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1.

Water Flow in Soil: Permeability

The parameter that describes how easy or difficult it is for water to flow through soil is correctly called the hydraulic conductivity, but more commonly (in civil engineering), is called the permeability (k). (This is analogous to thermal conductivity for heat flow in solids, or electrical conductivity for electrical current flow. The inverse of conductivity is resistivity, but we tend not to use this in water flow). Flow of water in soils occurs in response to a difference in total head between two points (or more precisely, it occurs in response to a gradient in total head, with flow being down gradient in the direction of reducing total head.) Figure 1 gives the definition of total head. What it says is that fluid flow depends on both the pressure in the water, and the elevation of the point (above some arbitrary datum). In order to combine these two, the most convenient is to express the pressure at a point as pressure head (hp), which can be thought of as the height that water would rise to in a standpipe (tube) inserted into the soil to that point. Since this height has units of metres, it can be combined directly with the elevation head (he), which also has units of metres, to give total head (ht). "standpipes"

ht(A-B) hpA A htA heA htB hpB

Though the water pressure at B is greater than at A (hpB is greater than hpA ), the total head at A is greater than at B, so flow would tend to be from A to B. The hydraulic gradient between A and B is i = ht(A-B) /LA-B

B heB

Arbitrary datum ("zero") for elevation Figure 1.1. Definition of elevation head, pressure head, and total head. Flow occurs in direction of reducing total head. 1.1 Darcys Law

Figure 1.2 shows a circular container, with cross sectional area A, containing sand of uniform density (packing), confined between two mesh screens, at a distance L apart. For this setup, the total head loss from M to N is ht(M-N). The quantity of flow Q through the system in time t should be:
dQ =Q dt
Q h t ( M N )

and

A 1 L

which gives

Q = k .A .

h t ( M N ) L M N

The change in total head per unit length of flow is called the hydraulic gradient (i). Thus, from M to N:
i MN = h t ( M N ) LMN

and

Q = k . A .i

or

Q = k .A .i.t

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In this equation, the quantity Q is in units of m3, Q is in units of m3/s, area A is in m2, the hydraulic gradient i is dimensionless (its a length divided by a length) and time t is in seconds. So k has units of m/s.

Head drops at uniform rate if soil is uniform Standpipes

ht(M-N)

htM M

soil
htN
L M-N
Tube cross-sectional area = A

Arbitrary datum ("zero") for elevation

Figure 1.2. Flow of water governed by Darcys Law If we divided both sides by A, we end up with Q/A on the left-hand side. This has units of m/s, and represents the average water velocity v through the tube if there was not soil present. We can then re-state Darcys law in its simplest form:

v = ki
This is called the Darcy velocity, or appartent velocity, because it assumes that flow occurs across the total cross-sectional area (it ignores the fact that there is soil present). The true velocity or seepage velocity is given as: vs A T 1 + e 1+e = = v or v s = v Av e e

Q Apparent (Darcy) velocity Q v= AT

Q True (seepage) velocity Q vs = Av

Figure 1.3. Difference between apparent( Darcy) velocity, v, and true (seepage) velocity vs.

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1.2

Range of permeability values

The value of the permeability k has an enormous range: from maybe 1 m/s for gravels (i.e. 100 m/s), down to 10-9 to 10-10 m/s for clays thats a range of 10 orders of magnitude (the permeability of clay is maybe 10,000,000,000 times less than that of gravel!).

Figure 4. This scale shows the range of permeability values. Note that even clean sand indicates a range of 3 orders of magnitude! 1.3 Relationship between permeability and grading

The permeability depends primarily on pore size (more than on total pore volume, or void ratio e). In fact, void ratio per se is a very poor indicator of permeability gravel, which could have a void ratio as low as 0.3, has permeability many many orders of magnitude greater than soft clay, which could have a void ratio of well over 1.0. (It is easier to force water through a single large tube than a whole bunch of small tubes with the same total cross-sectional area. This is because the resistance to flow depends on the ratio of tube crosssectional area to tube circumferential area. Thus, a single circular tube with 100 mm2 cross-sectional area has a circumference of 35.5 mm, but 10 tubes, each of 10 mm2 cross section a total of 100 mm2 have a total circumference of 112 mm, and 100 tubes, each of 1 mm2 cross-section, have a total circumference of 363 mm). Many empirical relationships exist for estimating permeability from grain size. The best known (but not the only one) is Hazens formula, which relates permeability to the smallest 10% of the soil i.e. to D10 k(mm/s) = Ck (D10)2 (with D10 given in mm), where Ck is taken as: Ck (s-1.mm-1) 8 12 58 Soil type Uniform sands (Cu < 5) Well-graded sands and) silty sands (Cu > 5) D10 range (mm) 0.06 3.0 0.003 0.6

The range of values given indicates the range of uncertainty this is an empirical formula, obtained by correlating one property (k) against another (D102), and the scatter in the data was probably very large. 1.4 Permeability depends on packing

For any particular soil, the permeability depends not just on the grading, but also on how dense is the soil packing i.e. on the void ratio, e. Thus, a particular sand with a dense packing might have a permeability value an order of magnitude lower than the same sand in a loose packing.

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2.
2.1

Measurement of Permeability in the Laboratory

Constant Head Test

Setup for this test shown below. In this setup, a constant head difference is imposed across the sample ( hMN). When steady state conditions are reached, measure the flow rate through the sample Q (i.e. Q in time t). Can theoretically obtain permeability by assuming the hydraulic gradient through the sample can be h MN obtained as: i = (in other words, taking the whole sample length, and taking the overall total L MN head loss through the sample. However, due to issues to do with losses due to flow through the tubes, and end effects (clogging of the filters, etc), it is better to have standpipes installed over some central length of the sample (points S and T in the diagram. The laboratory apparatus has standpipes at three intermediate levels), and measure the head loss over this length, to get the hydraulic gradient to be: h i = ST , which is then used with the equation: Q =k .A .i , or Q = k .A .i.t , to get: LST
k= Q Q = = Ai Ait Q h st A t L st

Example: Say k = 10-4 m/s (fine sand) Sample diameter = 100 mm Sample length = 300 mm Head loss = 1 m
0 .1 2 4 h 1.0 i= = = 3 .3 L 0.3 Area = 0 .1 2 Q = k .A .i = 10 4 3 .3 4 = 2.6 10 6 m 3 / sec = 2.6 cm 3 / sec = 156 cm 3 / min

Q ( = Q/t)

If sample was clay (say k = 10-10 m/s, i.e. 1 million times less!), Q would be 1 million times less also or 107 hours to collect 1 cm3. Test NOT suitable for clays!

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2.2

Falling Head Test

The constant head test is suitable for sands (and gravels), and maybe coarse silts. However, for finer materials, the flow rate through such a test would be very low, and it would take a long time to gather a measurable quantity of water in the measuring cylinder. For such cases, an alternative is to use the Falling Head Test. The standpipe cross-sectional area (a) is much less than the sample area (A). The test is started by opening the valve, at which stage the water level in the standpipe starts to fall. Take two readings of the total head difference (h1 and h2) at two different times (t1 and t2). At any time t, the rate of change of head is dh(t)/dt, and the hydraulic gradient is i(t) = h(t)/L, where L is the sample length.
dQ a.dh Q= = (a.dh is the volume lost in dt) dt dt Also , Darcy' s Law applies at any instant : h( t ) Q = k .A .i( t ) = k .A L where L is the sample length Therefore : a.dh = k .A dt L dh k A = . .dt h( t ) L a Readings h1 at t1 and h 2 at t 2 dh k A 2 = . . dt h( t ) L a
h1 t1 h2 t

h k A k A log e 2 = . .( t 2 t1 ) = . .t h L a L a 1 h h1 log e 2 h aL log e h aL 1= 2 k= A t A t

Example: Sample diameter = 100 mm, tube diameter = 2.5 mm. In t = 20 minutes, the head reduces from 660 mm to 560 mm:
h 660 log e 2 log e h 2 .5 2 a 1= 560 k = .L . 0.15 A t 20 60 100 2 = 1.28 10 8 m / s

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2.3

Indirect measurement of permeability consolidation test

For clayey soils, with very low permeability, a consolidation test is used to determine permeability. This test, and the theory behind it, will be covered in later geomechanics units. 2.4 Problems with laboratory measurement of permeability Is the sample disturbed?. Trying to obtain a sample from the ground without disturbing the structure (and hence changing the permeability) is very difficult. For sandy soil, it is almost impossible. Therefore, laboratory measurement is not likely to give an accurate representation of the permeability of the soil in situ. Is the sample representative (i.e. is the ground homogeneous)?: A test on a small sample from the ground (even if it was not disturbed) represents only that point in the ground. Permeability values vary widely even within the same deposit, so that a large number of tests are required to characterise the permeability (get average and standard deviation values). Is the permeability isotropic?: Permeability in the ground depends on the direction of flow very often, horizontal permeability is greater than vertical permeability (discussed later). Therefore, measuring the vertical permeability gives no indication of the horizontal permeability. Air in the sample: If the sample is not fully saturated, the air bubbles tend to collect in the larger pores, and these effectively block the pores to water flow. Therefore, even a relatively small amount of air can have a large effect on the permeability. (The permeability of partially saturated soil is much less than the permeability of the equivalent fully-saturated soil). Ion exchange (for clayey soils): If the water used in the test has different chemistry (different ion type or concentration) that the water in the natural soil, ion exchange may occur, and this can change the soil structure, and hence change the soil permeability. For fine-grained soils, the pore water may be under high suction (negative pressure), so that the flow early in the test may be dominated by that suction (the externally-imposed head difference may be completely irrelevant relative to that suction).

Because of these problems, it is generally preferable to use field tests to determine permeability at a larger scale. Some field pumping tests to determine permeability will be discussed later. 2.5 Why hydraulic conductivity?

As mentioned earlier, we should be using the term hydraulic conductivity instead of permeability in this application. Why? Because if the fluid flowing through the soil is not water, the conductivity value will be different from the conductivity with respect to water. (Clearly, its harder to force heavy oil through soil than it is to force water through the same soil). In effect, conductivity to fluid flow depends on intrinsic soil properties (grading, void ratio, pore shape, etc), and on fluid properties (i.e. viscosity). So, in general applications, the term permeability refers to the intrinsic soil permeability property, K, and the particular fluid conductivity uses the symbol k, where:

k=
where m2).
f

f K f

(kN / m ) .s
2

kN m 3

m2 =

m s

and

are the fluid unit weight and viscosity, and K is the intrinsic permeability (units of

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3.
3.1

Manipulating Darcys Law

Geometry changes

In this example, the soil type stays the same (k1 = k2), but the area and length of the two segments may be different. The total head drop across the sample is hT, with h1 across the first part, and h2 across the second part. What is the ratio of h1 to h2? Darcys Law applies:
Q =k . A . i

There is no change in volume of water in the sample, so that

Q1 = Q 2 = Q

Q1 = Q 2 k 1 A 1i 1 = k 2 A 2 i 2 A1i1 = A 2i 2 A1 h1 h = A2 2 L1 L2

A L h 1 = 2 1 h 2 A1 L 2

Q1

Q2

Suppose lengths were the same (L1 = L2), then head loss is inversely proportional to area ratio i.e. if A 1 is large compared to A2, then h1 will be small compared to h2. (Note that h1 + h2 = hT) 3.2 Soils of different permeability

Parallel Flow In this case, the two soils experience the same head difference ( hT), but the flows through the two are different.
h1 = h 2 = h T and L1 = L 2 = L h Q1 = k 1A1i1 = k 1A1 T L h Q 2 = k 2 A 2i 2 = k 2 A 2 T L h QT = Q1 + Q 2 = ( k 1A1 + k 2 A 2 ) T L

The question now is, what would be the equivalent permeability ke of a single soil replacing these two soils, which would give the same flow rate for the same total head loss?

Q1 Q2

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h h Q T = k e ( A1 + A 2 ) T = k e A T T L L which means that : k e A T = k 1A 1 + k 2 A 2 A A k e = k1 1 + k 2 2 A A T T

which means that the equivalent permeability of the two soils ke is the weighted arithmetic mean of the permeabilities of the two soils (weighted by relative cross-sectional areas). Thus, if the areas are equal, ke is the average (arithmetic mean) of k1 and k2. Series flow
In this case, the two soils have the same flow rate Q1 = Q 2 = Q , but different head drops.

h T = h1 + h 2 Q L Q L = 1 1+ 2 2 k 1A 1 k 2 A 2 Q1 = Q 2 = Q and A1 = A 2 = A QL L h T = 1 + 2 k A 1 k2 Equivalent single soil, with k e : QL T h T = A .k e L T L1 L 2 = + k e k1 k 2 L T L1 L 2 = + k e k1 k 2 1 L1 1 L 2 1 = + k e LT k1 LT k 2 If L1 = L 2 = 0.5( L T ) : 1 1 1 = + k e 2.k 1 2.k 2

Q1

Q2

In this case, the equivalent overall permeability is the weighted geometric mean of the permeabilities of the two soils, where the weighting is in terms of the relative lengths of the flow paths through the two soils.

Can now find 3.3

If these lengths are the same (L1 = L2), the equivalent using ke, and then, if required, permeability is h2. simple geometric mean of the find h1 and the permeabilities of the two soils.

Example: Layered Soil

Many natural sedimentary soil deposits consist of are sand with thin clay or silt layers, or clay with thin sand layers. The layering is generally horizontal (or nearly so). In these cases, flow occurring in a horizontal direction involves parallel flow, whereas flow in the vertical direction involves series flow. The presence of the thin layer within the thick one has completely different effect depending on
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whether flow is vertical or horizontal. In these cases, the equivalent overall permeability for vertical flow is the vertical permeability kv, and that for horizontal flow is the horizontal permeability kh. Suppose a deposit has mainly sand, with ks = 1 x 104 m/s, but there are thin clay layers, with kc = 1 x 108 m/s, where the cumulative clay thickness is 10% of the total thickness. What is the equivalent permeability of the overall system, for horizontal and vertical flow (i.e. what is kh and kv) Horizontal flow: thin clay layers within thick sand deposit For horizontal flow, the flow is in parallel with the layering, with the cross section of the sand being 90% of the total, and that of the clay being 10% of the total.
A s = 0.9 A T kh = ks A c = 0.1A T As A + kc c AT AT

= 0.9k s + 0.1k c = 0.9 10 4 + 0.1 10 8 = 0.9 10 4 m/s Effectivel y reduces permeabili ty by 10%

Relative to the sand, the clay is impermeable so the effect on horizontal flow is to lose 10% of the area of sand available for flow effectively reducing the equivalent horizontal permeability by 10%

Vertical flow: thin clay layers within thick sand deposit For vertical flow, the flow is in series with the layering, with the length of the flow path in the sand being 90% of the total, and that of the clay being 10% of the total.
L 1 Lc 1 1 = s + k v LT k1 LT k 2 1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.1 = + = + = 1.0 10 7 4 8 kv k s k s 1 10 1 10 k v = 9.99 10 8 m/s 1.0 10 7 m/s

Thin sand layers within thick clay deposit Easy to show that the effect is the opposite thin (horizontal) sand layers make a very big difference to horizontal flow in clay, but they make no difference to vertical flow. Suppose the geometry is the same as above, but in this case the sand makes up only 10% of the total thickness, and the clay 90%. Horizontal flow parallel flow
A c = 0 .9 A T kh = kc A s = 0.1A T Ac A + ks s AT AT

For vertical flow, the equivalent vertical permeability is only 10 times greater than if it was only clay this increase is close to the ratio of sand thickness to clay thickness. The flow has to pass through the clay, and this limits the flow.

Vertical Flow series flow

L 1 Ls 1 1 = c + k v LT k1 LT k 2 1 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.1 = + = + 8 kv kc k s 1 10 1 10 4 = 9.0 10 7 k v = 1.11 10 8 m/s

= 0.9k c + 0.1k s = 0.9 10 8 + 0.1 10 4 = 0.1 10 4 m/s

Horizontal permeability is closer to that of the sand Vertical permeability is close to that of the clay than the clay in fact, its 10% of the sand only 10% higher, reflecting the 10% of the flow permeability (only 10% of the total area is sand). path that is in the sand. You can make sense of this by envisaging the situation of a horizontal sheet of impermeable plastic (k = 0) within a deposit of sand. It would have no effect on horizontal flow, but would prevent vertical flow.
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For the case where the sand is only 1% of the total thickness, the horizontal and vertical permeabilities become Horizontal flow parallel flow
k h = 0.99 k c + 0.01 k s = 0.99 10 8 + 0.01 10 4 = 1 10 6 m /s

Vertical Flow series flow

1 0.99 0.91 0.99 0.01 = + = + 8 kv kc ks 1 10 1 10 4 = 9.9 10 7 k = 1.01 10 8 m /s

v The thin (1%) sand layer gives a horizontal permeability that is 100 times greater than that The thin sand layer has only 1% effect. of the clay

Thus, for horizontal flow into trenches, or into mine workings, for example where the dominant soil (or rock) is low permeability, it can be very important to know if there are any horizontal sand layers, no matter how thin, as they can greatly increase the inflow above that calculated for a uniform deposit.

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