Differential Protection

Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on the primary side of a transformer with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists (other than that due to the voltage ratio) it is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the plant is automatically disconnected by tripping the relevant circuit breakers. The principle of operation is made possible by virtue of the fact that large transformers are very efficient and hence under normal operation power-in equals powerout. Differential protection detects faults on all of the plant and equipment within the protected zone, including inter-turn short circuits. Principle of Operation The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price circulating current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1and I2 are equal and opposite such that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance or 'spill' current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Design Objectives An ideal scheme is required to be: Extremely stable under through fault conditions Very fast to operate for an internal fault Design Considerations A number of factors have to be taken into account in designing a scheme to meet these objectives. These include: The matching of CT ratios Current imbalance produced by tap changing Dealing with zero sequence currents Phase shift through the transformer Magnetising inrush current Each of these is considered further below. The Matching of CT Ratios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application of biased relays (see below) and/or the use of the interposing CTs (see below). Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing A transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (OLTC) will by definition experience a change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of primary to secondary current and produces out-of-balance (or spill) current in the relay. As the transformer taps further from the balance position, so the magnitude of the spill current increases. To make the situation worse, as the load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases

yet again. And finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable ie. it must not operate. Biased relays provide the solution (see below). Dealing with Zero Sequence Currents Earth faults down stream of the transformer may give rise to zero sequence current, depending upon winding connections and earthing arrangements. Since zero sequence current does not pass through a transformer, it will be seen on one side only producing spill current and possible relay operation for an out-of-zone fault. To prevent such occurrence, zero sequence current must be eliminated from the differential scheme. This is achieved by using delta connections on the secondary side of any CTs that are associated with main transformer windings connected in star. Where CT secondaries are connected in star on one side of a transformer and delta on the other, allowance must be made for the fact that the secondary currents outside the delta will only be 1/3 of the star equivalent. Phase Shift Through the Transformer Having eliminated the problem of zero sequence currents (see above) through faults will still produce positive and negative sequence currents that will be seen by the protection CTs. These currents may experience a phase shift as they pass through the transformer depending upon the transformer vector group. CT secondary connections must compensate to avoid imbalance and a possible maloperation. Magnetising Inrush Current When a transformer is first energised, magnetising inrush has the effect of producing a high magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could be interpreted as an internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current.

Other Issues
Biased Relays The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an on-load tapchanger (see above). The effect of the bias is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. Interposing CTs The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing CTs are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required. As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the main CT and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. Modern Relays It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to be programed directly into the relay.

Vector Groups
Transformer nameplates carry a vector group reference such at Yy0, Yd1, Dyn11 etc. This relatively simple nomenclature provides important information about the way in which three phase windings are connected and any phase displacement that occurs. Winding Connections HV windings are designated: Y, D or Z (upper case) LV windings are designated: y, d or z (lower case) Where: Y or y indicates a star connection D or d indicates a delta connection Z or z indicates a zigzag connection N or n indicates that the neutral point is brought out Phase Displacement The digits ( 0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings using a clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and set at 12 o'clock. It then follows that: Digit 0 means that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor Digit 1 that it lags by 30 degrees Digit 11 that it leads by 30 degrees etc All references are taken from phase-to-neutral and assume a counter-clockwise phase rotation. The neutral point may be real (as in a star connection) or imaginary (as in a delta connection) When transformers are operated in parallel it is important that any phase shift is the same through each. Paralleling typically occurs when transformers are located at one site and connected to a common busbar (banked) or located at different sites with the secondary terminals connected via distribution or transmission circuits consisting of cables and overhead lines Basic Theory An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg as below:

In phase

180deg displacement

When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or not. Example - Dyn11 We now know that this transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected

secondary (y) with the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11). Connections and vector diagrams are as follows:: HV

LV

Other Configurations By connecting the ends of the windings in other ways a wide range of options becomes available as set out below. Phase shift (deg) 0 30 lag 60 lag 120 lag 150 lag 180 lag 150 lead 120 lead 60 lead 30 lead Yy0 Yd1 Dd2 Dd4 Yd5 Yy6 Yd7 Dd8 Dd10 Yd11 Connections Dd0 Dy1 Dz2 Dz4 Dy5 Dd6 Dy7 Dz8 Dz10 Dy11 Yz11 Yz5 Dz6 Yz7 Dz0 Yz1

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