How to Write a esis:

A Working Guide
R (Chandra) Chandrasekhar
Mo18, Centre for Intelligent Information Processing Svstems (CIIPS)
School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
Te Universitv of Western Australia
:- Stirling Highwav, Crawlev, WA oooo, AUSTRALIA
chandra@ee.uwa.edu.au
First Written: ia Februarv iooo
Last Revised: ia Ianuarv ioo8
Please email me vour comments and corrections.
R (Chandra) Chandrasekhar, ioooioo8
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is a thesis and whv write one: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.i Dierences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
i Structure i
i.1 Tesis structure at UWA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
i.i Rationale for structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
i.: Te hvpothesis underpins the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
i.a Does an engineering thesis need a hvpothesis: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a
: Substance a
:.1 Begin at the beginning: keep records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a
:.i Write with the reader in mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
:.: Tink, plan, write, revise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
:.a Attikiouzels aphorisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
:.- Lindsavs laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:.o Hartmanns hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
:. Cobbling together vour rst draf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
:.8 Te Experimental Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o
:.o Te Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
:.1o Te Introduction and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
:.11 Linking vour chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
:.1i Te Summarv or Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
:.1: Writing other parts of vour thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
:.1a Polishing up vour thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
:.1- Te time element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1i
:.1o Dos and Donts in Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1i
a Style: Ianguage 1i
a.1 Te craf of writing good English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1i
a.i Ambiguitv and claritv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:
a.: Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:
a.a Brevitv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:
a.- Examples of what to avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1a
a.o Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-
a. Te I/We Active/Passive controversv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-
a.8 Examples of good writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
a.o Spelling and grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
= Style: Iayout 18
-.1 Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
-.i Word Processor vs Markup Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
-.: Diagrams, Graphs and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
-.a Table of Contents, Bibliographv and Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1o
o Conclusions 1o
Acknowledgements 1o
References 1o
Quick Reference Guide i:
Abstract
Tis is a short guide on how to write a thesis at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. It is aimed
at students of Engineering and Science. Athesis mav be analvzed into three Ss: structure, substance and style.
Structure confers logical coherence; substance, signicance and depth; and stvle, elegance and appeal.
State vour hvpothesis clearlv, ensuring that it is both reasonable and testable. Keep meticulous records
and write up rough drafs of vour work as vou go along. Begin writing vour thesis proper with the exper-
imental chapters. Progress to the literature review, introduction, and conclusions. Write the summarv or
abstract last, aer writing the conclusions.
Write clearlv and directlv, with the readers expectations alwavs in mind. Lead the reader from the
known to the unknown. Write clearlv, preciselv, and briev. Tink, plan, write, and revise. Follow lavout
guidelines and check spelling and grammar. Re-read, seek criticism, and revise. Submit vour best eort as
vour completed thesis.
Introduction
Tis is a working guide on writing a thesis. It is intended to assist nal vear and postgraduate students in
Electrical/Electronic/Computer Engineering at the Centre for Intelligent Information Processing Svstems
(CIIPS) at Te Universitv of Western Australia (UWA). Te guide is divided into three main parts:
I Structure;
II Substance; and
III Stvle.
Te structure of a thesis is governed bv logic and is invariant with respect to subject. Te substance varies
with subject, and its qualitv is determined bv the technical knowledge and masterv of essentials exhibited
bv the student. Stvle has two components: language and lavout. Te former deals with the usage of English
as a medium of sound technical communication; the latter with the phvsical presentation of the thesis on
paper, according to the requirements laid out bv UWA. All three componentsstructure, substance and
stvleinuence one another. A good thesis will not be found wanting in anv of these three'.
1.1 What is a thesis and why write one:
thesis /i:ss/ n 1 a proposition to be maintained or proved. i a dissertation esp. bv a candidate for a de-
gree. [Middle English via Late Latin from Greek = putting, placing, a proposition, etc.] [1]
hypothesis /hpss/ n1 a proposition made as a basis for reasoning without the assumption of its truth.
i a supposition made as a starting point for further investigation fromknown facts. [Late Latin fromGreek
hypothesis foundation; Greek hypo under] [1]
One might infer from the etvmologv above that a thesis is an (obligatorv) oering placed at the desk of
the examiner bv a candidate who wishes to get a degree. Tis is the most common, and ofen onlv, reason
whv a thesis is written. But there are other reasons for writing a thesis.
Athesis is a written record of the work that has been undertaken bv a candidate. It constitutes objective
evidence of the authors knowledge and capabilities in the eld of interest and is therefore a fair means to
gauge them. Although thesis writing mav be viewed as an unpleasant obligation on the road to a degree,
the discipline it induces mav have lifelong benets.
Most of all, a thesis is an attempt to communicate. Science begins with curiositv, follows on with ex-
periment and analvsis, and leads to ndings which are then shared with the larger communitv of scientists
and perhaps even the public. Te thesis is therefore not merelv a record of technical work, but is also an
attempt to communicate it to a larger audience.
1.i Dierences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses
Te dierences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses is one of degree` rather than kind. Tev
share a common structure and need for logical rigour. It is onlv in the substance and the emphasis placed
on it that the dierences arise. Specicallv, UWA requires that:
A PhD thesis shall be a substantial and original contribution to scholarship, for example, through the
discoverv of knowledge, the formulation of theories or the innovative re-interpretation of known data
and established ideas [i].
'Tis guide does not cover the earlier phases, such as selecting a supervisor and research topic, doing a literature search etc.,
nor does it give advice on how to do research, except as it pertains to writing a thesis.
`Pun unintended!
An undergraduate thesis is, at present, graded on the quality of research, the signicance of the contribu-
tions and the style of presentation.
Tus, the undergraduate thesis is judged on a similar basis to the postgraduate one. Indeed, the three
most commonlv cited qualities that earn an undergraduate thesis the rst class grade are originality, inde-
pendence, and mastery [:].
Candidates writing a higher degree thesisand the PhD thesis in particularare required to present
their research in the context of existing knowledge. Tis means a thorough and critical review of the lit-
erature, not necessarilv limited to the narrow topic of research, but covering the general area. Te PhD
candidate should also show clearlv what original contributions she or he has made [i]. Although neither
of these requirements applies strictlv to undergraduate work, the candidate should demonstrate familiaritv
with previous relevant work in his or her thesis.
In short, a thesiswhether undergraduate or postgraduateis evidence of the candidates capacitv to
carrv out independent research under the guidance of a supervisor, and to analvze and communicate the
signicant results of that work. Te candidate for higher degrees must demonstrate, in addition, masterv
of the literature and indicate clearlv which is his or her original work, and whv it is signicant`.
Structure
i.1 Tesis structure at UWA
Te UWA PhD regulations [a] give the following format for the doctoral thesis:
1. Title page: gives the title of the thesis in full, the candidates names and degrees, a statement of presentation in
the formTis thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophv of the Universitv of Western Australia,
the department and vear of submission.
i. Summarv or Abstractof approximatelv :oo words. (It should not exceed oo words.) Te Abstract or sum-
marv should summarize the appropriate headings, aims, scope and conclusion of the thesis.
:. Table of Contents
a. Acknowledgements
-. Main Text
o. Bibliographv or References
. Appendices
Te format of the undergraduate thesis is similar, except that the title page is followedbv a letter fromthe
candidate addressed to the Executive Dean of the Facultv of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences saving
Tis thesis is submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering
(with Honours) and certifving that it represents the candidates own work.
Te thesis proper consists of the Main Text, numbered - above. If we zoomed in on the Main Text, we
should see something like this [-, p 11o]:
(a) Chapter 1: Introduction
(b) Chapter i: Review of the Literature
(c) Chapter :: Materials and Methods
(d) Chapters a to n: Experimental Chapters
(e) Chapter (n + 1): General Discussion or Conclusions
If we now zoomed in on anv Experimental Chapter (labelled (d) above), we should expect to see [-]:
`Contrarv to customelsewhere in the world, the candidate for a masters or doctoral degree at UWAis generallv not required to
make an oral presentation and defence of her or his work. Bv contrast, the nal-vear Electrical/Electronic/Computer Engineering
student is required to make an oral presentation that contributes a small percentage to the total marks for the thesis.
Introduction/Aim What did you do and why?
Materials and Methods How did you do it?
Observations/Results What did you nd?
Discussion What do your results mean to you and why?
Conclusions What new knowledge have you extracted
from your experiment?
T.nii 1: Tis table shows the relationship between the structure of an experimental chapter in a thesis, and its
underlving logic.
i. A brief introduction
ii. Experimental procedure (methods and materials)
iii. Results
iv. Discussion
Tis structure reects the time-honoured format of science experiments:
I. Aim
II. Materials and Methods
III. Observations
IV. Results
V. Discussion
VI. Conclusions
We have just dissected the structure of a (scientic or engineering) thesis but have we obtained anv
insights in return:
i.i Rationale for structure
Te rationale for the structure in section i.1 is simplv that a thesis must tell a story clearly and convincingly.
Te components of the structure impart logical continuitv to the thesis in much the same wav that links in
a chain confer on it integritv and strength. Tere is a owin the logic, as shown in Table 1, which is adapted
from Barrass [o, p 1:1]:
Anv aw in the reasoning or gap in the logic will be easilv spotted if this structure is strictlv followed.
us, the structure of the thesis is designed to enforce logical and scientic rigour and make it easy to read. Follow
the structure and vou can be sure that vou are telling vour storv in the right order. But what exactlv is vour
storv:
i.: Te hypothesis underpins the thesis
Te hypothesis is all important. It is the foundation of your thesis. It gives coherence and purpose to vour
thesis. Go back to section 1.1 to review the meaning and etvmologv of this word. If it is hard to grasp what
hvpothesis means, these explanations might help:
Te hvpothesis denes the aimor objective of an experiment, that if some likelv but unproven propo-
sition were indeed true, we would expect to make certain observations or measurements.
A hvpothesis is an imaginative preconception of what might be true in the form of a declaration with
veriable deductive consequences [, p 18].
Hvpotheses are the larval forms of theories [, p io].
In everv useful experiment, there must be some point in view, some anticipation of a principle to be
established or rejected; such anticipations are hypotheses [, Iohn Gregorv quoted bv Medawar, p ii].
Indeed, the great French phvsiologist, Claude Bernard, has written:
A hvpothesis is the obligatorv starting point of all experimental reasoning. Without it, no
investigation would be possible, and one would learn nothing: one could onlv pile up barren
observations. To experiment without preconceived ideas is to wander aimlesslv. [, p :o]
Your hypothesis must t the known facts and be testable. To complv with the rst, vou must have read the
literature. To complv with the second, vou must do the experiment. Tis is whv the hvpothesis is central to
scientic investigation [-].
If vou nd time, read an account of the famous Michelson-Morlev experiment [8] to understand that
if hvpothesis and experiment are in conict, it is experiment that prevails and hvpothesis that falls. If an
experiment shows that a hvpothesis is incorrect, then that hvpothesis must be erroneous, no matter how
attractive. Moreover, failure of a hvpothesis mav lead to a re-examination of assumptions, refutation of
shakv theories, and ultimatelv to new knowledge, as happened in this case.
i.a Does an engineering thesis need a hypothesis:
Hvpotheses mav be relevant to science theses, but are thev relevant to engineering theses: Because engi-
neers invent rather than discover, does an engineering thesis need a hvpothesis:
Yes, all the more so, because invention is a more tightlv directed activitv than discoverv; and the two
are not mutuallv exclusive anvwav! I prefer the word hvpothesis: that which underlies a thesis; vou mav be
more familiar or comfortable with aims or objectives. Te hvpothesis is the electromotive force or emf for
vour thesis.
Suppose vour project involves using Articial Neural Networks (ANNs), in conjunction with appro-
priate hardware, to sort good apples from bad. Te hvpothesis for this project mav be, It is possible to
sort good apples from bad using ANNs and suitable hardware. Note that implicit in vour hvpothesis is a
denition of acceptable levels of accuracv (how do vou quantify the words possible, good, and bad:).
Suppose that on completing vour project, vou discovered that the svstem vou had devised works well
with green apples, but not with red ones. You would have discovered new knowledge and would be able to
suggest a revised hypothesis as the starting point for further investigation. Your own project would have
demonstrated the correctness of a hvpothesis like It is possible to sort good green apples from bad green
apples, with an accuracv of better than oo, using ANNs and suitable hardware.
Never forget that underlying every thesis, there must be a hypothesis. It is what vour storv is all about. If
vou keep vour hvpothesis in view, vou will never strav into irrelevance when writing vour thesis, which is
what we look at next.
Substance
:.1 Begin at the beginning: keep records
Te content of vour thesis is being continuouslv gathered throughout the period of vour project/research.
Remember this and keep clear, well-annotated records in vour CIIPS Research Record Book. You can
But vou should not be afraid to explore the unknown. If the known fact that atoms are indivisible had not been challenged,
we would not have known of electrons, let alone quarks.
Philosophers of science contend [] that a hvpothesis cannot be proved conclusivelv, but onlv falsied. We will steer clear of
this controversv here.
Begin at the beginning, the King said gravelv, and go on till vou come to the end: then stop. Alices Adventures in Wonderland
bv Lewis Carroll [o, p 1-8]
aord to be wordv and repetitive here, because vou do not want to be lost when vou refer to it later on. Be-
cause it is a running record of experiment and observation, its onlv requirement is delitv; not subsequent
correctness.
Michael Faradav was an experimental scientist par excellence. His diarv of his researches can serve verv
well as a model of how vour own research record book should be like. For example, in one volume of his
diaries [1o], he has recorded the following:
freehand drawings of experimental setups [pp ia8o]. You should do the same; vour diagrams in
vour record book need not be works of art: save that for the thesis!
his accurate description of what he believed he was perceiving:It still smelt strongly of Electricity [p
ioo]. Te italics are his. Todav we mav hide a smirk if anvone talks about smelling electricitv; but
remember that these are the observations of a scientic pioneer. Do not be afraid to record vour
perceptions accurately.
his own questions to himself: Can induction through air take place in curves or round a corner: [p
aio]. Such questions serve to clarifv vour own thoughts and to steer further work.
In summarv, vour record book is where vou record your thoughts, perceptions and measurements, using
words, numbers and pictures, as and when they are still fresh in your mind.
Plan vour experiments so that one experiment has onlv one hvpothesis. Manv experiments mav to-
gether shed light on a larger, unifving hvpothesis.
Assuming that vour experimental work is going well, the spectre of writing it up, so that it looks like a
thesis, still looms ahead. How do vou do that:
In the following sections, we take a look at some guidelines on how to write well. Tis is followed bv
advice from some experienced UWA professors on how to write a good thesis. Te material that follows is
the core of this working guide: so pav attention to it and trv to understand it thoroughlv.
:.i Write with the reader in mind
All communication involves two parties: the sender of the message and the receiver; in written commu-
nication, thev are the writer and the reader. If vou write with the reader in mind vou are more likelv to
communicate successfullv. To x this concept in vour mind, I will introduce two analogies from electrical
engineering with which vou must be familiar:
1. the maximum power transfer theorem: [11, p a:i] Te transfer of power from a source to a load is
maximum if the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the source impedance (see Figure 1).
Te matching of source and load impedances for maximum power transfer to occur is analogous to
matching the writers technique to the readers expectations for maximum communication to occur.
i. there are no reections on an ideal, lossless transmission line if it is terminated with a load that is
equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line [1i, p :--]. Te reections at the end
of a transmission line are like the readers confusion at what the writer intended to convev; such
confusion is minimized again bv matching what the reader expects with what the writer provides.
Gopen and Swan [1:] have written an excellent article introducing scientic method into scientic
writing. Tev claim that readers have certain implicit expectations about what to encounter and when, each
time thev read a sentence. If the writer matches these expectations, communication takes place easilv;
otherwise confusion or misinterpretation results. Tev exhort the writer to write so as to match the readers
expectations. Te reader should not waste the eort that would go into understanding the substance of the
writing, in trving to guess what the writer intended to mean. Although thev warn that there can be no xed
algorithm for good writing, thev give seven sound generic guidelines that are worth re-stating here [1:]:
1. Follow a grammatical subject with its verb, as soon as possible.
I am indebted to Prof. David Lindsav for introducing me to this article.
Z
+
-
Z
L
V
S
S
FicUvi 1: Maximum power is transferred from the source V
S
if the load impedance Z
L
is the complex conjugate of
the source impedance Z
S
, i.e., if Z
L
= Z

S
[11, p a:i].
i. Place in the position of importance (stress position) the new information vou want the reader to
emphasize in his or her mind.
:. Place the person or thing whose storv is being told at the beginning of a sentence in the topic position.
a. Place appropriate old information (material discussed earlier) in the topic position to provide link-
age with what has gone before and context for what is to come later.
-. Make clear the action of everv clause or sentence in its verb.
o. Provide context for vour reader before asking him or her to consider anvthing new.
. Match the emphasis conveved bv the substance with the emphasis anticipated bv the reader from the
structure.
In summarv, match the readers expectations bv constructing sentences skilfullv. Lead the reader from
the known to the unknown. Write with the reader in mind: this is usuallv the examiner, but do not forget the
poor student who gets to continue vour project the next vear. If vour thesis is not clear enough, he/she mav
be condemned to repeat vour work before making further progress, losing valuable time in the process.
:.: Tink, plan, write, revise
Tink. Plan. Write. Revise. Tis is the cvcle advocated bv Barrass [o] in his short but verv useful book
on scientic writing. Messv thinking leads to messv writing: cluttered, obscure and uninviting. Tink and
plan before vou write and revise.
Writing is not a linear process but a cvclic one. What appears rst mav be written last, with the benet
of hindsight and a unied perspective. But, where does one start; how does one revise, and how manv
times: As an entre, let us listen to those with experience.
:.a Attikiouzels aphorisms [1a]
1. Start writing early. Do not delav writing until vou have nished vour project or research. Write
complete and concise Technical Reports as and when vou nish each nugget of work. Tis wav, vou
will remember evervthing vou did and document it accuratelv, when the work is still fresh in vour
mind. Tis is especiallv so if vour work involves programming.
i. Spot errors early. Awell-written Technical Report will force vou to think about what vou have done,
before vou move on to something else. If anvthing is amiss, vou will detect it at once and can easilv
correct it, rather than have to re-visit the work later, when vou mav be pressured for time and have
lost touch with it.
:. Write your thesis from the inside out. Begin with the chapters on vour own experimental work. You
will develop condence in writing them because vou know vour own work better than anvone else.
Once vou have overcome the initial inertia, move on to the other chapters.
a. End with a bang, not a whimper. First things rst, and save the best for last. First and last impressions
persist. Arrange vour chapters so that vour rst and last experimental chapters are sound and solid.
-. Write the Introduction afer writing the Conclusions. Te examiner will read the Introduction rst,
and then the Conclusions, to see if the promises made in the former are indeed fullled in the latter.
Ensure that vour Introduction and Conclusions match 1oo.
o. No man is an Island. Te critical review of the literature places vour work in context. Usuallv, one
third of the PhD thesis is about others work; two thirds, what vou have done vourself. Afer a thor-
ough and critical literature review, the PhD candidate must be able to identifv the major researchers
in the eld and make a sound proposal for doctoral research.
. Estimate the time to write your thesis and then multiply it by three to get the correct estimate. Writing at
one stretch is verv demanding and it is all too easv to underestimate the time required for it; inating
vour rst estimate bv a factor of three is more realistic.
:.= Iindsays laws [=, 1=]
1. Research is nished onlv afer it is written up. What vou write must communicate and persuade.
i. Te hallmarks of scientic writing are precision, clarity and brevity, in that order.
:. Trv to write as if vou were speaking to someone: see a face. Tis wav vou get to sav it directlv and
clearlv.
a. Write (vour chapters) in four dras:
(a) rst: putting the facts together
(b) second: checking for coherence and uencv of ideas
(c) third: readabilitv
(d) fourth: editing
Full details are given in Lindsavs book [-, chapters 1 to a].
-. Te Introduction should embodv the (unied) hvpothesis. Te reader nds in a clearlv expressed
hvpothesis the skeleton of the thesis on which hangs all of the skin and meat that will be presented
later.
o. Te scope and emphasis of the Literature Reviewmust be directlv relevant to the subject of the thesis.
. Include a common chapter that presents in one place all the experimental details common to all
vour experimental chapters. Tis avoids boring repetition and clears the wav for a more uent pre-
sentation of experimental results in dierent chapters without the intervening distraction of tedious
methodologv.
8. Experiments and results must be set out in careful detail in individual chapters. See i. to iv. on page :
for the structure of each experimental chapter. Where several related experiments are grouped into
a single chapter, it is preferable to present this sequence individuallv for each experiment but to
conclude with one Discussion. Tis will meld the experiments together and unifv the chapter.
o. Te General Discussion or Conclusions integrate the whole thesis and present its main points at one
place. Tis should be done in the context of the unifving hvpothesis of the thesis. Te Introduction
and this chapter along with the Summarv or Abstract are the most important parts of the thesis.
No man is an Island, entire of itself; everv man is a piece of the Continent, a part of the main; if a clod be washed awav bv
the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontorv were, as well as if a manor of thv friends or of thine own were; anv mans
death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankind; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for
thee.Iohn Donne (1-11o:1), Meditation XVII
:.o Hartmanns hints [1o]
Listed below are hints on writing the PhD thesis, gleaned from a seminar at UWA [1o], with points made
largelv bv the rst speaker during split group discussion, and subsequentlv bv all three speakers at a panel
discussion. Undergraduate students mav optionallv skip this section.
1. Title. Te title should be succinct, focused and objective, giving, if possible, the scope of the thesis.
i. Abstract or Summary. Examiners will look here to nd out whether it is new knowledge; and if so
what.
:. Introduction. Remember that the introductorv pages are important because thev create the rst, and
perhaps lasting, impression on the examiner. Use ow diagrams, headings, sub-headings etc., to
create and sustain interest.
a. Literature Review. Tis shouldbe a critical synthesis of the state of the knowledge. Especiallv important
are the areas needing further investigation: what has not been done, as well as what has been done,
but for which there is a conict in the literature. Te examiner nds out how the candidate thinks
from reading this section.
-. Hypothesis Testing. Te hvpothesis must be framed carefullv and experiments designed thoughtfullv
to test it.
o. Materials and Methods. Ensure proper qualitv control and statistical planning and analvsis. Retain
enough details to allow repetition of experiments for up to seven () vears, as legallv required.
. General Discussion or Conclusions. You mav aord to be speculative here.
8. Examiners ask the following questions when reading a thesis:
Has the student read all the references:
What questions does this thesis raise:
What richness does it contain that can spawn other work:
What is the qualitv of ow of ideas:
o. Keep in mind that examiners read a thesis in instalments and displav a natural benevolence, i.e., thev
do not set out to read a thesis with the aim of failing the student.
1o. Read the whole thesis to pick up repetition.
11. Read vour thesis for ideas and read it again for editing (see point a in section :.-).
:. Cobbling together your rst drah
According to Newtons rst law, starting something new is dicult because inertia must be overcome. Writ-
ing a thesis from scratch is no exception. Tis is whv I suggested that vou start writing vour thesis before
vou know vou are writing it: bv keeping complete notes in vour CIIPS Research Record Book and bv
writing Technical Reports as and when vou complete each module of work.
Use whatever writing techniques vou are familiar and comfortable with. If, for example, vou like to
jot down bullet points before vou formallv commit vour thoughts to writing, do so bv all means. If vou
have used mind-maps [1] in vour studv technique, vou mav wish to applv them to write vour thesis too.
Marshall whatever resource or technique that has worked for vou, and use it to help vou write vour thesis.
You are now familiar with the structure of the entire thesis and also with that of each experimental
chapter (see section i.1). You have also beneted fromthe counsel of several experienced UWAprofessors.
Let us nowtackle the nittv-grittv of actuallv writing the thesis, more or less in the order vou should go about
it.
I have taken pedagogic licence here bv extrapolating Newtons laws from the phvsical to the mental.
:.8 Te Experimental Chapters
Each of these should preferablv be self-contained and clearlv focused. Tink of the storv vou want to tell.
Choose and present only those results that are relevant to your hypothesis. A morass of experimental results
un-illuminated bv a hvpothesis and unembellished bv a discussionis insulting and confusing to vour reader.
Te sections in vour chapter should follow the experimental schema set out in Figure i. State vour
hvpothesis clearlv. Indicate all assumptions. Include enough information about materials and methods to
enable another suitablv qualied person to repeat vour experiments. Relegate tedious but necessarv details
to an Appendix, so that there are no breaks in the ow of ideas in vour presentation.
If vou chose some magic numbers for vour programs, or some specic conditions for vour experiment
that mav not be readilv apparent to vour reader, explain the reasons for vour choice here.
Assumptions
Hypothesis
Methods
Materials
Results
Experiment Analysis
Discussion
Conclusions
FicUvi i: Tis diagram illustrates the relationship between the dierent stages in the experimental process. Do not
intersperse vour Results with Materials and/or Methods. Resist the temptation to pepper vour Results section with a
Discussion.
Do not mix Materials and Methods with Results [18]; thev are quite distinct in Figure i. It is customarv
to describe vour Methods before the Materials. For example, vou would describe vour algorithm before
giving details about the dataset on which vou developed and tested it. Use informative headings. If vou are
using a method that has alreadv been documented in the literature, do not describe it in full; describe it
briev or not at all, and give a reference citation [1-].
When to present vour results in a table and when to show them in a graph is discussed in section -.:.
If vour results convev no sense of the new or the unexpected, vou must ask vourself whether thev are
the right results to present, and also whether vour hvpothesis was well-framed in the rst place. If vour
results are insipid, if thev sav nothing new, shed no light on what was unknown, and generallv convev no
sense of excitement or new knowledge, vou should sit down and think carefullv about evervthing vou have
done. A discussion with vour supervisor mav also be in order.
Do not present results chronologically; present them logically.
Adopt a standard nomenclature for all vour chapters and introduce this in one place, preferablv in a
chapter preceding vour experimental work, and entitled Common Materials and Methods, or Experi-
mental Framework and Notation, or something similar. Do not change vour svmbols and their meanings
as vou go along: this will irritate vour reader no end.
Check all facts and results at least once, twice if possible.
Use SI units and the preferred abbreviations. It is unprofessional to write - mhz when vou mean
- MHz. Leave a blank space between the number and the SI unit and do not put a full stop afer the
abbreviation, unless it is at the end of the sentence.
Trv to present vour Results separatelv from vour Discussion. Tere is a temptation to commingle fact
and opinion, but resist it. Your work will be easier to understand if vour results (measurements, observa-
tions, perceptions) are separated from vour discussion (inferences, opinions, even conjectures).
e Discussion section of your experimental chapter is where you add value to your work. Tis is where
vou comment on vour results. Whv are thev what thev are: What meaning can vou wrest from them: Are
thev in accord with accepted theorv: What do thev mean with respect to vour hvpothesis: Do vour results
uphold vour assumptions: How do vou treat unexpected or inconsistent results: Can vou account for
them: Do vour results suggest that vou need to revise vour experiments or repeat them: Do thev indicate
a revised hvpothesis: What are the limitations in vour methodologv: How do vour results t in with the
work of others in the eld: What additional work can vou suggest:
An A+ student distinguishes himself or herself bv the qualitv, depth, knowledge and subject masterv
that is apparent from the discussion. Even if the hvpothesis fell as a result of the experiment, an excellent
discussion of results alone can earn vou an A+.
Troughout vour thesis, and especiallv in vour experimental chapters, there should be no gaps in the
ow of logic. Keep the links of a chain in mind. Each link is connected to two other links: one before and
one afer. Absence of anv one link is a weakness. Absence of both means there is no chain!
To sum up, vour overall purpose is to tell a good storv: interesting, coherent, and plausible. Use vour
results to serve this purpose, keeping the hvpothesis in mind.
:.o Te Iiterature Review
Te literature review is the backdrop against which vou present vour work. It must be selective, but sub-
stantial enough for the merits of vour work to be judged in relation to what is known. It is especiallv critical
for a PhDthesis where the claimof originalitv should be defended with a thorough and critical reviewof the
literature, especiallv in vour specic area of research. You should capture the essence of current knowledge
and comment criticallv on where the interesting questions and inconsistencies lie. Te literature review is
vital to justifv vour hvpothesis, which must be consistent with what is known. If vou present vour literature
review objectivelv but selectivelv, so that it does not stick out as an extraneous chapter, but merges into the
larger storv of vour thesis, vou would have done well.
:.1o Te Introduction and Conclusions
Te Introduction is where vou sof launch vour reader on the work described in vour thesis. Lead the
reader from the known to the unknown. State the hvpothesis clearlv. Give a preview of vour thesis, globallv,
and chapter bv chapter. Your Introduction has done its work if vou have captured the readers curiositv and
interest in this rst chapter.
Te Conclusions record the power of vour scientic thinking. You have to unite all that has gone before
with a thread of unied perspective. Tis is where vou sav whv vou think vour storv is a good one and
present evidence from vour work to support vour claim. Te fate of vour hvpothesis is revealed here: did
it stand, fall, or require modication: You mav briev compare vour work with that of others, present
whatever new knowledge has been gained from vour work, and suggest what mav be done to further new
knowledge. Te Conclusions should give a sense of fullment and nalitv to vour thesis, and give the reader
some satisfaction that the time spent on reading it has not been in vain.
Write the Introduction aer vou have written the Conclusions and make sure the two match (see sec-
tion :.a).
:.11 Iinking your chapters
While vou are writing vour thesis, vou might suddenlv remember that an idea in Chapter : needs to be
linked to an idea in Chapter -, etc. Tis is a healthv sign because it means that vou are integrating vour work
and seeing vour thesis as one whole in vour mind. Tese forward and backward linkages give continuitv to
vour thesis. Keep a stack of pages, one for each chapter, where vou can write down these aides-mmoire,
as and when they occur to you. As vou nish writing each chapter, check the linklist for that chapter and
ensure that vou have not forgotten anvthing.
:.1i Te Summary or Abstract
Te Summarv or Abstract is perhaps the most dicult part to write. Do not make the mistake of trving to
write it rst: vou will waste time and get discouraged. Te Abstract should be written last. You will then
have a feel for the storv being told bv vour thesis: a birds eve view so to speak, that was lacking when vou
had vour nose to the grindstone, writing the Experimental Chapters or the Literature Review. is unied
perspective is vital to writing the Summary.
I have found the following exercise verv helpful in trving to focus the mind on what the point of a thesis
(or paper or article) is. Trv condensing vour thesis in:
one word;
one line;
one sentence;
one paragraph;
one page; and
one chapter.
Tis method is somewhat like asking a dving man for a message: he will tell vou onlv the most important
thing(s). You begin at the most compressed level of describing vour thesis and successivelv relax the con-
straint on the number of words to achieve increasing levels of detail. Somewhere along the wav, vou should
have written vour one- to two-page abstract, summarizing vour thesis adequatelv. Tis is a disciplined
wav to distill what is important from what vou have written'. If vou have not gone through this process
vourself, it is unfair (and riskv) to expect the examiner to do it for vou.
:.1: Writing other parts of your thesis
Te Title should be neither too long nor too short. It should be focused and interesting. It should include
the kevwords vou might use to describe vour work in a scientic paper or thesis-abstracting svstem. Trv to
use some verbs rather than a long list of nouns.
Te Acknowledgements should include sources of nancial support and all those whose help vou have
sought and got, and all those whose work vou have directlv built upon.
Te Bibliographv should onlv contain references vou have actuallv read. To quote an unread paper
is misleading and dangerous. In engineering theses, references are usuallv cited bv number, in order of
citation.
Sometimes, it mav be necessarv to digress from vour main storv to explain something, especiallv for
completeness. For example, it mav be some experimental details, an analvtical method, a program listing,
etc., that is not central to vour storv, but whose exclusion would make vour thesis incomplete. Include such
material in an Appendix. Moreover, do not parrot textbook material in an Appendix just to give vour thesis
length or to impress vour examiners. In all likelihood, thev would ignore such material and could take
marks o for gratuitous length.
:.1a Polishing up your thesis
As and when each chapter is written, read it for understanding, paving attention to the ow of logic and
sense of continuitv. Ten read it again, paving attention this time to how comprehensible it is. Finallv, read
it once more paving attention to spelling, grammar, tvpographv, placement of illustrations, etc. In these
three stages, vou are evaluating the chapter for its structure, substance and stvle (see also section a.1).
At each reading, revise vour thesis as vou feel appropriate.
When all the chapters are in place, read the thesis again, paving attention this time to overall under-
standing, coherence, comprehensibilitv and presentation.
Get vour supervisor, and anvone else whom vou can approach, to read and criticize the earlv drafs of
vour thesis. Te more vou polish up vour thesis, the better vour chances of getting high marks for it. A
well-written thesis is like a piece of highlv polished ne furniture: its elegance bespeaks its worth.
'Te Abstract is not a summarv of the entire contents of vour thesis, but onlv of its salient points, including the major ndings
and conclusions.
:.1= Te time element
It is verv easv to underestimate the time needed to plan, write and revise vour thesis. As a general guideline,
allow one to three months for writing up an undergraduate thesis and at least six months for a PhD thesis.
As another rule of thumb, triple vour initial estimate to arrive at a more realistic time frame.
Te task of writing up will not loom large at the end of vour project if vou have written vour thesis in
instalments as suggested in this guide.
Do not procrastinate, however much vou dislike writing. Remember that writing up is also an integral
part of vour project or research work. Schroeder gives an interesting analvsis, using a self-similar model, of
howthe longer one works on such a project without actuallv concluding it, the more remote the expected
completion date becomes [1o, p 1-].
Tis paragraph is addressed especiallv to PhD students. Te period when vou are writing up is the
period when vou are most vulnerable: the excitement of the research is now behind vou, vour scholarship
would be running out or might alreadv have, nancial pressures will intensifv, and there mav be an obli-
gation to work part-time and write up part-time. Tere mav also be attractive job oers vving for vour
attention. Do not lose motivation during this dicult period. Loss of motivation is one of the principal
wavs in which vou can deprive vourself of vour PhD [io]. Write up vour thesis and get on with the rest of
vour life.
:.1o Dos and Donts in Science and Engineering
Do keep records as vou go along and date them.
Do svstematic work.
Dont claim precision where it is not justied.
Dont present a conjecture as a fact.
Dont plagiarize.
Dont falsifv records or cook up data.
Style: Language
a.1 Te crah of writing good English
Writing good English is a craf. It has to be learned bv careful reading and even more careful writing.
You must develop vour own style: no one can teach or bequeath it to vou. It helps to read books devoted
to the subject [i1i], but it helps even more to read exemplars of good writing. I particularlv like and
recommend the books of the chemist Peter Atkins [i8, io] and the biophvsicist Harold Morowitz [:o]
which popularize science. Tese authors have demonstrated how it is possible to present science simplv,
correctlv and engaginglv.
As vou progress in developing vour own stvle, vou will develop an internal feedback mechanism that
will tell vou just when the rhvthm, length, and structure of a sentence is right, and when it needs revising.
Read what vou have written, slowlv and carefullv. If you nd yourself backtracking for any reason, revise
what you have written. Tis mav be because of bad sentence structure, poor punctuation, excessive sentence
length, poorlv expressed ideas, or an unfortunate choice of words. Whatever the cause, take the trouble to
revise it: if vou vourself stumble on vour own writing, vour reader is bound to stumble too. Te least
courtesv vou can do to vour reader is to revise vour writing.
Verbs are words of action. Tev infuse life and meaning to vour writing. A long catalogue of nouns is
lifeless; throw in a verb to add some sparkle!
Stvle and substance are intertwined. Sav clearly whv the busv reader should give you her time and
attention, when so manv others are clamouring for it, and sav this early. Tink of vour writing as a tense
wire connecting vour reader to vou. If evervthing vou sav is old hat to the reader, the wire is slack and vou
have lost vour reader to boredom or even sleep. If evervthing vou sav is new and not linked to something
the reader alreadv knows, the wire is too taut and will break at some point. You will again lose vour reader,
but this time to incomprehension. Monotonv leads to boredom; unpredictabilitv to confusion. You have a
dutv to keep the reader challenged but not frustrated, engaged but not confused, comfortable but not bored.
Te sections that follow are devoted to clarifving what good scientic writing is and should be.
a.i Ambiguity and clarity
Ambiguitv has its place. Te novel Finnegans Wake bv the great Irish author Iames Iovce [:1], was rst
published in 1o:o. Starting with its title, the novel was open to several interpretations. Indeed, Iovce had
claimed that this book would keep the professors busv for centuries [:i] and that is indeed one of its
merits. It has proven to be such a rich source of lavered meanings that there is at least one interpretive book
with a scientic avour, that has a chapter entitled Finnegans Wake: Te Complexitv of Articial Life [::].
Scientic writing, however, must be unambiguous and the engineering thesis is no exception. It must
communicate clearlv,'' preciselv, and briev. Sav what was done; how it was done; whv it was done etc.,
following the guidelines of Gopen and Swan in section :.i, to minimize the possibilitv of ambiguitv and
misinterpretation.
a.: Precision
Precision distinguishes science as a eld of intellectual endeavour. It is vital in quantitative work. Precision
allows vour work to be repeated bv others for verication and extension. Vagueness hides in expressions
like quite small, a considerable length etc. Avoid them. Tev will besmirch vour writing and vour work.
Precision, accuracv, and experimental error are an inseparable triad. You should know how thev dier
and whv thev are related. If not, read a good text on the subject, for example, Barford [:a], or Topping [:-].
Precision is related to resolution of measurements; accuracv, to delity with truth; and error with departure
from truth. All measurements embodv errors, limited bv technique, instrumentation and other factors.
Do not record a measured voltage, for example, to ve decimal places simplv because a digital multi-
meter displavs it to that manv decimal places. Generallv, if a measured voltage is quoted as - V, it means the
value could be in error bv half the least signicant digit, i.e., the true value lies within the interval 5 0.5 V.
Two other popular conventions used in stating experimental results are: v
v
and v 3
v
where v
is the mean of a series of measurements of voltage, v, and
v
is the standard deviation. State the convention
vou have used in vour thesis and stick to it throughout.
a.a Brevity
Each of us is faced with more information than we can cope, let alone digest. Te reader of vour thesis
is no exception. As a courtesv to vour reader, be brief. Repetition frustrates the able reader. However,
brevitv must not be at the expense of claritv or precision. Avoid saying the same thing twice except by choice.
Eschew expressions like in order to, as a result of , etc. When revising vour thesis, trv deleting phrases
and expressions that are llers; in most cases, what remains would be clearer and read better.
Te use of acronvms is convenient and ofen unavoidable in specialist writing. Some acronvms like
laser,'` have become entrenched in the common vocabularv. However, acronvms hold other, darker at-
tractions, especiallv for students: thev mav be used to advertise the writers erudition'` or to separate the
cognoscenti from the ignoscenti. Such use of acronvms is best avoided, or it could lead to their prolifer-
ation, and the disease, acronymosis,' which destrovs readabilitv and sacrices claritv for brevitv.
''Tose for whom English is a second language sometimes mistakenlv think that good English should be convoluted. Tis is
not true. Good English is clear and easv to read and understand. Te cardinal rule is to keep it simple.
'`Light Amplication bv Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
'`SMTP sounds so much more learned (and complicated) than Simple Mail Transfer Protocol when used in the context of
e-mail.
'I am indebted to Prof. David Lindsav for introducing me to this priceless word.
a.= Examples of what to avoid
Lindsav [-] gives ten categories of cumbersome expressions that should be avoided in writing a scientic
paper or thesis. Tese are summarized below (using his examples, mostlv):
1. Clusters of nouns. When clustered together, all nouns, except the last, function as adjectives. Avoid
expressions like chemical healing suppression and sav instead, suppression of healing by chemi-
cals, or suppression of chemical healing, or whatever else vou intended to mean. Use prepositions
to make vour meaning clear.
i. Adjectival clauses. Instead of an innovation based return on investment culture, sav a culture of in-
novation based on return-on-investment or whatever vou actuallv meant to sav. Again, use prepo-
sitions to make vour meaning clear, even if this construction is longer.
:. Subordinate clauses at the beginning. Tis stvle puts the unimportant bits rst and the important ones
later. It mav be goodelectronics to do so (LSB' rst), but it is badEnglish. Avoidbeginning sentences
with constructions like Despite the fact that , Notwithstanding the fact that , etc. Compare
these two versions:
Tus, although there were too few plots' to show all of the interactions which we sought
[subordinate clause, apologetic], under the conditions of the experiment [subordinate
phrase, conditional], copper and zinc acted additivelv [-, p a].
Tus, copper and zinc acted additivelv under the conditions of our experiment, although
there were [-, p a]
Te second sentence certainlv reads better. It is also a good example of putting the important infor-
mation in the topic position, which is at the beginning (see section :.i).
a. Nouns instead of the verbs from which they are derived. Avoid writing Recording of pulse rates was
made; instead write, Pulse rates were recorded. We have improved the original sentence in three
wavs bv doing this. We have:
(a) replaced the original dummy verb made with the genuine verb recorded;
(b) shortened the sentence; and
(c) sharpened the impact.
-. Use of ller verbs. Do not write We conducted a studv of group III-V compounds; instead sav,
We studied group III-V compounds. Te second sentence has ve words; the rst, eight. Again,
a dummv verb has been replaced with a genuine verb and the sentence has been shortened and
strengthened. Examples of dummv-verb constructions to be avoided are to be present, to occur,
to perform, to obtain, etc.
o. Use of passive voice rather than active voice. Passive voice is appropriate when the doer of an action
is unknown or is irrelevant. Otherwise, passive voice lengthens and weakens the sentence, whereas
active voice is direct, succinct and more forceful. Compare Patients were observed bv two people
for signs of abnormal behaviour [-, p ao] with Two people observed the patients [-, p ao].
. Use of imprecise words. Do not use words like quite, some, considerable, a great deal, etc. in
scientic writing. It is imprecise and unhelpful to the reader. Be quantitative: vou are writing an
engineering thesis. Sometimes, vou mav wish to avoid numerical precision for some compelling
reason. If vou want to avoid writing Fifv-two percent of the images were correctlv classied, do
not sav Te majoritv of the images were correctlv classied, but rather Slightlv over half the images
were correctlv classied.
'Least Signicant Bit
'Plot of ground, presumablv. Mv footnote.
8. Use of compound prepositions. Debaters and politicians use expressions like inthe case of , inrespect
of , etc., usuallv to gain time to think of a proper answer during a debate or a press conference. Such
expressions dilute the force of the simple, direct statement: thev have no place in vour thesis.
o. Multiple negatives. Adouble negative, when used carefullv, has impact or convevs just the right shade
of meaning. Multiple negatives do not. Tev serve onlv to confuse and should be avoided. What does
not unreasonablv inecient reallv mean: Anvtime vou cause vour reader to backtrack or pause for
mental breath to take in meaning, vou have done vourself and vour reader a disservice. (Remember
the reections on the transmission line in section :.i.)
1o. Unfamiliar abbreviations and symbols. Stick to SI units and prexes. If vou have to introduce a new
unit called a ip make sure that vou dene it somewhere, introduce an abbreviation consistent with
the SI svstem, use SI prexes, and stick with vour nomenclature all through.
a.o Punctuation
Good punctuation makes reading easv. Te simplest wav to nd out where to punctuate is to read aloud
what vou have written. Each time vou pause, vou should add a punctuation svmbol. Tere are four major
pause svmbols, arranged below in ascending order of degree of pause:
Comma. Use the comma to indicate a short pause or to separate items in a list. A pair of commas
mav delimit the beginning and end of a subordinate clause or phrase. Sometimes, this is also done
with a pair of em dashes which are printed like this: .
Semi-colon. Te semi-colon signies a longer pause than the comma. It separates segments of a
sentence that are further apart in position, or meaning, but which are nevertheless related. If the
ideas were closer together, a comma would have been used. It is also used to separate two clauses
that mav stand on their own but which are too closelv related for a colon or full stop to intervene
between them.
Colon. Te colon is used before one or more examples of a concept, and whenever items are to
be listed in a visuallv separate fashion. Te sentence that introduced the itemized list vou are now
reading ended in a colon. It mav also be used to separate two fairlvbut not totallvindependent
clauses in a sentence.
Full stop or period. Te full stop ends a sentence. If the sentence embodies a question or an excla-
mation, then, of course, it is ended with a question mark or exclamation mark, respectivelv. Te full
stop is also used to terminate abbreviations like etc., (for et cetera), e.g., (for exempli gratia), et al.,
(for et alia) etc., but not with abbreviations for SI units.
Te readabilitv of vour writing will improve greatlv if vou take the trouble to learn the basic rules of
punctuation given above. For further guidance on punctuation, I recommend the books bv Carev [:o],
Gowers [io], and Vallins [i1, ii].
a. Te I/We Active/Passive controversy
Tere is a pervasive belief that because scientic writing should be objective, one should avoid the rst
person singular pronoun I'. Tis belief is embedded in another deeper conviction: scientic writing must
be in the passive voice, again in the interests of objectivitv, because the subject I is therebv avoided. Some
of those who hold these views are passionate about them. Others, are less dogmatic (see for example,
Lindsav [-] and item o of section a.-). So what is acceptable and what is not: Is there anv right wav:
I read the writings of Faradav, Maxwell, and Ravleigh to get some light on the matter, and have discov-
ered the following:
'Te plural, we somehow seems more acceptable, perhaps because it has roval connections!
1. Te rst person singular pronoun, I, is used bv them liberallv when thev describe experiments thev
have themselves performed, or where thev introduce new nomenclature, or when thev refer to their
personal conjectures or beliefs. I suspect that this practice springs from the times when papers were
literallv read at meetings of learned societies before thev appeared in journals. Te use of I was both
natural and authoritative in that context. Examples of the use of I are given below:
Manv bodies are decomposed directlv bv the electric current, their elements being set free; these
I propose to call electrolytes. Water, therefore, is an electrolvte.Michael Faraday in [:, p 11:]
I have recentlv been engaged in describing and dening the lines of magnetic force i.e. those
lines which are indicated in a general manner bv the disposition of iron lings or small magnetic
needles, around or between magnets; Michael Faraday in [:8, p ao]
I rst observed this peculiaritv of mv eves when observing the spectrum formed bv a verv long
vertical slit. I saw an elongated dark spot running up and down in the blue, as if conned in a
groove, and following the motion of the eve as it moved up or down the spectrum, but refusing to
pass out of the blue into other colours.James Clerk Maxwell [:o, p a:-]
It is now, I believe, generallv admitted that the light which we receive from the clear skv is due in
one wav or another to small suspended particles which divert the light from its regular course.
Lord Rayleigh [ao, p 8]
i. Te rst person plural pronoun, we is used when stating facts, assumptions or previouslv derived
results; in (mathematical) proofs; and especiallv in textbooks where a didactic tone is normal. Te
use of we convevs the impression of a dialogue between writer and reader: something that is lacking
with I. Here are some examples:
When we turn to radiation phnomena, then we obtain the highest proof, that though nothing
ponderable passes, vet the lines of force have a phvsical existence independent, in a manner, of
the bodv radiating, or of the bodv receiving the ravs.Michael Faraday [:8, p aoo]
We have used the phrase Lines of Force because it has been used bv Faradav and others. In strict-
ness, however, these lines should be called Lines of Electric Induction.James Clerk Maxwell [a1, p
o8]
We have seen that the electrical charge on the surface of the glass is attracted bv the rubber.James
Clerk Maxwell [a1, p :18]
Te svmmetrv also requires that the intensitv of the scattered light should vanish for the rav which
would be propagated along the axis; for there is nothing to distinguish one direction transverse to
the rav from another. We have now got what we want.Lord Rayleigh [ao, p 8o]
:. Passive voice is used in textbooks and in describing facts, and experiments done bv others, or where
it does not matter who did the experiments:
Tere was also another eect produced, especiallv bv the use of large electrodes, which was both a
consequence and a proof of the solution of part of the gas evolved there. Te collected gas, when
examined, was found to contain small portions of nitrogen. Tis I attribute to the presence of air
dissolved in the acid used for decomposition.Michael Faraday [:, p 1i]
In each cell the copper plate is placed horizontallv at the bottom and a saturated solution of sul-
phate of zinc is poured over it.James Clerk Maxwell [a1, p :o]
Tere are two methods bv which the pitch of a resonator mav be determined without the use of
a stream of air. Te simplest, and in manv cases the most accurate, method consists merelv in
tapping the resonator with the nger or other hammer of suitable hardness, and estimating with
the aid of a monochord the pitch of sound so produced.Te other method is one of which I have
had a good deal of experience, and which I can relv upon to give results of moderate accuracv. It
consists in putting the ear into communication with the interior of a resonator, and determining
to what note of the scale the resonance is loudest.Lord Rayleigh [ao, p :io]
It is clear that some verv eminent scientists had no hesitation in using the rst person singular pronoun
I to describe what thev did, perceived or inferred. Tis usage is direct and is preferable to the passive
voice, especiallv when used to describe what you yourself did. If, for modestv or other reasons, vou are
uncomfortable with using the pronoun I, use the passive voice instead, but not the rst person plural
pronoun we, which is inappropriate for two related reasons:
1. You are describing work that vou have individually done rather than some collective eort for which
the plural number would be apt.
i. Te Universitv regulations are clear, especiallv for the PhD thesis, that your original work and con-
tributions must be clearlv distinguished from that of others [i]; again the plural number would be
incorrect when describing this work.
a.8 Examples of good writing
I now present two examples of good scientic writing with some commentarv:
An atom is a bodv which cannot be cut in two. A molecule is the smallest portion of a particular
substance. No one has ever seen or handled a single molecule. Molecular science, therefore, is one of
those branches of studv which deal with things invisible and imperceptible bv our senses, and which
cannot be subjected to direct experiment.James Clerk Maxwell [:o, p :o1]
Tis is one of the founding fathers of the kinetic theorv of gases holding forth on his home ground.
Tese are the opening lines of a paper entitled Molecules, originallv delivered before the British Association
and published in Nature, Vol. VIII.
Maxwell uses the etvmologv of the word atomfrom the Greek or atomos, which means not
cuttableto dene it clearlv and directlv. Te expression cannot be cut in two is more picturesque and
powerful than the usual textbook denition, smallest indivisible particle, that we have been brought up
on. He then progresses to molecules and provokes our interest in what these mvsterious, invisible, imper-
ceptible entities might be. We are lef anticipating what ingenious experiments he might have devised to
demonstrate the existence and properties of molecules. If vou can draw vour reader into vour work like
this, vou have written a good thesis.
Now for the second example:
A structure is an arrangement of particles, such as atoms, molecules, or ions. For example, a crvstal is
a denite structure. It is distinct from a gas, a liquid, or even a splodge' of butter, because in these the
arrangements of particles are indenite. Whereas in a crvstal we can be sure to nd a particle at some
denite location relative to another, in the structureless states of gases, liquids, and amorphous
solids, the relative locations of particles are indenite
We can summarize these remarks (and sow the seed for the generalization) bv saving that the particles
of crvstalline solids are arranged coherently: the locations are correlated. In contrast, in gases (and to a
smaller extent in liquids) the locations are uncorrelated. Te idea that structure signies coherence, with
orderlv regiments of particles, whereas lack of structure signies incoherence, with a hodge-podge of lo-
cations, neatlv captures solids as structures but allows gases to escape as structureless.Peter Atkins [io,
pp 1o18o]
'Te use of a colloquial expression like splodge is permissible because the extract is froma book written to popularize science.
Tis is a ne example of leading the reader fromthe knownto the unknown, progressivelv increasing the
complexitv of ideas. Atkins paints a picture in words, rst relating structure to regularitv in position. Ten
he moves on to the more mathematical and subtler concept of coherence and relates it to structure. Te last
sentence summarizes and binds together the three ideas: structure, positional regularitv, and coherence.
Te parenthetical statement sow the seed for the generalization again keeps the reader anxiouslv waiting
for the rabbit out of the hat.
a.o Spelling and grammar
Check the spelling of all words in vour thesis, including those in your bibliography, using a good spelling-
checker. Use Australian or British spelling consistentlv throughout. Tere is some confusion about which
spelling is correct : organize or organise. British usage allows both [io, p i:o] where appropriate, as in
this case. Te onlv exceptions are words like surmise which are never spelt with a z at all. Be consistent,
once vou have made vour choice and do not mix organize with organise in vour thesis. Note also that
most spelling-checker programs are unaware of the advice of authorities like Gowers [io]. If vour spelling-
checker does not pick up repeated words like the the, write a simple program to warn vou of them. Check
also that vou have not written and where vou meant an and vice versa. Such errors will not be trapped
bv a spelling-checker. Be careful with grammar-checkers: I do not trust them.
If there are glaring spelling errors in vour thesis, examiners will get the impression that it is poorlv
nished and will not rate it highlv for presentation. Time spent in checking spelling and grammar is
therefore time well spent.
Style: Layout
Te lavout is the packaging for vour thesis. A pleasing font and adequate margins make vour thesis visuallv
attractive. Te convention is to choose a font with serifs (e.g., Times Roman) for the main text and a sans
serif font (e.g., Helvetica) for text inside diagrams. All gure captions should be in the same font as the
main text, preferablv at one size smaller. Te details of thesis lavout are considered next.
=.1 Format
Te regulations governing size of paper, size of margins, etc., varv with Department and Universitv. At
UWA, the regulations for an Engineering thesis are in harmonv with the lavout of the PhD thesis, where an
extra lefmargin should be allowed for binding the thesis. In the vear iooo, theses had to meet the following
criteria:
Teses are not restricted to one volume. Tev should be double or one and a half space tvped on Aa
paper with a lef hand margin of a cm. Tere should be a i cm margin on all other edges. Tvping on
both sides is encouraged, and margins should be mirrored accordinglv. [i]
Te actual regulations mav varv with time and the interested student is referred to the web site [i].
=.i Word Processor vs Markup Ianguage
Until the 1o8os, theses were tvped on tvpewriters and diagrams drawn bv hand. Tis has changed with the
advent of personal computers. You now tvpe vour own thesis at a computer terminal and use a word- or
document-processing program to produce letter-perfect output. Microsof Word and Corel WordPerfect
are examples of WYSIWYG' word-processing programs, while T
E
X and L
A
T
E
X are examples of markup
languages used in a document-processing svstem. If vou do not know the dierence between the two, vou
should browse the web and nd out, before making an informed choice about which to use. I shall refrain
from advising because I have a marked preference.
'What You See Is What You Get
=.: Diagrams, Graphs and Tables
Bv its verv nature, scientic writing includes the judicious use of diagrams, graphs and tables. When do vou
present vour results using a graph and when do vou tabulate them:
A table invokes an expectation of regularitv. So present in a table dull, unremarkable data that must
nevertheless be presented. Make sure that vour variables are in dierent columns. Your rows for anv given
column should represent dierent observations of a given variable.
A graph should be reserved for exciting ndings or interesting, but unexpected results. Trends, depar-
tures from trends, dramatic behaviours of variables, etc., are good candidates for graphs.
Caption all diagrams, graphs, and tables so that thev mav be read bv themselves, independentlv of the
main text, bv a reader who wants onlv to skim vour work. It is discourteous to embed the explanation or
commentarv for a diagram or graph somewhere in the text and let the skimmer hunt for it.
Refer in vour text to everv diagram, graph, and table, especiallv in the sections where vou present and
discuss vour results.
Te readv availabilitv of graphical sofware should not entice vou into presenting evervthing indiscrim-
inatelv in pictorial form. Emphasis is rightlv gained with sparing and selective use; and this applies to the
use of diagrams, graphs, italics and bold tvpeface.
Tree books that give helpful guidance on presenting diagrams, graphs and tables are: [18, ai, a:].
=.a Table of Contents, Bibliography and Index
Tere are facilities to generate the table of contents, bibliographv and index automaticallv using word- or
document-processing programs. Learn howto use themand unburden vourself fromthe bookkeeping that
goes with manuallv numbering references, gures, etc. You have more than enough on vour plate, writing
a good thesis, to fritter awav vour attention on such minutiae.
Conclusions
Writing a thesis well is simple, if vou know how. Tere are three aspects: structure, substance and stvle, but
all three are entwined.
Start at the beginning bv keeping good records. Understand what it is vou are doing and whv. Be clear
what storv vou are going to tell. Keep the hvpothesis to the fore alwavs. Stick to the thesis structure vou
have been given.
Start writing vour Experimental Chapters rst. If vou have done a Literature Review, write it next. Ten
complete the rest: Conclusions, Introduction, and Summarv, in that order. Te other bits and pieces like
the Appendices mav be written as vou go along.
Tink, plan, write, revise. Tink clearlv and write carefullv. Claritv, precision and brevitv are the three
watchwords. Leave nogaps inthe chainof logic or ideas vouexpress. Avoidverbiage. Avoidclutter. Develop
vour own writing stvle bv careful reading and even more careful writing. Polish what vou have written bv
repeated reading and revision. Ask vour supervisor to critique vour thesis draf and amend it accordinglv.
Enjov writing vour thesis and good luck!
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Professor Yianni Attikiouzel, Dr Chris deSilva, Mr Iames Devenish, Mr Murrie Iupp, Pro-
fessor Peter Hartmann, Mr Peter Iones, Emeritus Professor David Lindsav, and Dr Iohn Morris for their
helpful comments on earlier drafs of this guide. I also thank Professor Attikiouzel for ensuring the cor-
rectness of the Greek etvmologv that is given here.
References
[1] D. Tompson, ed., e Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford, UK: Oxford Universitv
Press, oth ed., 1oo-.
[i] Te Universitv of Western Australia, Doctor of Philosophv Regulations. [web page], :o August 1ooo.
http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/research/phd/regs.html [cited io Februarv iooo].
[:] Honours Working Partv, Honours Working Partv Report: :o Iune 1ooo (Amended 1a Iulv 1ooo).
[web page], 1o August 1ooo. http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/reg/internal/sec/hwp/6.htm [cited io
Februarv iooo]; Internal report of Te Universitv of Western Australia.
[a] Te Universitv of Western Australia, PhD Examination Procedures. [web page], 1: Ianuarv iooo.
http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/research/phd/exam.html; [cited io Februarv iooo].
[-] D. Lindsav, A Guide to Scientic Writing. Melbourne, Australia: Addison Weslev Longman Australia,
ind ed., 1oo.
[o] R. Barrass, Scientists Must Write: A guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students. London,
UK: Chapman & Hall, 1oo1.
[] P. B. Medawar, e Strange Case of the Spotted Mice and other classic essays on science. Oxford, UK:
Oxford Universitv Press, 1ooo.
[8] K. F. Schaner, Nineteenth-Century Aether eories. New York, USA: Pergamon Press, 1oi.
[o] L. Carroll, e Annotated Alice: Alices Adventures in Wonderland and rough the Looking Glass. Har-
mondsworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin Books, 1o8. Illustrated bv Iohn Tenniel; with an Introduction
and Notes bv Martin Gardner.
[1o] M. Faradav, Faradays Diary: Being the Various Philosophical Notes of Experimental Investigation made
by Michael Faraday during the years , vol. II, Aug i- 18:iFeb io 18:o. London, UK: G Bell
and Sons, 1o:i. edited bv Tomas Martin.
[11] M. E. Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis. Englewood Clis, NI, USA: Prentice-Hall, :rd ed., 1oa.
[1i] B. P. Lathi, Signals, Systems and Communication. New York, USA: Iohn Wilev & Sons, 1oo-.
[1:] G. D. Gopenand I. A. Swan, Te science of scientic writing, American Scientist, vol. 8, pp. --o--8,
1ooo.
[1a] Y. Attikiouzel, Writing the PhD Tesis. Private verbal communication, as the authors PhD supervi-
sor, Centre for Intelligent Information Processing Svstems, Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Te Universitv of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA ooo, Australia, 1oo:1ooo.
[1-] D. Lindsav, Writing and Publishing in Scientic Iournals. Sta Development Programme entitled
Writing and Publishing in Scientic Iournals organised on : Iune 1ooo bv the Centre for Sta De-
velopment, Te Universitv of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia, 1ooo.
[1o] P. Hartmann, R. Fraser, and P. Maddern, Te characteristics of a good thesis. Discussion during Sta
Development Programme entitled Supervising Postgraduate Students organised on io March 1ooo
bv the Centre for Sta Development, Te Universitv of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia,
1ooo.
[1] T. Buzan and B. Buzan, e mind map book. London, UK: BBC Books, revised ed., 1oo-.
[18] D. Holtom and E. Fisher, Enjoy Writing Your Science esis or Dissertation!: A step by step guide to
planning and writing dissertations and theses for undergraduate and graduate science students. London,
UK: Imperial College Press, 1ooo.
[1o] M. R. Schroeder, Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws: Minutes from an Innite Paradise. New York, USA: W
H Freeman, 1oo1.
[io] E. M. Phillips and D. S. Pugh, How to get a Ph.D. : a handbook for students and their supervisors. Buck-
ingham, UK: Open Universitv Press, ind ed., 1ooa.
[i1] G. H. Vallins, Good English: How to Write It. London, UK: Andre Deutsch, 1ooa.
[ii] G. H. Vallins, Better English. London, UK: Andre Deutsch, 1o--.
[i:] G. H. Vallins, e Best English. London, UK: Andre Deutsch, 1o1.
[ia] R. A. Dav, Scientic English: A Guide for Scientists and Other Professionals. Phoenix, AZ, USA: Orvx
Press, 1ooi.
[i-] M. H. Manser, ed., Bloomsbury Guide to Better English. London, UK: Bloomsburv, 1ooa.
[io] Sir Ernest Gowers, revisededitionbv Sidnev GreenbaumandIanet Whitcut, e Complete PlainWords.
London, UK: Her Majestvs Stationerv Oce, :rd ed., 1o8o.
[i] M. Cutts, e Plain English Guide: How to write clearly and communicate better. Oxford, UK: Oxford
Universitv Press, 1ooo.
[i8] P. W. Atkins, Molecules. New York, USA: Scientic American Librarv, 1o8.
[io] P. W. Atkins, e Second Law. New York, USA: Scientic American Librarv, 1o8a.
[:o] H. I. Morowitz, Entropy and the magic ute. New York, USA: Oxford Universitv Press, 1oo:.
[:1] I. Iovce, Finnegans Wake. London, UK: Faber and Faber, 1oao.
[:i] G. Lernout, ed., Finnegans Wake: Fiy Years. Amsterdam, Te Netherlands: Rodopi, 1ooo.
[::] T. I. Rice, Joyce, Chaos, and Complexity. Urbana and Chicago, IL, USA: Universitv of Illinois Press,
1oo.
[:a] N. C. Barford, Experimental measurements : precision, error, and truth. Chichester, Sussex, UK: Wilev,
i ed., 1o8-.
[:-] I. Topping, Errors of observation and their treatment. London, UK: Institute of Phvsics, 1o-o.
[:o] G. V. Carev, Mind the stop : a brief guide to punctuation with a note on proof-correction. Harmondsworth,
Middlesex, UK: Penguin, revised ed., 1o1.
[:] M. Faradav, Experimental Researches in Electricity. London, UK: I M Dent and Sons, n.d. edited bv
Ernest Rhvs.
[:8] M. Faradav, Experimental Researches in Electricity, vol. III. London, UK: Richard Tavlor and William
Francis, 18--. Reprinted from the Philosophical Transactions of 18ao18-i with other Electrical
Papers from the Proceedings of the Roval Institution and Philosophical Magazine.
[:o] I. C. Maxwell, e Scientic Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. New York, USA: Dover Publications, 1oo-.
Edited bv W D Niven; two volumes bound as one.
[ao] Ravleigh, Iohn William Strutt, Baron,, Scientic Papers by Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), vol. I:
18oo1881. New York, USA: Dover Publications, 1ooa. Six volumes bound as three.
[a1] I. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. 1. New York, USA: Dover Publications, :rd
unabridged ed., 1o-a.
[ai] R. A. Dav, How to Write and Publish a Scientic Paper. Phoenix, AZ, USA: Orvx Press, -th ed., 1oo8.
[a:] H. B. Michaelson, How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports. Philadelphia, PA, USA:
ISI Press, 1o8i.
Quick Reference Guide
Writing a thesis well is simple if you know how.
ere are three aspects:
structure
substance
style
but all three are entwined.
Start at the beginning by keeping good records.
Understand what it is you are doing and why.
Be clear what story you are going to tell.
Keep the hypothesis to the fore always.
Stick to the thesis structure you have been given.
Start writing your Experimental Chapters rst.
If you have done a Literature Review, write it next.
en complete the rest:
Conclusions
Introduction
Summary
in that order.
e other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be written as you go along.
ink, plan, write, revise.
ink clearly.
Write carefully.
e three watchwords are:
Clarity
Precision
Brevity
in that order.
Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you express.
Avoid verbiage.
Avoid clutter.
Develop your own writing style by
careful reading; and
even more careful writing.
Polish what you have written by repeated reading and revision.
Ask your supervisor to critique your thesis draft and amend it accordingly.
Submit your best eort as your completed thesis.