in the intervals 1 s to 3 sand 8 s to 9 s. (Figure 2-6e is considered later.) Given a v(t) graph such as Fig. 2-6b, we could "work backward" to produce the shape of the associated x(t) graph (Fig. 2-6a). However, without additional information, we would not know the actual

(c)

FIGURE 2-6 Sample Problem 2-4. (a) The x(t) curve for an elevator cab that moves upward along an x axis. (b) The v(t) curve for the cab. Note that it is the derivative of the x( t) curve (v = dx/ dt). (c) The a(t) curve for the cab, It is the derivative of the v(t) curve (a = dv/ dt). The sketches suggest how a passenger's body might respond to the accelerations.

*Speed and average speed can be quite different, so you must be careful solving problems that involveeither quantity.

22

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

values for x, because the v( t) graph indicates only changes in x. To find the change in x during any interval, we must, in the language of calculus, calculate the area "under the curve" on the v(t) graph for the same interval. For example, during the interval in which the cab has a velocity of 4.0 ml s, the change in x is given by the "area" under the v(t) curve: area = (4.0 mls)(8.0 s - 3.0 s) =

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-5

The position of a particle moving on the x axis is given by x = 7.8

9.2t - 2.1t3.

(2-5)

+ 20

m.

What is its velocity at t = 3.5 s? Is the velocity constant, or is it continuously changing? SOLUTION For simplicity, the units have been omitted but you can insert them if you like by changing the coefficients to 7.8 m, 9.2 rn/s, and - 2.1 m/s3. To solve the problem, we use Eq. 2-4 with the right side of Eq. 2-5 substituted for x: dx d v = - = - (7.8 dt dt which becomes

(This area is positive because the v(t) curve is above the t axis.) Figure 2-6a shows that x does indeed increase by 20 m in the interval.

+ 9.2t

- 2.1t3),

The instantaneous velocity of one of these speedboats is its velocity at the instant the photograph was taken. The boat may have had a different instantaneous velocity before or after that instan t.

v =0 At t = 3.5 s,

9.2 - (3) (2.1) t2 = 9.2 - 6.3t2

(2-6)

v = 9.2 - (6.3) (3.5)2 = - 68 m/s.

(Answer)

At t = 3.5 s, the particle is moving toward decreasing x (note the minus sign) with a speed of 68 m/s. Since the quantity t appears in Eq. 2-6, the velocity v depends on t and so is continuously changing.

PROBLEM SOLVING

--t...N\...--TACTIC 8: NEGATIVENUMBERS The line below is an x axis with its origin (x = 0) at the center. Using this scale, make sure you understand that, for example, - 40 m is less than - 10 m and that both are less than 20 m. Note also that 10 m is greater than -30 m. The four arrows pointing to the right all represent increases in x, that is, positive values for .:lx, the change in x. The four arrows pointing to the left represent decreases in x, that is, negative values for .:lx.

-50 -40

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

Position (m)

TACTIC 9: DERIVATIVES AND SLOPES Every derivative is the slope of a curve. In Sample Problem 2-4, for example, the velocity of the cab at any instant (a derivative; see Eq. 2-4) is the slope of the x(t)

2-5 ACCELERATION

23

2-5 ACCELERATION
x

When a particle's velocity changes, the particle is said to undergo acceleration (or to accelerate). The average acceleration a over an interval tJ..t is computed as
V2 VI

tJ..v
-

.g
'
P-<

3 2

a=

t2 -

tl

Tt

(2-7)

The instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) is the derivative of the velocity: dv dt .

a=Time (s)

(2-8)

fiGURE 2-7 The derivative of a curve at any point is the slope of its tangent line at that point. At t = l.0 s, the slope of the tangent line (and thus dx/ dt, the instantaneous velocity) is t:.x/ t:.t = + 2.1 m/s.

curve of Fig. 2-6a at that instant. Here's how you can find a slope (and thus a derivative) graphically. Figure 2-7 showsan x( t) plot for a moving particle. To find the velocity of the particle at t = 1 s, put a dot on the curve at that point. Then draw a line tangent to the curve through the dot (tangent means touching; the tangent line touches the curve at a single point, the dot) judging carefully by eye. Then construct the right triangle ABC. (Although the slope is the same no matter what the size of this triangle, the larger the triangle the more precise willbe your graphical measurement.) Find t:.x and t:.t, using the vertical and horizontal scales to provide the magnitude, the unit, and the sign. In Fig. 2-7 you find the slope (derivative) from the following equation: slope = t:.x 5.5 m - 2.3 m 3.2 m = = -= +2.1 m/s. t:.t l.8 s - 0.3 s l.5 s

As Eq. 2-4 tells you, this slope is the velocityof the particle at t = 1 s. If you change the scale on the x or the t axis of Fig. 2-7, the appearance of the curve and the angle () will change but the value you find for the velocity at t = 1 s will not. If you have a mathematical expression for the function x(t), as in Sample Problem 2-5, you can find the derivative dx/ dt by the methods of calculus and avoid this graphical method.

In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the rate at which its velocity is changing at that instant. According to Eq. 2-8, the acceleration at any point is the slope of the curve of v(t) at that point. A common unit of acceleration is meter per second per second: m/(s' s) or m/s2. You will see other units in the problems, but they will each be in the form of distanceyt time- time) or distancey'time". Acceleration has both magnitude and direction (it is yet another vector quantity). The algebraic sign represents the direction on an axis just as it does for displacement and velocity. Figure 2-6c is a plot of the acceleration of the cab discussed in Sample Problem 2-4. Compare the curve with the v(t) curve-each point on the a(t) curve is the derivative (slope) of the corresponding point on the v(t) curve. When v is constant (at either 0 or 4 m/ s), the derivative is zero and so also is the acceleration. When the cab first begins to move, the v( t) curve has a positive derivative (the slope is positive), which means that a( t) is positive. When the cab slows to a stop, the derivative and slope of the v( t) curve are negative; that is, a( t) is negative. Next compare the slopes of the v(t) curve during the two acceleration periods. The one associated with the cab's stopping (commonly called "deceleration") is steeper, because the cab stops in half the time it took to get up to speed. The steeper slope means that the magnitude of the deceleration is larger than that of the acceleration, as indicated in Fig.2-6c. The sensations you would feel while riding in the cab of Fig. 2-6 are indicated by the sketched figures. When the car first accelerates, you feel as

24

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

FIGURE 2-8 Colonel J. P. Stapp in a rocket sled as it is brought up to high speed (acceleration out of the page) and then very rapidly braked (acceleration into the page). though you are pressed downward; when later the

cab is braked to a stop, you seem to be stretched upward. In between, you feel nothing special. Your body reacts to accelerations (it is an accelerometer) but not to velocities (it is not a speedometer). When you are in a car traveling at 60 mi/h or an airplane traveling at 600 mi/h, you have no bodily awareness of the motion. But if the car or plane quickly changes velocity, you may become keenly aware of the change, perhaps even frightened by it. Part of the thrill of an amusement park ride is due to the quick changes of velocity that you undergo. A more extreme example is shown in the photographs of Fig. 2-8, which were taken while a rocket sled was rapidly accelerated and then rapidly braked to a stop.

explained in Section 2-8. O'Neil's average acceleration was 4.8g. b. What was the average acceleration when Eli Beeding,jr. reached 72.5 mi/h in 0.04 s on a rocket sled?
SOLUTION

Again from Eq. 2-7,

a=-=

!::.v !::.t

72.5 mi/h - 0 0.04 s - 0

X

+ 1.8

103 -

mi
"'"

hs

+ 800 m/s2,

(Answer)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-6

a. When Kitty O'Neil set the dragster records for the greatest speed and least elapsed time, she reached 392.54 mi/h in 3.72 s. What was her average acceleration?
SOLUTION

or about 80g. Recall our question in Section 2-1, where O'Neil and Beeding were introduced. How can we tell who had the more thrilling ride-by final speeds, by elapsed times, or by some other quantity? You now can answer that question. Because the human body senses acceleration rather than speed, you should compare accelerations, and so Beeding wins out, even though his final speed was considerably slower than O'Neil's. In fact, Beeding's acceleration could have been lethal had it continued for much longer.

From Eq. 2-7, O'Neil's average accelera-

tion was

PROBLEM SOLVING _
a

!::.v

= Tt =
=

392.54 mi/h - 0 3.72 s - 0

rm

-_ ..... W\.,..-(Answer) TACTIC 10: AN ACCELERATION'S SIGN Look again at the algebraic sign for the accelerations that are calculated in Sample Problem 2-6. In many common examples of acceleration, the sign has a common-sense meaning: positive acceleration means that the speed of an object (such as a car) is increasing, and negative acceleration means that the speed is decreasing (the object is undergoing deceleration).

+106-

hs'

where the motion is taken to be in the positive x direction. In more conventional units, her acceleration was 47.1 m/s2. Often, large accelerations are expressed in "g" units, where 19 = 9.8 m/ s2 (= 32 ft/ s2), as will be

2-6 CONSTANT

ACCELERATION:

A SPECIAL

CASE

25

Such meanings cannot be interpreted without some thought, however. For example, if a car with an initial velocity v = - 27 m/s (= - 60 mi/h) is braked to a stop in 5.0 s, = + 5.4 m/s2. The acceleration is positive, but the car has slowed. The reason is the difference in signs: the direction of the acceleration is opposite that of the velocity. Here then is a better way to interpret the signs: if the signs of the velocity and acceleration are the same, a particle picks up speed; if the signs are opposite, the particle slows. The interpretation will have more meaning when we later explore the vector nature of velocity and acceleration.

c. Describe the particle's motion for t

2:

O.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-7

SOLUTION To answer, we examine the expressions for x(t), v(t), and a(t). At t = 0 the particle is at x = + 4 m, is moving leftward with a velocity of - 27 my's, and is, at that instant, not accelerating. For 0 < t < 3 s, the particle continues to move to the left, but at decreasing speed, because it is accelerating to the right. (Check v(t) and a(t) for, say, t = 2 s.) The rate of the acceleration is increasing. At t = 3 s, the particle stops momentarily (v = 0) and is as far to the left as it will ever get (x = - 50 m). It continues to accelerate to the right at an increasing rate. For t> 3 s, its acceleration to the right continues to increase, and its velocity, which is now also to the right, increases rapidly. (Note that the signs of v and a match.) The particle moves to the right without bound.

A particle's position is given by

x

= 4 - 27t + t3,

2-6 CONSTANT ACCELERATION: A SPECIAL CASE

In many common types of motion, the acceleration is either constant or approximately so. For example, you might accelerate a car at an approximately constant rate when a traffic light turns from red to green. (Graphs of your position, velocity, and acceleration would resemble those in Fig. 2-9.) If you later had to brake the car to a stop, the deceleration during the braking might also be approximately constant. Such cases are so ubiquitous that a special set of equations has been derived for dealing with them. One approach to the derivation of the equations is given in this section. A second approach is given in the next section. Throughout both sections and later when you work on the homework problems, keep in mind that the equations are valid only for con-

where the units of the coefficients are m, m Zs, and m/ s3, respectively, and the x axis is shown in Fig. 2-1. a. Find v( t) and a( t).
SOLUTION

To get v( t), we differentiate v = - 27

x( t) with re-

spect to t:

3t2

(Answer)

To get a( t), we differentiate a =

v( t) with respect to t:

+ 6t.
=

(Answer) O?

b. Is there ever a time when v

SOLUTION

Setting v( t)

0 yields

0= - 27 + 3t2,
which has the solution t = ::':: s. 3 (Answer)

26

CHAPTER

MOTIO N

ALONG A STRAIGHT

LINE

o
(a)
x

in which Xo is the position of the particle at t = 0, and is the average velocity between t = 0 and a later time t. If you plot v against t using Eq. 2-9, a straight line results. Under these conditions, the average velocity over any time interval (say, t = 0 to a later time t) is the average of the velocity at the beginning of the interval (= vo) and the velocity at.the end of the interval (= v). For the interval t = 0 to the later time t then, the average velocity is

v = Hvo v=
(b) '" a
a(t)

+ v).

(2-11)

Substituting for v from Eq. 2-9 yields, after a little rearrangement, Vo

+ tat.

(2-12)

Finally, substituting Eq. 2-12 into Eq. 2-10 yields (2-13) As a check, note that putting t = 0 yields x = xo, as it must. As a further check, taking the derivative ofEq. 2-13 yields Eq. 2-9, again as it must. Figure 2-9a is a plot ofEq. 2-13. Five quantities can possibly be involved in any given problem regarding constant acceleration, namely, x - Xo, v, t, a, and Vo' Usually, one of these quantities is not involved in the problem, either as a given or as an unknown. We are then presented with three of the remaining quantities and asked to find the fourth. Equations 2-9 and 2-13 each contain four of these quantities, but not the same four. In Eq. 2-9, the "missing ingredient" is the displacement, x xo' In Eq. 2-13, it is the velocity v. These two equations can also be combined in three ways to yield three additional equations, each of which involves a different "missing ingredient." Thus v2
=

.!

"o

Slope = 0
_

~ L-

(e)

FIGURE 2-9 (a) The position x(t) of a particle with constant acceleration. (b) Its velocity v( t), each point by the slope of the curve in (a). (c) stant) acceleration, equal to the (constant) slope

moving given at Its (conof vet).

stant acceleration (or situations in which you can approximate the acceleration as being constant). When the acceleration is constant, the distinction between average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration loses its meaning and we can write Eq. 2-7, with some changes in notation, as
a=--v Va

t - 0 .

Here Vo is the velocity at time t = 0 and V is the velocity at any later time t. We can recast the equation as V
=

VB + 2a(x

- xo)

(2-14)

Vo

at.

(2-9)

As a check, note that this equation reduces to V = Vo for t = 0, as it must. As a further check, take the derivative of Eq. 2-9. Doing so yields dv/ dt = a, which is the definition of a. Figure 2-9b shows a plot of Eq. 2-9, the vet) function. In similar manner we can rewrite Eq. 2-2 (with a few changes in notation) as x
=

This equation is useful if we do not know t and are not required to find it. We can, instead, eliminate the acceleration a between these same two equations to produce an equation in which a does not appear: x - Xo =

t( Vo + v) t.

(2-15)

Finally, we can eliminate vo, obtaining x - Xo = vt - tat2 (2-16)

Xo

+ vt,

(2-10)

Note the subtle difference between this equation and Eq. 2-13. One involves the initial velocity vo; the other involves the velocity vat time t.

2-6 CONSTANT ACCELERATION:

A SPECIAL

CASE

27

TABLE 2-2 EQUATIONS FOR MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATIONa

EQUATION NUMBER EQUATION MISSING QUANTITY

Solving that equation for t, we obtain t = 2(x - xo) Vo

= --'-'-------'--

(2) (0.088 km)

(75

45) km/h (Answer)

l.5 X 10-3 h

5.4 s.

2-9 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16

v x - Xo
if

= Vo

= vot

+ at + tat2 = vij + 2a(x

x - Xo

v
- Xo) a Vo

X-Xo=t(vo+v)t x - Xo = vt - tat2

c. If you continue to slow down with the acceleration calculated in (a) above, how much time would elapse in bringing the car to rest from 75 km/h? SOLUTION The quantity not given or asked for here is the displacement, x - Xo' Table 2-2 then suggests that we use Eq. 2-9. Solving for t gives t

"Make sure that the acceleration the equations

is indeed constant before using Eq. 2-13

in this table. Note that if you differentiate

you get Eq. 2-9. The other three equations are found byeliminating one or another of the variables between Eqs. 2-9 and 2-13.

= --

v - Vo a

= ----'---~~~
= 13s.

0 - (75 km/h)

(- 2.05 X 104 km/h2) (Answer)

= 3.7 Table 2-2 lists Eqs. 2-9, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, and 2-16 and shows which one of the five possible quantities is missing from each. To solve a constant acceleration problem, you must decide which of the five quantities is not involved in the problem, either as a given or as an unknown. Select the correct equation from Table 2-2 and substitute for the three given quantities to find the unknown. Instead of using the table, you might find a solution more easily if you use only Eqs. 2-9 and 2-13, solving them as simultaneous equations when needed.

X 1O-3h

d. In (c) above, what distance would be covered? SOLUTION From Eq. 2-13, we have, for the displacement of the car, x - Xo = vot

tat2

= (75 km/h) (3.7 X 10-3 h)

+ H-

2.05 X 104 krrr/ h") (3.7 X 10-3 h)2 (Answer)

= 0.137 km = 140 m.

(Neglecting the sign on the acceleration would give a wrong result. When you work problems, you should always be alert to signs.) e. Suppose that, on a second trial with the acceleration calculated in (a) above and a different initial velocity, you bring your car to rest after traversing 200 m. What was the total braking time? SOLUTION The missing quantity here is the initial velocity, so we use Eq. 2-16. Noting that v (the final velocity) is zero and solving this equation for t, we obtain t = (_ (2) (x - xo) )1/2 = (_ (2) (200 ffi) )1/2 a - l.6 m/s2
= 16 s.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-8

Spotting a police. car, you brake a Porsche from 75 km/h to 45 km/h over a displacement of 88 m. a. What is the acceleration, assumed to be constant? SOLUTION In this problem the time is not involved, being neither given nor requested. Table 2-2 then leads us to Eq. 2-14. Solving this equation for a yields (45 km/h)2 - (75 km/h)2

(Answer)

(2) (0.088 km)

= - 2.05

104 km/h2

=-

l.6 m/s2.

(Answer)

(In converting hours to seconds in the last step, we must convert both the hour units.) Note that the velocities are positive and the acceleration is negative, which is consistent with a slowing of the car. b. What is the elapsed time? SOLUTION Now time is not the missing ingredient, but the acceleration is. Table 2-2 suggests Eq. 2-15.

PROBLEM

SOLVING

--A.N\,..--TACTIC 11: CHECK THE DIMENSIONS The dimension of a velocity is (L/T), that is, length (L) divided by time (T). The dimension of acceleration is (L/T2); and so on. In any physical equation, the dimensions of all terms must be the same. If you are in doubt about an equation, check its dimensions.

28

CHAPTER 2

MOTION

ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

To check the dimensions of Eq. 2-13 (x - Xo= vot + tat2), we note that every term must be a length , because that is the dimension of x and of Xo. The dimension of the term vot is (LIT) (T), which is (L). The dimension of tat2 is (L/T2) (T2), which is also (L). This equation checks out. A pure number such as t or 7T has no dimension.

and then take the indefinite integral of both sides to obtain x

=

v dt

+ C',

where C' is another constant of integration. This time there is no reason to believe that v is constant, so we cannot move it outside the integration. But we can substitute for v with Eq. 2-9: x
=

27 ANOTHER LOOK AT CONSTANT

(vo

+ at) dt + C'.

ACCELERATION

Since Vo is a constant, this can be rewritten as x

= Vo

The first two equations in Table 2-2 are the basic equations from which the others are derived. Those two can be obtained by integration of the acceleration with the condition that a is constant. The definition of a (in Eq. 2-8) is
a=-

J dt + a J
vot

t dt

+ C'.

Integration yields x
=

+ ~at2 + C'.

(2-18)

dv dt '

which can be rewritten as dv

=

At time t = 0, we have x = Xo. Substituting these values in Eq. 2-18 yields Xo = C'. Replacing C' with Xo in Eq. 2-18 gives us Eq. 2-13.

a dt.

If we take the indefinite integral (or antiderivative) of both sides, we get

2~8 FREE~FALLACCELERATION
If you tossed an object either up or down and could somehow eliminate the effects of air on its flight, you

J
which reduces to

dv

J a dt,
+ C,

FIGURE v =

a dt

2-10 A feather and an apple, undergoing free fall in a vacuum, move downwardat the same acceleration g. The acceleration causes the increase in distance between images during the fall.

where C is a constantof integration. Since acceleration a is constant, it can be taken outside the integration. Then v = a

J dt + C = at + C.

(2-17)

To evaluate the constant C, we let t = 0, at which time v = Vo. Substituting these values into Eq. 2-17 (which must hold for all values of t, including t = 0) yields Vo = (a) (0) + C = C. With this substitution, Eq. 2-17 takes the same form as Eq. 2-9. To derive the other basic equation in Table 2-2, we rewrite the definition of velocity (Eq. 2-4) as dx
=

v dt

*This section is intended for those students who have had integral calculus.

2-8

FREE-FALL CCELERATION 29 A

TABLE 2-3 EQUATIONS FORFREEFALL EQUATION NUMBER

2-19 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23

EQUATION
v = Vo -

MISSING QUANTITY
y - Yo
V

gt

SOLUTION The missing ingredient is the velocity V, which is neither given nor requested. This suggests Eq. 2-20 of Table 2-3. Choose the release point of the wrench to be the origin of the y axis. Setting Yo = 0, Vo = 0, and t = 1.5 s in Eq. 2-20 gives y = vot - tgt2 = (0) (1.5 s) - t(9.8 mjs2) (1.5
S)2

Y - Yo = vot - tgt2 V2 = VB - 2g(y - Yo) y - Yo =

HVo +
+

Y - Yo = vt

V) t tgt2

g
= -11

m.

(Answer)

The minus sign means that the wrench is below its release point, which we certainly expect. would find that the object accelerates downward at a particular rate. That rate is called the free-fall acceleration g. The acceleration g is independent of the object's characteristics, such as mass, density, or shape. Two examples of free-fall acceleration are shown in the photograph of Fig. 2-10, which is a stroboscopic series of photos of a feather and an apple. As these objects descend, they accelerate downward at the rate g, picking up speed. The value of g varies slightly with latitude and also with elevation. At sea level in the mid-latitudes the value is 9.8 m/s2 (or 32 ft/s"), which is what you should use for the problems in this chapter. The equations of motion in Table 2-2 for constant acceleration apply to free fall near the Earth's surface. That is, they apply to an object in vertical flight, either up or down, when the effects of the air can be neglected. However, we can make them simpler to use with two minor changes. (1) The directions of motion. are along the vertical y axis instead of the x axis, with the positive direction of y upward. (This change will reduce confusion in later chapters when combined horizontal and vertical motions are examined.) (2) The free-fall acceleration is then negative, that is, downward on the yaxis, and so we replace a with - g in the equations. With these small changes, the equations of Table 2-2 become, for free fall, the equations m Table 2-3.

b. How fast is the wrench falling just then? SOLUTION The velocity of the wrench is given by Eq.
2-19: V = Vo - gt = 0 - (9.8 m/s2) (1.5 s)

= -15 m/s.

(Answer)

Here the minus sign means that the wrench is falling downward. Again, no great surprise. Figure 2-11 displays the important features of the motion up to t =
4 s.

y y
0 (s) (m) 0
I

(m/s) (m/s2) 0 -9.8

=fs

= =
I I I I I I I I I

I I I

-4.9

-9.8

-9.8

-19.6 -19.6

-9.8

T
I I I

~I
I I I I I I I I I I

-44.1 -29.4

-9.8

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2-9 A worker drops a wrench down the elevator shaft of a tall building.
FIGURE

=fs

-78.4 -39.2

-9.8

a. Where is the wrench 1.5 slater?

2-11 Sample Problem 2-9. The position, velocity, and acceleration of a freely falling object.

30

CHAPTER 2

MOTION

ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-10

SAMPLE PROBLEM

2-11

In 1939, Joe Sprinz of the San Francisco Baseball Club attempted to break the record for catching a baseball dropped from the greatest height. Members of the Cleveland Indians had set the record the preceding year when they caught baseballs dropped about 700 ft from atop a building. Sprinz used a blimp at 800 ft. Ignore the effects of air on the ball and assume that the ball falls 800 ft. a. Find its time of fall.
SOLUTION

A pitcher tosses a baseball straight up, with an initial speed of 12 mys. See Fig. 2-12. a. How long does it take to reach its highest point?
SOLUTION

The ball is at its highest point when its velocity v becomes zero. From Eq. 2-19, we have t

= ---

Vo g

12 m/s - 0 9.8 m/s2

l.2 s.

(Answer)

Mentally erect a vertical y axis with its origin at the point of the ball's release in the blimp, which means that Yo = O. The initial velocity Vo is zero. The missing ingredient is v, and so Eq. 2-20 is required:

b. How high does the ball rise above its release point?
SOLUTION

We take the release point of the ball to be the origin of the yaxis. Putting Yo = 0 in Eq. 2-21 and solving for y, we obtain y=--=

y - Yo

vot - tgt2

va - v
2g

(12 m/s)2 - (0)2 (2) (9.8 m/s2) (Answer)

- 800 ft = Ot - t(32 ft/s2) t2 16t2 = 800 t = 7.1 s. (Answer)

= 7.3m.

When taking a square root, we have the option of attaching a plus or minus sign to the square root. Here we choose the plus sign, since the ball reaches the ground after it is released.

If we wanted to take advantage of the fact that we also know the time of flight, having found it in (a), we could also calculate the height of rise from Eq. 2-23. Check it out. all

y
II 1"1 I:

b. What caught?

IS

the velocity of the ball just before it is

V=

0 at ~

highest point

:.
II II II :I

SOLUTION

To get the velocity from the original data, rather than from the result of (a), we use Eq. 2-21: v2
=

va - 2g(y
X

- Yo)

= 0 - (2) (32 ft/s2) (- 800 ft) = 5.12

104 ft2/s2 mi/h). (Answer)
During ascent, ~ a=-g and speed decreases

II II II +1

During descent,

:
II I: II II

a=-g
and speed increases

v = - 226 ft/s (= -154

Since the ball is moving downward, we choose the minus sign in our option of signs in taking the square root. Neglecting the effects of air is actually unwarranted in such a fall. If you included them, you would find that the fall time was longer and the final speed was smaller than the values calculated above. Still, the speed must have been considerable, because when Sprinz finally managed to get a ball in his glove (on his fifth attempt) the impact slammed the glove and hand into his face, fracturing the upper jaw in 12 places, breaking five teeth, and knocking him unconscious. And he dropped the ball.

:.
II II II

!.I

y= 0

\ ..

1J;;1;~iJ;r,~~~;!i!);."j~!);.ie:tl;;'h~J;l;l

FIGURE 2-12 Sample Problem 2-1l. A pitcher tosses a baseball straight up into the air. The equations offree fall apply for rising as well as for falling objects, provided that any effects from the air can be neglected.

2-9 THE PARTICLESOF PHYSICS

31

c. How long will it take for the ball to reach 5.0 m above its release point?

a point

SOLUTION Inspection of Eqs. 2-19 to 2-23 suggests that we try Eq. 2-20. With Yo = 0, we have

more negative. This is true no matter where the body is located and no matter how fast or in what direction it is moving. In Sample Problem 2-11, the acceleration of the ball is negative throughout its flight, whether the ball is rising or falling. TACTIC 13: UNEXPECTEDANSWERS Mathematics often generates answers that you might not have thought of as possibilities, as in Sample Problem 2-11c. If you get more answers than you expect, do not discard out of hand the ones that do not seem to fit. Examine them carefully for physical meaning; it is often there. If time is your variable, even a negative value can mean something; negative time simply refers to time before t = 0, the (arbitrary) time at which you decided to start your stopwatch.

vot - ~gt2.
t -

5.0 m = (12 m/s)

m (9.8 m/s2)
5.0 = O.

t2.

If we temporarily omit the units (having noted they are consistent), we can rewrite this as 4.9t2
-

that

12t

Solving this quadratic equation for t yields* t = 0.53 sand t = 1.9 s. (Answer)

There are two such times! This is not really surprising because the ball passes twice through y = 5.0 m, once on the way up and once on the way down. We can check our findings because the time at which the ball reaches its maximum height should lie halfway between these two times, or at t = ~(0.53 s

2-9 THE PARTICLES OF PHYSICS

As we progress through the book, we plan to step aside occasionally from the familiar world of large, tangible objects and look at nature on a much finer scale. The "particles" that we have dealt with in this chapter, for example, have included pigs, baseballs, and dragsters. In the spirit of our plan, we ask: "How small can a particle be? What are the ultimate particles of nature?" Particle physics-for so the field that relates to our inquiry is called-attracts the attention of many of the best and brightest of today's physicists. The realization that matter, on its finest scale, is not continuous but is made up of atoms was the beginning of understanding for physics and chemistry. With the scanning tunneling microscope, we can now "photograph" these atoms, as Fig. 2-13 makes clear. It is also possible to keep single atoms in tiny electromagnetic "traps" and monitor them at leisure. A single electron was kept in such a trap at the University of Washington for lO months before-by misadventure -it hit a wall and escaped. We describe the "lumpiness" of matter by saying that matter is quantized, the word coming from the Latin word quantus, meaning "how much." Quantization is a central feature of nature, and you will see other physical quantities as we go along that are quantized when we look at them on a fine enough scale. This pervasiveness of quantization is reflected in the name we give to physics at the atomic and subatomic level-quantum physics, the

1.9 s) = 1.2 s.

This is exactly what we found in (a) for the time to reach maximum height.

PROBLEM SOLVING

---A.N\~--TACTIC 12: MINUS SIGNS In Sample Problems 2-9,2-10, and 2-11, many answers emerged automatically with minus signs. It is important to know what these signs mean. For falling body problems, we established a vertical axis (the yaxis) and we chose-quite arbitrarily-its upward direction to be positive. We then choose the origin of the y axis (that is, the y = 0 position) to suit the problem. In Sample Problem 2-9, the origin was the worker's hand; in Sample Problem 2-10 it was at the blimp; in Sample Problem 2-11 it was the pitcher's hand. A negative value of y means that the body is below the chosen origin. A negative velocity means that the body is moving in the direction of decreasing y, that is, downward. This is true no matter where the body is located. We have taken the acceleration (= - 9.8 m/s2) to be negative in all problems dealing with falling bodies. A negative acceleration means that, as time goes on, the velocity of the body becomes either less positive or

*See Appendix G for the formula used to solve a quadratic equation.

--------------------------------------------

32

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRMGHT

LINE

but for now you might realize that were it not present, atoms could not exist, and so neither could you.

The Structure of Nuclei

The simplest nucleus, that of common hydrogen, has a single proton. There are two other, rare, versions of hydrogen: they differ from the common version by the presence of one or two neutrons (electrically neutral particles) inside the nucleus. Hydrogen, in any of its versions, is an example of an element; each element is distinguished from all the others by the number of protons in the nucleus. When there is only one proton, the element is hydrogen. When, instead, there are six, the element is carbon. The various versions of each element are called isotopes; they are distinguished by the number of neutrons. Roughly speaking, the purpose of the neutrons is to glue together the protons, which, being all electrically positive and closely packed, strongly repel one another. If the neutrons did not provide the glue, the only type of atom that could exist would be common hydrogen; all others would blow apart. Such instability can be found in many isotopes of common elements, but thankfully not the elements on. which your existence depends. For example, of the 17 isotopes of copper, all but two are unstable and undergo transformations to become other elements. The stable isotopes are the ones used in electronics and other technology.

FIGURE 2-13 A hexagonal array of uranium atoms is revealed in this image from a scanning transmission electron microscope. The color has been added by a computer.

physics that deals with the ultimate particles of nature. There is no sharp discontinuity between the quantum world and the world of large-scale objects. The quantum world and the laws that govern it are universal but, as we move from electrons and atoms to baseballs and automobiles, the fact of quantization becomes less noticeable and finally totally undetectable. The "graininess" effectively disappears, and the laws of classical physics that govern the motions of large objects emerge as special limiting forms of the more general laws of quantum physics.

The Structure of the Particles Within Atoms

The electron is simple but perplexingly so. It appears to be infinitesimal in size; that is, it has no size and no structure. It is a member of a family of other pointlike particles called leptons; there are six basic types, each with an antiparticle version. Protons and neutrons are believed to be different from electrons and the other leptons, because each of the former appears to be a bundle of three simpler particles called quarks, * "up" or "down"

The Structure of Atoms

An atom consists of a central, almost unimaginably compact and dense nucleus that is surrounded by one or more light-weight electrons. An atom is usually considered to be spherical; so is the nucleus. The radius of a typical atom is on the order of 10-10 m; the radius of a nucleus is 100,000 times smaller, about lO-15 m. An atom is held together by electrical attraction between the electrons, which are electrically negative, and protons, which are electrically positive and reside within the nucleus. The nature of that attraction is explored later in this book,

*On a quirk, the word "quark" was lifted from Finnegans Wake by James Joyce: Three quarks for Muster Mark. Sure he hasn't got much of a bark And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.

REVIEW

& SUMMARY

33

d/

""-d

Neutron

quarks. A proton consists of two "up" quarks and one "down" quark, and a neutron the reverse (Fig. 2-14). Other, more exotic particles that were first thought to be fundamental appear to be similar bundles. Provocatively, quarks come in six basic types* (each with its antiparticle) just as do leptons. Here physicists wonder: Is there a basic reason for the match in number of types? Or is the match simply coincidence? We do not know.

Nucleus

FIGURE 2-14 A representation of the nucleus of an atom, showing the neutrons and protons that make it up. These particles, in turn, are composed of "up" and "down" quarks.

"The other types are called charm, strange, top, and bottom (even physicistshave their moments).

REVIEW
Position

&

SUMMARY
Average Speed
The average speed of a particle depends tance it covers in a time interval Az: s= total distance
III

The position x of a particle on an axis locates it with respect to the origin of the axis. The position is either positive or negative, according to which side of the origin the particle is on, or zero if the particle is at the origin. The positive direction on an axis is the direction of increasing positive numbers; the opposite direction is the negative direction.

on the full dis-

(2-3)

Instantaneous Velocity
Ifwe allow Ilt to approach zero in Eq. 2-2, then Ilx will also approach zero; however, their ratio, which is ii, will approach a limiting value v, the instantaneous velocity (or simply velocity) of the particle at the time in question, or Ilx dx v = Jim -=-. ~t .... Ilt o dt

Displacement
The displacement Ilx of a particle is the change in its position: (2-1) Displacement is a vector quantity. It is positive if the particle has moved in the positive direction of the x axis, and negative if it has moved in the negative direction.

(2-4)

Average Velocity
When a particle has moved from position Xl to time interval ar = t2 - tl, its average velocity is _ Ilx v =
X2

The instantaneous velocity (at a particular time) may be represented as the slope (at that particular time) of the graph of x versus t. See Sample Problem 2-3 and Fig. 2-9. Sample Problem 2-5 illustrates how we can find velocity by differentiating a function x(t). Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity.

during a

Average Acceleration
Average acceleration is the ratio of the change in velocity Ilv that occurs within a time interval Ar to that time interval: a =

t;i.

(2-2)

The algebraic sign of indicates the direction of motion (ii is a vector quantity). Average velocity does not depend on the actual distance a particle covers, but instead depends on its original and final positions. Sample Problems 2-1 and 2-2 illustrate the calculation of average velocity. On a graph of X versus t, the average velocity for a time interval Az is the slope of the straight line connecting the points on the curve that represent the ends of the interval.

t;i.

Ilv

(2-7)

The algebraic sign indicates the direction of Problem 2-6 for examples.

a. See Sample

Instantaneous Acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) rate of change of velocity, Ilv dv a= Jim -=-. ~t .... o Ilt dt is the

(2-8)

34

CHAPTER 2

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Sample Problem 2-7 shows how to differentiate v(t) to get a( t). On a graph of v versus t, a( t) is the slope of the curve.

Constant Acceleration
Figure 2-9 shows x( t), v( t), and a( t) for the important case in which a is constant. In this circumstance, the five equations in Table 2-2 describe the motion: v = Vo

+ Y vertically up; (2) we replace a with - g, where g is the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration. Near the Earth's surface, g = 9.8 m/s2 (= 32 ft/s2). The free-fall equations, with these conventions, are shown as Eqs. 2-19 to 2-23. Sample Problems 2-9, 2-10, and 2-11 show how these equations can be used.
The Structure of Matter
All ordinary matter is composed of atoms, which, in a simple model, consist of electrons that surround a highly compact central core, the nucleus. Neutrons and protons reside inside nuclei. Each element is distinguished by the number of protons in its nucleus. Variations of an element, differing in the number of neutrons, are isotopes of the element.

+ +

at,

(2-9) (2-13)

if = V5 x -

2a(x

xo),

(2-14) (2-15) (2-16)

Xo = t(vo

v)t,

x - Xo = vt - tat2.

These equations are not valid when the acceleration is not constant. Sample Problem 2-8 illustrates the use of these equations.

QJ.tarksand Leptons
Electrons appear to be pointlike particles with no size or internal structure, but protons and neutrons appear to have size and to contain more elementary particles, called quarks. There are six basic types of quarks, each with an antiparticle version. Electrons are members of a family of particles, leptons, that also come in six basic types, each with an antiparticle version.

Free-Fall Acceleration
An important example of straight-line motion with constant acceleration is that of an object rising or falling freely near the Earth's surface. The constant acceleration equations describe this motion, but we make two changes in notation: (1) we refer the motion to the vertical y axis with