1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1

GENERAL

1.1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND

Current

structural

engineering

practice

generally

employs

the

conventional materials steel and concrete as essential construction materials. Steel columns with adequately thick sections and multiple longitudinal stiffeners are often designed to arrest the problems related to buckling of the thin steel wall. It is not uncommon in either case that the structures so constructed may have to carry increased loads over time or satisfy current design standards. In addition, it is a well-known fact that the influence of local buckling is manifested in the behaviour of thin tubular columns. There is a need for a convenient means of strengthening tubular sections against buckling using externally bonded high strength fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets around the periphery of the hollow steel tube. Research over the last few decades reveals that the application of non-metallic fibre composite materials for strengthening and retrofitting of reinforced concrete structures has proved to be of economic and engineering advantage. More recently, there has been a heightened interest towards the use of externally applied composite fibre reinforcement in steel members which, combining the advantageous mechanical properties of different materials, leads to improved structural performance. FRP composites as a structural reinforcing material possess complementary material characteristics to concrete or steel, namely, higher strength-to weight ratio, ease of handling and high corrosion resistance, all of which transcend other considerations.

There are many factors which cause aging civil structures to become inadequate and lose their serviceability such as deterioration of materials by environmental corrosive agents, increase of magnitude and repetition of loads acting on the structures, design and construction errors, etc. Particularly, steel structures may be seriously damaged by fatigue and corrosion leading to decrease of the load bearing capacity of the structures. One of the efficiently used methods for rehabilitation of the existing damaged steel structures is to use bonded carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP).

Unlike steel, the properties of FRP can be adapted to different directions by altering the fibre orientation and amount of fibre sheet in any specific direction. General failure modes possible in FRP strengthened are: a)Interfacial failure between steel and adhesive; b) Cohesive failure; c) Interfacial failure between adhesive and CFRP; d) CFRP delamination; e) CFRP laminate rupture; f) Steel member yielding.

Fig 1.1 Failure modes in FRP - steel composite member

1.1.2 HOLLOW SECTIONS IN STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS1

Design is an interactive process between the functional and architectural requirements and the strength and fabrication aspects. In a good design, all these aspects have to be considered in a balanced way. Due to the special features of hollow sections and their connections it is even here of more importance than for steel structures of open sections. Many examples in nature show the excellent properties of the tubular shape with regard to loading in compression, torsion and bending in all directions, as in bamboo plants. Furthermore, the closed shape without sharp corners reduces the area to be protected and extends the corrosion protection life. Another aspect which is especially favourable for circular hollow sections is the lower drag coefficients if exposed to wind or water forces. In addition, the heating or ventilation system sometimes makes use of the hollow section columns. Although the manufacturing costs of hollow sections are higher than for other sections, leading to higher unit material cost, economical applications are achieved in construction field.

1.1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

The composite industry was introduced with the production of thermosetting plastics in 1909 and the commercial availability of fibreglass filaments in 1935. Still, it was not until the 1940s that the composite industry began to bloom. The use of composite technology in aircraft applications flourished and, by the 1950s, FRP boat hulls and FRP car bodies were developed, wherein glass fibres were the major reinforcement used. The advantage of glass was that, being a non-conductive material, it could be used as an insulator to prevent galvanic corrosion of metals. However, under certain conditions of exposure, glass fibres proved to be sensitive to alkaline environments and moisture attack. In addition, creep affected glass fibres more than any other types of fibres. The higher performance CFRPs were developed in 1963 for specialised

applications. Unlike glass, carbon is an electrical conductor and hence galvanic corrosion could take place, if fibres are placed in direct contact with metals, but such fibres behave very well against creep deformation and relaxation. Also resistant to creep and fatigue, aramid fibres were first developed in 1965 and found acceptance in aerospace and marine applications, despite their anisotropic mechanical behaviour. Two of the first known applications of glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP) in civil infrastructure were a dome structure constructed in Benghazi in 1968 and a roof structure at the Dubai Airport in 1972. In the late 1970s, footbridges using composite materials were constructed in Europe and the USA, and in 1981 the first known GFRP highway bridge was constructed at Ginzi, Bulgaria. In the late 1980s, the first major bridge was constructed using FRP composites. Since the early 1990s, there has been an increase in the use of FRP for the construction of industrial platforms, pedestrian bridges, latticed transmission towers, and for other applications. Externally bonded FRP composites applied to reinforced concrete (RC) structures have been used around the world since the mid-1980s. Since then, the application of FRP reinforcement has expanded to include masonry structures, timber and, to a lesser degree, metals. Nowadays, FRP composites are used in a variety of applications. One particular case is an offshore platform for oil production installed on Shells Southpass 62 in the Gulf of Mexico in 1986. In the last 30 years there have been considerable advancements in the use of FRP composites in civil infrastructure which is reflected by the fact that, in the previous decade, the construction industry led the transition from conventional materials to advanced composites by using 30% of all polymers produced. The increasing amount of ongoing research related to this matter indicates that this trend will continue.

1.1.4 GENERAL OVERVIEW ON FRP FOR STRUCTURES

Carbon/Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymers, also called composite materials, are popularly used in structural strengthening for steel, wood, concrete, seaport

and aerospace applications because of their cost effectiveness and superior performance in high strength, light weight, corrosion resistance, bomb blast and earthquake protections. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Concrete Institute (ACI), British and European Standards established design and test criteria for metal and concrete structural repair for decades.2

The widely used materials for wrapping concrete structures are Plate bonding MBrace systems and Concresive adhesives3 1.2 NEED FOR STUDY There are numerous codes and standards available for strengthening reinforced concrete structures. The codes and standards concerning these are BS 8110, EN 1504, ACI 440. Also many organizations have published standards, test methods and specifications for FRP composites and their products for the respective products like American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Canadian Society of Civil Engineers (CSCE), Advanced Composite Materials for Bridges and Structures (ACMBS) and Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE). The strengthening methods for steel structures are under study for the last decade and no guidelines is yet standardised. Research is still required many issues on this promising technique and to provide design guidelines for using CFRP to rehabilitate steel structures.

The early research for strengthening steel structures focussed mainly on the use of conventional modulus CFRP materials. The early research typically indicates that CFRP materials can be effectively used to increase the flexural strength, and post yield stiffness of typical steel bridge girders. However, due to the relatively low modulus of elasticity of the CFRP materials compared to steel, a significant amount of strengthening material was typically required to enhance the stiffness and overall serviceability of the structure within the elastic range. A

comprehensive experimental and analytical research program has been in progress for the past 6 years to develop a high modulus (HM) CFRP strengthening system for steel bridges and structures. 1.3 OBJECTIVE To develop a numerical model to predict the effect of CFRP strengthening wraps on the axial load carrying capacity of the circular hollow section (CHS) columns. Also to form empirical equations for the buckling behaviour of the long circular hollow columns. 1.4 SCOPE OF PROJECT The project aims to conclude with reliable equations for the buckling behaviour of the long CHS columns with FRP wrapping. This study would be validated with previous literature and also would check the experimental study on buckling behaviour that would be conducted simultaneously by a colleague. The factors that influence the strengthening effects include the steel yield strength, the modulus of elasticity of the hoop fibre, and the amount and configuration of the CFRP sheets. This project would consider these factors also in account for the numerical model development.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Fawzia,S.,et.al (2006) 4 has described the behaviour of very high strength (VHS) circular steel tubes strengthened by CFRP and subjected to axial tension. A series of tests were conducted with different bond lengths and number of layers. The distribution of strain through the thickness of CFRP layers and along the CFRP bond length was studied. The strain was found to generally decrease along the CFRP bond length far from the joint. The strain through the thickness of the CFRP layers was also found to decrease from the bottom to top layer. The effective bond length for high modulus CFRP was established. Finally empirical models were developed to estimate the maximum load for a given CFRP arrangement. Xiao-Ling Zhao and Lei Zhang (2006) 5 has provided a review of current research on FRP strengthened steel structures. It complements the existing review documents by focussing on the following areas that have received only small coverage, but which have developed rapidly. Future research topics have been identified as: the bondslip relationship, the stability of CFRP strengthened steel members, and fatigue crack propagation modelling. Zhong Tao,et.al (2006)6 presented the axial compression test results of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) stub columns strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced polymer CFRP composites. Both circular and rectangular specimens were tested to investigate the retrofitting effects of CFRP composites on them. The test results showed that the CFRP jackets enhanced the load bearing capacity of the circular columns effectively, whereas the enhancement was not so significant for rectangular columns. However, ductility was enhanced to some

extent for those rectangular columns. A simple model is proposed to calculate the ultimate strength of circular CFST stub columns wrapped with CFRP. The predicted results are generally in good agreement with the experimental ones obtained in this study and in the literature.

Teng, J.G.

and Hu,Y.M. (2006)7 has explored the benefit of FRP

confinement of hollow steel tubes to enhance the ductility and hence the seismic resistance. Axial compression tests on FRP-confined steel tubes and Finite element modelling of these tests were described. Both the test and the numerical results show that FRP jacketing is a very promising technique for the retrofit and strengthening of circular hollow steel tubes. He has also concluded that FRP jacketing is an effective strengthening method for shells failing by elephants foot collapse near the base. Seica, M.V. and Packer, J.A. (2006) 8 has explored the rehabilitation of steel tubular structures with CFRP, aiming to assess experimentally the possibility of rehabilitating tubular steel flexural members, with emphasis on underwater applications. In general, the ultimate bending strength, flexural stiffness and rotation capacity of the wrapped beams, relative to the reference beam, were increased for all the performance parameters under study. The in air versus underwater specimens were compared. However, the composite members wrapped and cured underwater were not able to attain the flexural capacity of those cured in air. For the tubes wrapped and cured in air, ultimate strength increases of 16% and 27% relative to the bare steel beam were achieved, along with increases of 7% and 18% in flexural stiffness. Amr Shaat and Amir Fam (2006) 9 described the behaviour of axially loaded short and long square hollow structural section (HSS) columns, strengthened with CFRP sheets. The effect of CFRP sheet orientation in the longitudinal and transverse directions was studied for short columns. For long

columns, CFRP sheets were oriented in the longitudinal direction only. A maximum strength gain of 18% was achieved for short columns with two transverse CFRP layers. For long columns, the maximum strength gain of 23% was achieved with three longitudinal CFRP layers applied on four sides. In all CFRP-strengthened long columns, lateral deflections were reduced. Strength gain in long columns was highly dependent on the columns imperfection. Loo,M.K.Y,et.al (2007)10 developed a new method to find the bond versus slip properties of externally bonded carbon fibre reinforced polymer used in repair and strengthening which is fundamental input in any numerical or design model, based on double shear tests. The finite element results show that the effective length is significantly influenced by the concrete compressive strength and, to a much lesser extent, the FRP stiffness and adhesive shear modulus. Fernando,D.,et.al (2008)11 studied how end bearing capacity of a rectangular hollow section (RHS) steel tube can substantially increase through local strengthening using bonded FRP plates. The paper presented the results of an experimental study aimed at clarifying the effects of adhesive properties on the failure mode and the load-carrying capacity. Four different failure modes were observed in these tests: (1) adhesion failure; (2) cohesion failure; (3) combined adhesion and cohesion failure; (4) interlaminar failure of CFRP plates. The tests also revealed that an adhesive with a larger ultimate tensile strain leads to a greater load carrying capacity of the strengthened RHS tube. Nuno Silvestre,et.al (2008)12 has reported the results of an experimental and numerical investigation on the non-linear behaviour and load-carrying capacity of CFRP strengthened cold-formed steel lipped channel columns, devoting special attention to their local-plate and/or distortional buckling

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behaviours. On the basis of both the experimental and numerical results obtained, some relevant conclusions were drawn. Yan XIAO, et.al13 has introduced an innovative CFT column system for improved seismic design of steel and concrete composite structures. Based on fundamental mechanics, the design concept is aimed at controlling the local buckling of the steel tube and confining the concrete in the potential plastic hinge regions of a CFT column. To achieve this, several efficient details of transverse confinement were proposed and examined through experimental testing. The new type of CFT column system, named as CCFT, is expected to overcome many disadvantages of the conventional CFT column and to provide the ideal choice for structural design of tall buildings in seismic regions. Fraldi,M., et.al (2008) 14 has derived assessment and design formulae for determining the elastic_plastic response and the ultimate compressive strength of circular concrete columns confined by FRP. To achieve this, a constructive method for obtaining closed-form elastic and post-elastic solutions for Functionally Graded Material Cylinders (FGMCs), constituted by an isotropic central core and n arbitrary cylindrically orthotropic hollow phases, is proposed. The key of the mathematical approach is to reduce the differential Boundary Value Problem (BVP) to the equivalent linear algebraic one, by means of a special matrix-like arrangement of the governing equations and invoking the Complex Potential Theory for anisotropic materials. The obtained general solution has been then easily particularized to the two phase FGMC representing the circular concrete column confined by FRP sheets. The elastic and post-elastic response of the overall solid and predictive formulae for estimating the failure mechanism, in terms of concrete ultimate compressive strength, confining pressure and strain at failure, were derived.

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Bambach,M.R,et.al (2009) 15 has studied the applicability of steelCFRP tubes to structures typical to the automotive industry is investigated. Four different steel tube geometries and two different carbon fibre matrix layouts are investigated, and comparisons are made between static and dynamic crushing, steel and composite steelCFRP tubes, and regular and low ductility steels. It is shown that the crash worthiness properties of the steelCFRP tubes exceed those of the steel tubes, however some issues particular to low ductility steels and such steels under impact conditions prove detrimental to the crashworthiness characteristics. Theoretical procedures are developed to design the

crashworthiness characteristics of the composite tubes, and are shown to compare well with the experimental results.

Harries,K.A., and Webb,P. (2009) 16 has studied on experimental assessment of bonded FRP-to-steel interfaces. The majority of applications are bond critical that is, the dominate limit state is affected by the FRP debonding from the substrate. Bond behaviour is dominated by cohesive failure in the concrete substrate and dominated by adhesive behaviour in the steel substrate. As a result of not needing to consider substrate failure in the case of FRP-to-steel applications, the FRP may be utilised much more efficiently, provided bond can be maintained. This paper briefly reviews factors affecting bond of FRP-to-steel and presents a relatively simple laboratory test method for assessing bond performance. Li,S.Q, et.al (2010) 17 has presented a finite element (FE) study on the effect of geometrical discontinuities at the ends of FRP wraps in FRP-confined concrete-filled steel tubes on the apparent FRP rupture strain. Comparison between the FE predictions and available test results shows that the strain efficiency predicted by FE analysis using an elastic-perfectly plastic adhesive model are in reasonable overall agreement with the test results.

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Mina Dawood,et.al18

has described a detailed experimental and

analytical program that was conducted to evaluate the bond characteristics and environmental durability of a CFRP strengthening system for steel structures. The experimental results of the bond study indicated that implementing a reverse tapered configuration near all plate ends can approximately double the bond strength of typical splice joints. Pull-off tests and torsion tests were conducted to evaluate the tension and shear strength of the bond interface. The results suggested that the maximum principal stress may be an appropriate failure criterion to evaluate the ultimate capacity of bonded splice joints. The results of a finite element analysis indicated that the maximum principal stress in the adhesive of several of the tested double-lap shear coupons was between the measured tension strength of the bond interface and that of the adhesive. This suggests that the tension strength of the interface could possibly be used as a conservative upper limit on the principal stress for design purposes. The results further suggest that also including a glass fibre layer within the adhesive between the steel and the CFRP can increase the initial bond strength by up to 50 percent. However, a silane pretreatment should still be used to enhance the bond durability. Tawfik,Q.H. and Warna Karunasena (2010)19 has reviewed on the rehabilitation work for steel structures and shows the structural advantages that can be obtained, along with reducing the cost, through application of CFRP on construction steelworks. It was also found that the increase in the capacity of the rehabilitated steel member depends on the amount of damage in the steel member, the type of CFRP composite (high or low modulus of elasticity), the size of CFRP composite (length, width and thickness), the type of the adhesive material and the environmental conditions. Generally, research reported on applying this new technique showed remarkable signs of success, but only few drawbacks such as bonding failure and galvanic corrosion.

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Mina Dawood and Sami Rizkalla (2010) 20 has presented the findings of a research program that was conducted to evaluate the environmental durability of the bond of the proposed HM CFRP strengthening system to steel surfaces. The steel-CFRP double-lap shear specimens were exposed to severe environmental conditions for different durations, up to 6 months. Different methods to enhance the bond durability were studied including pre-treating the steel surface with a silane coupling agent, inserting a glass fibre layer within the adhesive and a combination of both methods of protection was studied. The research findings indicate that the use of a silane coupling agent significantly enhanced the bond durability. While the presence of the glass fibres helped to enhance the initial bond strength of the system, it did not improve the durability of the bond. The use of both techniques enhanced both the overall bond strength and the environmental durability of the strengthening system.

Jimmy Haedir, Xiao-Ling Zhao (2011) 21 presented the design and experimental evaluation of externally bonded CFRP sheets for strengthening circular steel tubular short columns. Short cold-formed steel CHS columns, with externally bonded orthogonal (hoop and longitudinal) CFRP sheets, were tested under axial compression. The experimental results indicate that enhancement of the axial section capacity is possible by fibre reinforcing the steel tube. Design curves predicting the section capacity of composite steelCFRP tubular short columns are calculated based on current design guidelines for steel columns. The results highlight the ease of the use of such curves in the FRP strengthening or retrofitting design of tubular columns for section capacity enhancement.

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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

PHASE I

LITERATURE REVIEW ON STRENGTHENING ASPECTS USING CFRP STUDY VARIOUS NUMERICAL MODELS THAT CAN BE USED TO PREDICT THE BEHAVIOUR OF STRENGTHENED COLUMNS AND FINALISE A MODEL TO IMPLEMENT LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS AND THEORIES OF COLUMNS

PHASE II

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

VALIDATION

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CHAPTER 4 TIME SCHEDULE

JU Y 1

TIT

IX D

JU Y 1 to 31

IT

TU

I W

U UST 1 to 9

I ST

I WP

TION

U UST 10 to 31

IT

TU

STUDY ON MOD M THODS

IN

S PT MB R 1

IN

IS TYP O MOD IN TO B CARRI D OUT

S PT MB R 2 to 30 STUDY MATH MATICAL ORMULATION O

TH ORI S O COLUMNS

OCTOBER 1 to 31

STUDY ON DESIGN PROCEDURES BASED ON CODES

LITERATURE REVIEW ON MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF CFRP STRENGT ENED MEMBERS

NOVEMBER 1 to 30

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CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY

Research on the use of CFRP materials for strengthening steel structures has been ongoing for more than 10 years. A number of studies have been conducted to evaluate the flexural behaviour of beams strengthened with CFRP, buckling behaviour of slender and tubular members subjected to compression loading, use of CFRP materials for repair of cracked steel members and bond behaviour of CFRP materials to steel surfaces as discussed in the literature above. Further research is need in the case of CHS columns with axial compression, its finite element analysis. There is no standard behaviour studied yet about the impact of CFRP wraps on strengthening the columns. This project would hopefully bring out a validated equation to find the ultimate compression carrying capacity of CHS long columns.

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REFERENCES

1. J. Wardenier, Hollow sections in structural applications, Comit International pour le Dveloppement et l'Etude de la Construction Tubulaire.

2. Fibre Optic Sensing Technology and Applications- FRP / Composite Wrap for Structural Strengthening in Land and Marine Environment, accessed on 24th July 2011, <www.fosta.com>

3. European Standard EN 1504 -A simplified, illustrated guide for all involved in concrete repair, accessed in www.basf.com.

4. Fawzia,S., Al-Mahaidi,R., Zhao. .L. and Rizkalla.S. (2006), Strengthening of circular hollow steel tubular sections using high modulus CFRP sheets, Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007),pp. 839845.

5. X.L. Zhao, Recent developments in FRP strengthening of metallic structures, First Middle East Conference on Smart monitoring, assessment and rehabilitation of civil structures,8-10 February 2011,Dubai,UAE.

6. Zhong Tao, Lin-Hai Han, and Jin-Ping Zhuang (2006) Axial Loading Behaviour of CFRP Strengthened Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Stub Columns, Advances in Structural Engineering Vol. 10 No. 1 2007,pp. 37 42.

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7. Teng, J.G. and Hu,Y.M. (2006) , Behaviour of FRP-jacketed circular steel tubes and cylindrical shells under axial compression, Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 827 838

8. Seica, M.V. and Packer, J.A.(2006), FRP materials for the rehabilitation of tubular steel structures, for underwater applications, Composite Structures 80 (2007),pp. 440450.

9. Amr Shaat and Amir Fam(2006), Axial loading tests on short and long hollow structural steel columns retrofitted using carbon fibre reinforced polymers, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 33: 458470 (2006).

10. Loo,M.K.Y., Foster,S.J. and Smith,S.T.,(2007), Bond stress versus slip model for CFRP plates bonded to concrete, Asia-Pacific Conference on FRP in Structures (APFIS 2007) S.T. Smith (ed) 2007 International Institute for FRP in Construction,pp. 709-716.

11. Fernando,D., Yu,T., Teng,J.G., and Zhao,X.L.(2008), CFRP Strengthening of Rectangular Steel Tubes Subjected to End Bearing Loads: Effect of Adhesive Properties, Fourth International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering (CICE2008)22-24July 2008, Zurich, Switzerland.

12. Nuno Silvestre, Ben Young and Dinar Camotim,(2008), Non-linear behaviour and load-carrying capacity of CFRP- strengthened lipped channel steel columns, Engineering Structures 30 (2008) ,pp. 2613 2630.

13. Yan Xiao, Wenhui He, Xiaoyong Mao, Kang-kyu Choi and Pingsheng Zhu, Confinement design of CFT columns for improved Seismic performance, pp. 217-226.

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14. Fraldi,M., Nunziante,L., Carannante,F., Prota,A., Manfredi,G., and Cosenza,E.(2008), On the prediction of the collapse load of circular concrete columns confined by FRP, Engineering Structures 30 (2008),pp. 3247_3264.

15. Bambach,M.R., Jama,H.H, and Elchalakani,M. (2009), Static and dynamic axial crushing of spot-welded thin-walled composite steelCFRP square tubes, International Journal of Impact Engineering 36 (2009) , pp. 10831094.

16. Harries,K.A., and Webb,P.(2009), Experimental assessment of bonded FRP-to-steel interfaces, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures and Buildings 162 August 2009 Issue SB4 ,pp. 233 240.

17. Li,S.Q., Chen,J.F., Bisby,L.A., Hu,Y.M., and Teng,J.G.(2010), Effect of geometric discontinuities on FRP strain efficiency in FRP-confined circular concrete-filled steel tubes, CICE 2010 - The 5th International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, September 27-29, 2010 Beijing, China.

18. Mina Dawood, Murthy Guddati & Sami Rizkalla, Effectiveness of CFRP strengthening for steel structures.

19. Tawfik,Q.H. and Warna Karunasena (2010), Use of CFRP for Rehabilitation of Steel Structures: a review, Southern Region Engineering Conference 11-12 November2010,Toowoomba,Australia.

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20. Mina Dawood and Sami Rizkalla(2010), Environmental durability of a CFRP system for strengthening steel structures, Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 16821689.

21. Jimmy Haedir, Xiao-Ling Zhao(2011), Design of short CFRP-reinforced steel tubular columns, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 497509.

22. American Composites Manufacturers Association 1010 North Glebe Road, Arlington, VA 22201 P: 703-525-0511 F: 703-525-0743 E: info@acmanet.org