A Written Report in Educational Psychology Topic: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Introduction: No two learners are exactly alike due to interindividual

differences. The Learner does not only differ from other learners as variations in him across different age or year levels also exist. This is called intraindividual differences. Both types of differences are crucial in teaching and learning and must be given due consideration in the teaching and learning process. Individual Differences Psychology focuses on this second level of study. It is also sometimes called Differential Psychology because researchers in this area study the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists often study groups or biological underpinnings of cognition. How Individuals Vary? Individuals vary in some CHARACTERISTICS: Physical Characteristics Physiological Characteristics Potentials

Physiological Characteristics The neuro-biological approach to the study of human behavior and consequently, individual differences is one of the earliest approach used in psychology Functions of nervous system and the endoctrine glands which are indespensable topics in any introductory course in psychology are particularly important in learning Its variation in functions like nervous system and ductless glands result in individual differences Physical Characteristics Physical characteristics such as weight, complexion and general body build differentiate individuals These physical characteristics are important in the self-perception of the learner and how others, including his teachers, clasmates, parents, siblings This could develop positive self- concept in the child which may affect his performance in learning in a learning task. Potentials Synonymous to the mental capacities for learning Two Kinds of potentialities:

1. Intelligent Quotient (IQ) 2. Aptitudes Potential: 1.Intelligent Quotient (IQ) Theories: Two factor theory -> proposed by Charles Spearman -> this theory says that there are two factors involved intelligence: a. General or g factor b. Specific or s factor G factor = is at work in all intellectual activities S factor = is involved only in specific activities -> its suggests that a high IQ does not necessarily mean high performance in all activities. -> its suggests that a high IQ does not necessarily mean high performance in all activities -> Individual with the same IQ could also be differ significantly in measured abilities because of the s factor -> s factor is dependent on g factor contrary in two-factor theory -> Proposed by Thurstone ->States that there are several factors that make up intelligence as measured by an intelligence test 7 Primary Abilities comprise Intelligence: 1. Verbal comprehension 2. Word fluency 3. Number 4. Space 5. Associative memeory 6. Perceptual speed 7. Induction of general reasoning Defined as the general capacity of a person to learn Its definition is associated with formal learning that takes place within a school curriculum The reliability and validity testing of IQ tests have been generally done with school context It is also defined as what an intelligence test measures This definition is used because in IQ testing. The IQ of an individual is unknown As a concept, IQ does not explain but describes ones potentials for learning

Structure of IQ

Structure of intellect model -> Guilford came up with a model on the structure of the IQ where he classified intellectual functioning into operation, content and products Guilfords Structure of Intellectual Model

Constancy of IQ Longitudinal studies in the United States show the stability of the IQ of the individuals across age, that is, there is no significant change in the IQ of the same individuals when they were tested during different ages IQ changes across time However, instead of attributing observed changes fluctuations in IQ, these were seen as the results of drastic changes in the individuals environment. Comparing persons IQ in early childhood with that of his subsequent IQ in adolescence or/and adulthood are the items of the IQ tests he takes at different stages in his life. Differences in the IQ of an individual at different ages could then be a function of the test are not due to changes in his IQ. Question : DOES the IQ DECREASE with AGE? Answer: Decrement in IQ are not necessarily indicative of IQ decrease. It could be attributed in cultural changes (Anastasi, 1976) Furthermore, such changes could be a function of the changes in the interest of the individual. Assessment of IQ IQ measured by IQ tests

The IQ of an individual is an index or indicator of the extent to which he may progress in the educational process. It is derived from the use of two formulas:

1. Ratio IQ 2. Deviation IQ RATIO IQ -> is the ratio of the mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100 Formula: Ratio IQ = MA / CA x 100 * Mental age (MA) the result on an individuals mental ability performance compared with that of standard deviation sample DEVIATION IQ

-> Anastasi (1976) says that, the Deviation IQ is a standard score with a mean of 100 and standard deviation (SD) that approximates the SD of the Stanford Binet IQ Distribution -> It allows for comparability of the IQ at all age levels which the Ration IQ does not allow Classifications of IQ With the Standford-Binet Test as basis, Terman and Merril (Noll, 1967) classified IQ into very superior, superior, high average, normal average, low average, border-line defective and the ,mentally defective. Intelligence tests may either be verbal or non-verbal. They may be administered to individuals or to a group depending on the type of test. IQ tests are speed tests It assumed that the more intelligent individual gives more correct responses in an IQ test than the less intelligent one. IQ TESTS USED in the PHiLiPPiNES 1. Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability Develop by Padilla in 1953 Measures the abilities to solve arithmetic problems, sense logical relationship, orient oneself, follow directions and extent of the vocabulary and general information 2. Torres (1975) Filipino adaptation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) An IQ tests that has verbal and performance sub-scores and a total score Filipino WISC significantly differentiated performance in the verbal, performance, and total scores in some grade levels particularly in Grades II, III and 3rd, 4th highschool.

3. Grospe (1979) also translated Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for Children (WAIS) and called it Diliman WAIS Items with culture bias were modified for relevance to Filipinos She administered Pilipino and English version to her first set of samples Second set of samples administered in provincial college, Pilipino version only.

Others: OLMAT = Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test SRA Verbal Form A Test = Science Research Associative Verbal Form A Test PHiLiPPiNES studies on IQ The value of IQ testing in teaching and learning lies in its power to predict academic performance Echavez (1973) suggest that as IQ increases, academic performance in terms of grades also increases A learner with high IQ who gets low grades is underachieving A high IQ is not an insurance for a high grades IQ is just one of the determinants of grades

Potential: 2. APTITUDE Refers to the capacity to learn in a specific field Individuals may vary in their aptitudes While an IQ test indicates the general capacity of a person to learn or profit from formal schooling, an aptitude shows the field he may do best This is cognizant of a theory of a intelligence discussed which says that an intelligent person may not necessarily do well in all fields. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) A battery of tests, it measures specific capacities for verbal, spelling, grammar, numerical, abstract reasoning, mechanical, spatial and clerical tasks. The value of each tests is its ability to predict performance in an specific field. As predictor of academic performance, aptitude tests have been shown to be more powerful than IQ tests (Chavez, 1981) Aptitude Tests developed in the Philippines by the Fund for Assistance to Private Education in 1976: CSAT College Scholastic Aptitude Test NAT Nursing Aptitude Test - Consist of verbal relations, math, spatial perception and science information PACT Philippine Aptitude Classification Test

It measure scholastic and vocational aptitudes which are necessary for proper placement into occupational areas It taps: Verbal Pilipino, Verbal English, Numerical, Perceptual Speed & Clerical perception

UPCAT University of the Philippines Admission Test (Scholastic aptitude Test) UP LAE UP Law Aptitude Examination NMAT National Medical Admission Test CAT Career Aptitude Test or NCAE National Career Assessment Examination In the initial validity study with engineering, architecture and accounting students as sample, Mina and Ilagan (1979) found that: 1. The CSAT is valid predictor of the first year academic performance of the students enrolled in the three courses. 2. The CSAT component test are valid for the prediction of performance in College English, Mathematics and Science. 3. The CSAT and NCEE GSA when used together is better predictor of college performance than either of the two used singly. Sex Differences in Verbal and Numerical Abilities Studies suggest that females are better in verbal ability while males excel in numerical ability Regardless of the nature and content of school subjects, verbal ability is important Sex difference in verbal ability would then suggest an edge of one sex over the other in school performance It could also affect choice of course and a job

Numerical Ability Observed difficulty and comparatively poor performance of Filipino learners in subjects involving numbers baffle educators, classroom teachers and administrators alike Empirical investigations suggest that the males have more facility for subjects and courses requiring numerical ability Greater number of males in courses requiring quantitative ability such as engineering

Assessment of Occupational Interest Use occupational interest inventories These are not tests in the real sense of the word There are no right or wrong There are no time limits

It is not only useful for those who do not know which course to pursue in college or for those who are not sure of their choice but also for those who may be sure of what course to take

Brainard Occupational Preference Inventory (BOPI) - One of the commonly used inventories in the West Pioneered by Santamaria (1981), developing an inventory for high school students Center fro Educational Measurement has developed Philippine Occupational Interest Survey (POIS)

Differences in Personality Learners at all levels differ in their personality Personality is commonly assessed through personality test and observations Personality Test primarily aims to identify personality traits. The results are used for guidance purposes. Poor academic performance could be more of a function of personality rather than of inadequate IQ, poor teaching, an uncooperative environment or some other factors Different careers demand specific personality traits. Results of a personality test will be then useful in determining whether or not an individuals personality jibes with the demands of a particular career. Most commonly used Personality Tests in Philippines schools are: 1. Edwards Personality Preference Schedule (EPPS) 2. Cattell 16 PF Personality Factor (16PF Test) 3. Mooney Problem Checklist (MCL) 4. Minnessota Multi-Phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Two instruments developed: 1. Lagmay (1965) Philippine Thematic Apperception Test (PTAT) Patterned after Murrays Thematic Apperception Test Scoring is based on the themes of the stories that the subject make out of the stimulus pictures that are presented on him. Most valuable for clinical purposes an objective personality inventory Uses five point Likert Scale, the subjects responds to each statement either: Hindinghindi, Hindi, Walang Masabi, Totoo or Totoong-totoo It has Lie Validity Scale to control for social desirability Translated into several dialects like: Ilokano, Pampango and Cebuano 2. Enriquez (1977) Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao (PUP)

Aspirations

Undoubtedly, the aspirations of learners are very important in the teaching learning process. While more males aspire for college education, more females hope for a college degree (FAPE,1974). The teacher could further understand the aspirations of his/her pupils better by knowing their values and their personality.

Socio-Economic Status of the Learner It is one factor whose impact on learning has been recently recognized. This refers to the income, highest educational attainment and the occupations of the learners parents. There is also a strong indications that individuals are placed at a disadvantages in the learning process due to socio- economic status Knowledge of the learners SES would help the teacher make teaching and learning more effective Psychological Tests as Educational Tools These are valuable in the teaching-learning process particularly in identifying individual differences. For more valid assessment of the individual, composite tests be used. This would allow the interpreter and the users to have a holistic picture of the individual It has a rightful place in the school system The administration, scoring and interpretation and use of these tests must be limited to qualified personnel, without psychological tests will not serve their purposes Implications of Individual Differences Varying the techniques of instruction Selection of Instructional Materials Varying the setting of Instruction Arrangements of working have differential effects on individuals Peer-group influence vary among students with different levels of academic achievement Ability grouping of students with different personality structures, abilities and motivation Types of reinforcement adjusted to personality types of learners Magnitude of reinforcement varied with students of different levels of persistence

Approaches to Learning The approach of a learner to a given task is crucial in learning. Sperry (1972) said that variations in the approaches to a given task be done. Variations should consider the following: Tempo in Learning

 Independence in Work Attentiveness Reactions to new situations Ability Grouping It is one of the more popular approaches to individual differences, particularly differences in the abilities of the learners. Examples: - Assigning of high achieving pupils to a particular row and low-achieving pupils to another - Sectioning of classes based on previous grades or on a test Pointers to be consider (Bigge and Hunt, 1962): Ability grouping 1. is not in itself a solution to anything. Its effects depend on the teacher. 2. if done at all, should be done for all subjects 3. is more common and worthwhile after the elementary grades than it is prior to that 4. is impractical in small groups 5. must be flexible 6. should not be based on just one score. Multi scores and multi-ratings must be used 7. will reduce, but certainly not eliminate individual differences Conclusions: It must be borne in mind that variables contributory to individual differences, whether interindividual or intraindividual do not function independently. Rather, an, interaction of these factors affect the individual learner. The teacher should be very careful in overemphasizing one factor while neglecting the others in his teaching career. In no case should one factor be overlooked.

Reported by: AREANE D. MAMAUAG MaEd Student

Submitted to:

EDITHA M. ATENDIDO, Ed. D. District Supervisor / MaEd Professor -PCU