Advances in Bituminous Road Construction

Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal,

Associate Director (Emeritus), National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT), Auburn University, Alabama, U.S.A.

Introduction
An ambitious road construction plan is underway in India, which primarily involves bituminous pavements. At the present time, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORTH) Specification for Road and Bridge Works, 2001 Edition is used for construction of all roads including national highways. Advances in bituminous construction technologies are made in the world almost

every year. This paper describes such advances in terms of materials, mix

design, special bituminous mixes, and recycling. There is a need to incorporate these advances in MORTH specifications which are about 10 years old, to keep abreast of latest technologies.

Materials
Paving Bitumen
Prior to July 2006, penetration graded road paving bitumen such as 60/70 was

used in India. This grading system was based on empirical penetration test, bitumen. Although two 60/70 penetration bitumen samples from different refineries may have similar consistency (stiffness) at 25oC, but one may be

which is conducted at 25oC. The penetration test measures the consistency of

pavement temperature on a hot summer day. Bitumen which is very soft at high temperature is undesirable because it can cause rutting in bituminous adopted a viscosity grading system for paving bitumen in July 2006 by issuing pavement under heavy loads. Therefore, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) standard IS:73:2006. This system is based on viscosity testing at 60oC. Penetration graded bitumen 60/70 was deleted and substituted with viscosity substituted with viscosity graded VG-10. graded VG-30. Similarly, penetration graded bitumen 80/100 was deleted and

softer than the other when tested at 60oC, which is close to the highest

advance further by adopting performance graded (PG) bitumen, especially for

Although the preceding advancement has been made, there is a need to

national highways. The viscosity grading system gave excellent performance although more rational than the penetration grading system, was still based on

results in the US for over 20 years. However, the viscosity grading system, experience. A 50-million dollar, 5-year Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) was undertaken from 1987 to 1992 to develop a performance based grading system for bitumen, which was based on engineering principles to (acronym for Superior Performing Pavements) performance grading system includes new bitumen tests and specifications with the following salient features: address common asphalt pavement distress problems. The so-called Superpave

1. Tests and specifications are intended for bitumen "binders," which 2. The physical properties measured by Superpave bitumen tests are just the experience. include both modified and unmodified bitumens.

directly related to field performance by engineering principles rather than

3. A long-term bitumen aging test, which simulates aging of bitumens during 5-10 years in service, was developed and included for the first time.

4. Tests and specifications are designed to eliminate or minimize three

specific types of asphalt pavement distresses: rutting, fatigue cracking, fatigue cracking at intermediate temperature, and thermal cracking at low temperatures.

and thermal cracking. Rutting typically occurs at high temperature,

5. As shown in Figure 1, the entire range of pavement temperature were developed/adopted for testing bitumens for this purpose. A

experienced at the project site is considered. New testing equipments rotational viscometer is used to measure the bitumen viscosity at 135oC. properties of the bitumen at two temperatures: high temperature corresponding to the maximum 7-day pavement temperature during

A dynamic shear rheometer is used to measure the viscoelastic

summer at the project site, and intermediate temperature corresponding

to the average annual temperature of the pavement at the project site. A bending beam rheometer and a direct tension tester are used to measure the rheological properties of the bitumen at the lowest pavement temperature during winter at the project site.

Figure 1: Superpave performance grade bitumen testing is conducted over the entire range of temperature experienced at the project site
The Superpave performance grade (PG) bitumen is based on climate. For example, PG 64-22 bitumen is suitable for a project location, where the minimum pavement temperature is 22oC. average 7-day maximum pavement temperature is as much as 64oC, and the The high temperature grades are PG 52, PG 58, PG 64, PG 70, PG 76, and PG

82. The low temperature grades are 4, 10, -16, -22, -28, -34 and so forth.

Both high and low temperature grades are in increments of 6 Celsius degrees.

Example: A project location in Rajasthan has a maximum record 7-day temperature of 3oC. A PG 70-4 bitumen will be specified for paving that

pavement temperature of 70oC in summer and a minimum record pavement

project.

Aggregate
Many advances have been made in characterization of in bituminous construction. However, one simple test for characterizing particle shape & surface texture of fine aggregate (sand) passing 4.75 mm sieve can coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral filler used

implemented easily in India. It is desirable to have angular fine aggregate particles in mix so as to resist rutting in bituminous pavements. Whereas angularity of

be

coarse aggregate (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) can be evaluated by naked eye, it is not easy to do so in

case of fine aggregate particles. The schematic of the test equipment for measuring fine aggregate angularity (FAA) is shown in Figure 2. It can be AASHTO Test 304.

fabricated easily in India. FAA test procedure has been adopted as standard

Figure 2: Schematic of equipment for testing fine aggregate angularity (FAA)

A calibrated cylindrical measure is filled with fine aggregate of prescribed grading by allowing the sample to flow through a funnel from a fixed height into the cylindrical measure. The fine aggregate is struck off at the rim, and its mass is determined by weighing. Uncompacted void content in the fine aggregate is calculated as the difference between the volume of the cylindrical

measure and the absolute bulk volume of the fine aggregate collected in the bulk dry specific gravity.

measure. Bulk volume of the fine aggregate is calculated from its mass and its

This test is based on the concept that round particles pack closer than angular

particles and therefore produce lower uncompacted void content, that is, lower FAA value. A FAA value of 45 or more is desirable to ensure that the fine aggregate is angular and does not contain any natural sand, which normally has rounded particles.

Mix Design
Marshall Mix design is currently used in India for designing bituminous mixes. In any mix design, it is desirable to compact laboratory specimens to a density which is expected to be achieved in the bituminous course after 2-3 years of densification under traffic. For designing bituminous mixes for heavy traffic, 75 blows each are applied with a Marshall impact hammer on both sides of the specimen. This laboratory compaction level worked well in the past. However, it was observed in the US during the 1980s that the field density of in-service density obtained with 75 blows. This was attributed to increased truck tyre

bituminous pavements was significantly higher than the laboratory design pressures and new tyre designs with stiffer side walls. Therefore, 75-blow compaction level appeared inadequate. Increasing the number of blows was not particles in the specimen. desirable because it merely caused degradation (breakage) of aggregate

Figure 3: Schematic of Superpave gyratory compactor

During SHRP, a new Superpave mix design method was developed in the US. A laboratory specimen with gyratory action (see schematic of SGC in Figure 3) rather than impact compaction as is done with Marshall hammer. Gyratory particle orientation. Depending on the traffic level in ESALs (equivalent single

Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) was developed which compacted the

compaction also simulates field compaction with rollers in terms of aggregate axle loads) expected on the highway, desired compaction level can be obtained in SGC by varying the number of gyrations without causing any significant degradation of aggregate in the mix.

Another advantage of SGC is that a densification curve (number of gyrations process. At least three different gradations of the proposed mix are evaluated aggregate skeleton.

versus compacted density of specimen) is obtained during the compaction in the Superpave mix design to select the gradation which has the strongest

Special Bituminous Mixes

Stone Matrix Asphalt Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) was developed in Germany in the mid 1960 and it

has been used very successfully by many countries including US as a highly course for heavy traffic roads. SMA is tough, stable, rut-resistant mix that provide durability.

rut-resistant bituminous course, both for binder (intermediate) and wearing relies on stone-on-stone contact to provide strength and a rich mortar binder to

Fig. 4a Stone matrix asphalt cross-section

Fig. 4b Conventional hot mix asphalt cross-section

Figure 4 provides a cross-sectional representation of the difference between SMA and dense-graded conventional bituminous mix. In a conventional dense separated by fine aggregate matrix, which primarily carries the load. In SMA, skeleton which carries the load. graded mix, coarse aggregate particles (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) are coarse aggregate particles have stone-on-stone contact forming a stone

Since SMA mix has relatively higher bitumen content, cellulose fiber is added to the mix from plant to project site. Although the cost of SMA is typically about 25-30% higher than the cost of dense graded bituminous mix, it is still economical considering life cycle costs.

the mix to minimize drain down of bitumen in trucks during transportation of

SMA has been widely used in the US since 1991 for heavy-traffic roads. It must also be used in India for heavy corridors especially when overloading is also common. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has recently published a tentative specification for SMA (IRC:SP:79-2008), which was drafted by the author to

facilitate its use in India. A manual containing detailed guidelines for designing and constructing SMA mixtures was developed by the author in the US for practicing engineers.

Open Graded Asphalt Friction Course

Open graded asphalt friction course (OGFC) is an open graded hot mix asphalt

mixture with interconnected voids that provide improved surface drainage impermeable underlying bituminous layer and then laterally to the day lighted

during rainfall. The rainwater drains vertically through the OGFC to an (exposed) edge of the OGFC onwards to shoulder. In addition to minimizing

hydroplaning potential during rainfall and providing improved friction values on

wet pavements, the OGFC offers the following advantages compared to other dense graded surfaces: (a) reduced vehicle splash and spray behind vehicles, (b) reduced markings, and (d) reduced night time surface glare in wet weather. tyre-pavement noise, (c) enhanced visibility of pavement

Numerous states in the US currently using OGFC have experienced excellent performance in terms of safety (improved wet pavement surface friction) and durability. This has been accomplished by one or more of the following: use of cellulose fibers), and/or relatively open gradations. polymer modified asphalt binders, relatively higher bitumen content (by using Figure 5 shows an interstate highway in the US, where OGFC was used in the lanes on the right side and dense graded bituminous mix was used in the lanes on the left side. Note the dramatic difference: there is no standing water and absence of splash/spray on the lanes on the right side during rain.

A manual giving detailed guidelines on design, construction and maintenance of OGFC was developed by the author for use by practicing engineers in the US. Due to economic considerations, OGFC should be used in India selectively in from skidding on wet pavement.

regions with heavy rainfall and stretches of roads prone to accidents resulting

Warm Mix Asphalt

Figure 5: Lanes on the right have OGFC and lanes on the left have dense graded hot mix asphalt on a interstate in the US. Note absence of standing water and splash/spray on the lanes on the right side. Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a fast emerging new technology which has a potential of revolutionizing the production of asphalt mixtures. WMA technology allows the mixing, lay down, and compaction of asphalt (HMA). The technology can reduce production temperatures by as much temperatures depending mainly on the type of binder used. WMA mixes can be produced at temperatures of about 120C or lower. mixes at significantly lower temperatures compared to hot mix asphalt as 30%. Asphalt mixes are generally produced at 150C or greater

The development of WMA was initiated in Europe in the late 1990s the Kyoto Protocol. WMA technologies such as Aspha-min, WAM Foam, and Sasobit were developed during that time. New WMA technologies Double Barrel Green were later developed within the US.

primarily in response to the need for greenhouse gas reduction under

such as Evotherm, Rediset WMX, REVIX, LEA (Low Energy Asphalt) and

Warm mix asphalt offers the following significant advantages:

Energy savings. The most obvious benefit of WMA is the reduction in

fuel consumption. Fuel is used to dry and heat the aggregate. Studies have shown that lower plant mix temperatures associated with WMA can lead to as much as 30 percent reduction in energy consumption.

Decreased emissions. WMA produces emissions (both visible and non visible) from the burning of fossil fuels at a significantly reduced level compared to HMA (Figure 6). This would permit asphalt plants to be areas that have air quality restrictions. located in and around non-attainment areas such as large metropolitan

Decreased fumes and odour. WMA produces lower fumes and odour both at the plant and the paving site compared to HMA. This would also result in improved working conditions at both places. Decreased binder aging. Short-term aging of liquid asphalt binder drum. This aging is caused by the loss of lighter oils from the liquid

takes place when it is mixed with hot aggregate in pug mill or mixing asphalt binders during mixing at high temperatures. It is believed that the loss of lighter oils will be less at relatively lower mixing

the short-term aging of the binder will be reduced significantly because temperatures. This may enhance asphalt pavement durability.

Figure 6: Emission can be seen from the hot mix asphalt at 320 F (160 C) in left truck. No emission is visible from the truck in right containing warm mix asphalt at 250 F (121 C). (Photo courtesy: Matthew Corrigan, FHWA)
Extended paving season. By producing WMA at normal HMA

temperatures, it may be possible to extend the paving season into the WMA additives or processes act as a compaction aid. Further by

colder months of the year or in places located on high altitudes since the narrowing the difference between compaction temperature and ambient air temperature the rate of cooling is decreased. WMA may also be transported over longer distances as compared to HMA with reduced loss of mix temperature in the hauling units. This advantage should facilitate the Indian Border Roads Organization (BRO) in constructing asphalt roads in high altitude and/or remote areas far away from hot mix plants.

Compaction aid for stiffer mixes. WMA additives and processes may be used to improve the compactibility of stiff mixes when mix is produced closer to typical HMA production temperatures. Smaller experience with the use of certain types of WMA with SMA in Europe.

reductions in temperature may also be possible. There is extensive

Increased amount of RAP. Research has shown that the percentage of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) can be increased in WMA compared to HMA during hot recycling. Generation of carbon credits for India. Developing countries like India can earn CERs (Certified Emission Reductions) or popularly known are introduced and implemented. as carbon credits under the Kyoto Protocol if technologies such as WMA

At the present time a mix is considered warm mix in the US if the mix produced

normal hot mix. WMA has a wide range of production temperatures ranging WMA technologies are also applicable to mixes made with polymer modified asphalt binders.

at the plant has temperature exceeding 100C but significantly below that of a

from slightly over 100C to about 20 to 30C below typical HMA temperatures.

WMA technologies can be classified broadly as (a) those that use water, (b) chemical additives or surfactants.

those that use some type of organic additive or wax, and (c) those that use Technologies which introduce small amounts of water to hot asphalt binder, take advantage of the phenomenon: when water turns into steam at tremendous increase in the volume of asphalt binder which not only helps in atmospheric pressure it expands in volume by a factor of 1,673. This causes coating the aggregate easily but also lowers the mix apparent viscosity. Processes to introduce water into the asphalt binder consist of foaming nozzles, binder temperature typically is the same as that used for hot mix asphalt. use of hydrophilic material such as zeolite or use of damp aggregate. Asphalt

Technologies that use organic additives or waxes lower the asphalt binder viscosity above their respective melting points. It should be ensured that their melting points are above the in-service pavement temperatures during hot problem.

summers so that permanent deformation or rutting does not become a Technologies that use some chemical additive and /or surfactants produce a variety of different mechanisms to coat the aggregate at lower temperatures. incorporate WMA specifications in MORTH specifications. It appears WMA technology is about to take off in India. There is a need to

Recycling of Bituminous Pavements

Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement specific benefits of recycling can be summarized as follows: materials results in considerable savings of material, money, and energy. The

1. When properly used, recycling can result in substantial savings over the use of new materials. Also, the cost of haulage can be avoided if recycling is performed in place. The need for economic consideration is increasing cost of materials. felt now more than ever, because of tightening budgets and ever 2. Recycling can help in conservation of natural resources by reducing the need for new materials. This translates to substantial savings in aggregate resources and demand for asphalt binder (bitumen),

especially during supply interruptions. Even though there may be an not always coincide with the location of need.

abundant supply of aggregates, the distribution of these sources does 3. Recycled materials have proven to be equal or even better than new

materials in quality. Hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlay on recycled base is

expected to perform better than an HMA overlay on the existing surface, even though they have the same thickness, because the former can substantially reduce the potential of reflective cracking through the surface course.

4. Recycling can maintain pavement geometrics as well as pavement thickness. The existing pavement structure can be strengthened by disruption is lesser than that for other rehabilitation techniques. conventional construction techniques. This 1972 Arab oil embargo. recycling without adding substantial overlays. In some cases, the traffic 5. Recycling can save considerable amount of energy compared to importance during an energy crisis like the one experienced during the factor is of significant

Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement rehabilitation alternatives. With the continuous accumulation of performance data, field and laboratory evaluations of recycled mixes, and with the simultaneous development of realistic performance oriented guidelines it is

expected that recycling will continue to be the most attractive rehabilitation technique. Different recycling methods are now available to address specific pavement follows.

distress and structural needs. A brief description of these recycling methods The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association define five different types of recycling methods: (1) Cold Planing; (2) Hot Recycling; (3) Hot In Place Recycling; (4) Cold In-Place Recycling; and (5) Full Depth Reclamation.

Cold planing is described as an automatic method of removing asphalt

pavement to a desired depth and restoration of the surface to a desired grade

and slope and free of humps, ruts and other distresses. This method can be used for the roughening or texturing of a pavement to improve frictional resistance. Cold planing is performed with a self propelled rotary drum cold planing machine with the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) transferred to trucks for removal from the job site. The resulting pavement can be used immediately by regular traffic and overlaid at some future time or left as a textured surface.

Hot recycling or hot mix recycling is the process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material is combined with new materials, sometimes along with a recycling agent, to produce hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Both batch and drum type hot mix plants are used to produce recycled mix. The RAP ambient temperature when introduced in weigh hopper of the batch plant

material can be obtained by milling or ripping and crushing operation. RAP at (Figure 7) or drum of the drum plant is heated by superheated virgin

aggregate. If the amount of RAP exceeds 15-20 percent, a softer asphalt binder

is used to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder in the RAP. The mix placement and compaction equipment and procedures are the same as for regular HMA. Typical RAP to new aggregate ratio varies from 10:90 to 30:70 with a

maximum of 50:50 (drum plant). The advantages of hot mix recycling include

significant structural improvement, equal or better performance compared to conventional HMA, and capability to correct most surface defects, deformation, and cracking.

Figure 7: Hot mix asphalt recycling in a batch plant

Hot in place recycling (HIR) consists of a method in which the existing

pavement is heated and softened, and then scarified or hot rotary mixed to a specified depth. New HMA or recycling agent may be added to the RAP material during the recycling process. HIR can be performed either as a single pass or a multiple pass operation. In single pass operation, the restored RAP material is

combined with new material. In multiple pass operation, the restored RAP material is recompacted first, and a new wearing surface is applied later. The Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) has identified three depth of treatment varies between 20 to 40 mm (3/4 in to 1 in). The Asphalt

processes; (a) surface recycling, (b) repaving, and (c) remixing. In a surface

HIR

recycling operation the existing asphalt surface is heated and scarified to a recycling agent. The mix is then compacted. A new overlay may or may not be surface recycling method is combined with a simultaneous overlay of new hot same time.

specified depth. The scarified material is combined with aggregate and/or placed on the recycled mix. In the second type of HIR method, repaving, the mix asphalt (HMA). Both the scarified mix and the new HMA are rolled at the

In the case of remixing, the scarified RAP material is mixed with virgin HMA in

a pug mill, and the recycled mix is laid down as a single mix. The advantages of hot in place recycling are that surface cracks can be eliminated, ruts and aggregate gradation and asphalt content can be modified, traffic interruption is minimal, and hauling costs are minimized. without the application of heat. In cold in place recycling (CIR), the existing pavement material is reused Except for any recycling agent, shoves and bumps can be corrected, aged asphalt binder is rejuvenated,

transportation of materials is usually required, and, therefore, haulage cost is very low. Normally, an asphalt emulsion is added as a recycling agent. The process includes pulverizing the existing pavement, sizing of the RAP, application of recycling agent, placement, and compaction. The use of a recycling train, which consists of pulverizing, screening, crushing, and mixing units, is quite common. The processed material is deposited in a windrow from the mixing device, where it is picked up, placed, and compacted with treatment is typically from 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in).

no

conventional hot mix asphalt lay down and rolling equipment. The depth of The advantages of cold in place recycling include significant structural improvement, treatment of most pavement distress, improvement of ride widening. quality, minimum hauling and air quality problems, and capability of pavement Full depth reclamation has been defined as a recycling method where all of the

asphalt pavement section and a predetermined amount of underlying material

are treated to produce a stabilized base course. It is basically a cold mix emulsions and chemical agents such as calcium chloride, Portland cement, fly ash, and lime, are added to obtain ail improved base. The four main steps in this process are pulverization, introduction of additive, compaction, and application of a surface or a wearing course. If the in place material is not
be imported and included in the processing. This method of recycling is normally

recycling process in which different types of additives such as asphalt

sufficient to provide the desired depth of the treated base, new materials may
performed to a depth of 100 mm to 305 mm (4 to 12 in). The advantages of full depth reclamation are that most pavement distresses are treated, hauling costs are material disposal problems are eliminated, and ride quality is improved. minimized, significant structural improvements can be made (especially in base),

Summary This paper describes recent advances in bituminous road construction in terms

of materials, mix design, special bituminous mixes, and recycling. These shape of fine aggregate; Superpave mix design; stone matrix asphalt (SMA); four types of asphalt pavement recycling.

include performance grading system for paving bitumen; measuring particle open graded asphalt friction course (OGFC); warm mix asphalt (WMA); and

References

Kandhal, P.S. An Overview of the Viscosity Grading System Adopted in India for Paving Bitumen. Indian Highways, Volume 34, No. 4, April 2007. Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy. 'Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction.' NAPA Education Foundation, Lanham, Maryland, Second Edition, 1996. Kandhal, P.S. and F. Parker. 'Aggregate Tests Related to Asphalt Concrete Performance in Pavements.' Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 405, 1998. Kandhal, P.S. 'Aggregate Tests for Hot Mix Asphalt:' State of the Practice. Transportation Research Board Circular No. 479, December, 1997. Kandhal, P.S. Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Open-Graded Asphalt Friction Courses. National Asphalt Pavement Association Information Series 115, May 2002. Kandhal, P.S. Designing and Constructing Stone Matrix Asphalt Mixtures State-of-the-Practice. National Asphalt Pavement Association Quality Improvement Publication QIP-122 (Revised Edition), March 2002. Kandhal, P.S. Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies: An Overview. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Volume 71-2, 2010. Kandhal, P.S. Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview. Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 66, 1997. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick. Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local Governments. Federal Highway Administration Publication No. FHWA-SA-98-042, December, 1997.

About the Author

Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) based at Auburn University, Alabama, U.S.A. NCAT is the largest asphalt (bitumen) road technology center in the world. Prior to joining NCAT in 1988, Kandhal served as Chief Asphalt Engineer

Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal is Associate Director (Emeritus) at the National

of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation for 17 years. He is the first prestigious positions in the asphalt technology area:

person born outside North America, who has held the following three very

President, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists (with members from all continents in the world) Chairman, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

International Committee on Road Paving Standards (responsible for over 200 highway standards used worldwide)

Chairman, Transportation Research Board Committee on Asphalt Roads, U.S. National Academy of Sciences

Prof. Kandhal has published over 120 technical papers and has co-authored the first ever textbook on asphalt road technology, which is used by more than 25 universities in the U.S.

Courtesy : NBMCW March 2011 Issue