Karl Stade 13976932 Housing Poverty

Housing Poverty General Problem

As defined by Adlrich and Sandhu , housing poverty is an allencompassing term that refers to any sub-standard housing conditions that is negatively associated with human development. This includes variations such as slum housing, informal settlements, squatter settlements and illegal subdivisions. Housing poverty is a major issue for most underdeveloped and developing countries of the world and is particularly prevalent in Asian and African cities . Housing poverty is primarily caused by a combination of factors such as a shift in population from rural to urban regions in search of work and poor government provision, control and regulation of housing . Corruption and a requirement of cheap, disposable labour from industry are also contributors to housing poverty .

Effects in Nairobi
Kibera, the primary neighbourhood of housing poverty in Nairobi and one of the most densely populated area of housing poverty in Africa, has existed as a low quality informal settlement since the First World War . The district is approximately 2km in size and the population is estimated at somewhere between 400,000 to 1 million people and is continually growing . The area has experienced high levels of crime, violence and civil unrest due to the extreme poverty, sanitary conditions and corruption . In a recent study it was revealed that a majority of the shacks in the area were owned by politicians and public servants mostly of Nubian ethnicity, further fuelling ethnic tension and conflict within the community .

Effects in Shanghai

Slum neighbourhoods are now uncommon in Shanghai as the Chinese Government has gone to great lengths to remove these areas in the context of significant urban redevelopment and economic growth . These areas of slum housing are known as Shikumen, which are western-influenced tenement housing built for the large numbers of immigrant workers moving to Shanghai during the turn of the century . Despite the often squalid conditions of Shikumen housing, which suffered from overcrowding and unsanitary conditions, there was a strong sense of community, history, and an informal economy that is being eradicated and replaced with high rise apartments .

Effects in Perth
Due to healthy economic conditions, established housing and development control, and controlled migrant intake, cities such as Perth within developed countries have a very low occurrence of housing poverty . However, Perth did experience informal housing and slum settlements primarily caused by a large increase in population, housing shortages and lack of government standards during the early 20th century as a result of the discovery of gold in the eastern goldfields .

General Solutions
Despite the complex nature of housing poverty, the general approach in most cities has been the removal and redevelopment of the housing poverty area . Generally, the perception from the government authorities is that the slum areas generate crime and a poor image of the city, and due to their often illegitimate or illegal nature the residents are powerless to stop the authorities . However, the problem of housing poverty is generally not resolved by clearing the housing, as housing poverty is a symptom of deeper social, economic and governance issues as discussed previously . In

order to properly address the issue of housing poverty there must be larger reform to address housing and infrastructure provision, the economy and corruption in these countries .

Cliff Goncalves 1397 1856 Social Implications

Social Implications
Shanghai Since the late 1970s, the distribution of income and wealth in Chinas cities has gone from the most egalitarian in Asia to one of the most egregiously unequal (Davis 2006, 168). The Hokou System The Hokou system was established in the 1950s where every person becomes registered at their place of birth (Wing 2009). In order to change residence, both governments from the persons place of birth and Shanghai need to agree with the move (Wong 2007). These are often difficult to obtain, thus leading to a life of discrimination for rural migrants as they seek greater prosperity (Wing 2009). Worker wage disparity Rural migrants are often seen as inferior to the local population and this reflected in worker wages (figure 1).

Figure 1 - source: (Chen 2009 and Li 2006)

Disparity grows further with local workers receiving far less benefits (figure 2).

Figure 2 - source: (Chen 2009 and Li 2006)

Due to the Hokou system rural migrants cannot access subsidies for purchasing and renting a home that are offered to local workers by the Government (Wong 2007). Average one bedroom housing costs are 1000 yuan a month (Kong 2010) leading to excess overtime (figure 3).

Working hours for rural migrants and local workers in Shanghai Rural Local workers workers Average working hours per 237 188.4 month (hours) Average overtime hours per 61 12.4 month (hours) Percentage of workers with no 17.1 38.4 overtime work Percentage of workers overtime 60 14 exceeding 36 hours a week Percentage of workers who 5.3 0 worked 12 hours a day, 7 days a week
Figure 3 - source: (Chen 2009)

The excess overtime given to migrant workers can be linked to a large proportion of the community not being offered contracts with their employers (figure 4).

Figure 4 - source: (Li 2006)

With unequal wages, benefits, excess overtime, and lack of employment protection, rural migrant discontent is reflected with opinions in regard to their working environment (figure 5).

Figure 5 - source: (Chen 2009)

Nairobi Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) The introduction of SAPs by the IMF and the World Bank into Kenya has led it to become one of the fastest urbanising nations in the world (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2008). It caused the deregulation of the agricultural sector of the economy which led to farmers losing their subsidies (Pink 2007). The rush has led to families abandoning their farms in search of work. SAPs have generated an exodus of surplus rural labour to urban slums even as the cities have ceased to be job machines (Davis 2006) (figure 6).

Figure 6 - source: (Pink 2007)

Rural migrants are not able to gain the qualifications in new industries such as ICT (UN-Habitat 2011). The consequence is that there is no work available for their skills and unemployment remains very high between 60-70% (Pink 2007).

Health and violence issues Due to lack of personal resources and government infrastructure sanitations levels remain very poor (UN-Habitat 2011). Forced evictions are a daily occurrence within rural migrant communities which destabilise families and create health as well as violence issues. Families, especially children suffer the most (figure 7).

Figure 7 - source: (Amnesty International 2011)

High concentration of people between 500,000 to 1,000,000 living in an area which is only 2 percent of Nairobis landmass can lead to HIV spreading rapidly throughout the community (figure 8).

Figure 8 - source: (Amnesty International 2011)

Rape is a common cause of HIV spreading throughout the community, Amnesty International (2011) note that about one in four women suffer from some sort of sexual abuse. These are only reported cases and Amnesty International (2011) go on to state that this could be much higher. Perth The majority of rural migrants that come to Perth are either young aged 15-24 or non-indigenous (Larson 2006). Of those who are aged 15-24, 60 percent do not return (Hillman and Rothman 2007). This has led to Perth becoming a primate city which dominates population wise over the rest of the state (figure 9).

Figure 9 - source: (Biddle and Hunter 2006)

Federal government policies of privatisation and managerialism formulated with free market principles has brought upon services being withdrawn in many rural areas (Alston 2002, 68).

Figure 10 - source (ABS 2008)

As the young demographic move away from agriculture and pursue a service job instead, the average age of a farmer has increased considerably (figure 10)

Figure 11 - source: (Hillman and Rothman 2007)

The average age of farmers in Western Australia is now currently 52 (see Beverley age pyramid, figure 11).

Figure 12 - source: (Argent 2009)

Beverley is a wheatbelt town 130km east of Perth where drought and a young demographic pursuing different career path are having a devastating impact (Argent 2009). If trends are to continue, towns such as Beverley could inevitably become ghost towns.

Indigenous Biddle and Hunter (2006) note that Western Australias regions also have a higher proportion of indigenous persons and with nonindigenous persons moving away so are the services needed to maintain towns. Their quality of life is being severely hampered by the constant migration of rural migrants toward Perth (Biddle and Hunter 2006).

Stephen Cass Infrastructure Perth Infrastructure

Perths population is forecast to grow 45% between 2005 and 2021. This is absolutely massive, completely unprecedentedIts a massive task for building infrastructure. (Bob Birrell quoted in Maley 2008) Infrastructure in the Perth metro area in 2007: 36 Hospitals 453 Primary and secondary schools 5 Universities 11 Colleges (TAFE) 43 Police stations and offices 23 Fire stations 12,751 Kilometres of road 69 Train stations 14 State Emergency Services (SES) units 3 Airports 2 Ports 24 Museums 10,502 Kilometres of sewers in Perth region 9 Sewerage treatment plants 11 Dams 2 Desalination plants 7 Artesian groundwater extraction stations 103 Water pumping stations 12,537 Kilometres of water mains (Weller 2009) With the projected growth of Perth doubling by the year 2030, it is likely that the existing infrastructure in Perth will need to double in size to cope with the growth in only 20 years. Key infrastructure areas that will need to be addressed in Perth now and during the future population growth include: Housing Health Buildings Roads Rail Ports Public Transport Power Water Land & Property A few examples of current infrastructure projects that are being undertaken in Perth are as follows: Main Roads Projects

Kwinana Freeway Extension/Forrest Highway Reid Hwy Gateway WA Reid Hwy Overpasses Kwinana Freeway Widening Roe Hwy Extension Gateway WA Gateway WA will improve connectivity between the primary road network and freight industrial areas, enhance road safety for all users and maximise the economic potential of airport growth for the benefit of all West Australians. The proposed upgrades are to accommodate the doubling of passenger and freight movements by 2030 from the Perth Airport. Estimated $600million cost for the project.

(Main Roads 2011) Kwinana Fwy Widening Its aim is to ease heavy congestion during peak traffic periods. The government hopes that widening it from two to three lanes in both directions would help alleviate the situation as well as improve safety and travel times. The Government has brought forward the project by a year, and work is expected to commence in early April 2011 and take about 12 months to complete.

(Main Roads 2011) Fiona Stanley Hospital The $2 billion Fiona Stanley Hospital is the largest building infrastructure project ever undertaken by the State.

(Department of Health) Perth City Link

(EPRA)

Perth Waterfront

(WAPC 2011)

Shanghai Infrastructure
The huge growth of Shanghai has seen its infrastructure have no choice but to grow with it. The Shanghai Construction and Transport Commission, overseer of the city's infrastructure development, said it would focus on promoting the planned and ongoing projects in five major areas. (Shanghai Daily 2010) These are: 1. Building budget houses for low-income families and revamping old complexes The Shanghai Daily reported that Shanghai raised the maximum monthly disposable income a three-person family can have and still qualify for the citys affordable-housing program to 3,300 yuan ($502) from 2,900 yuan. (March 3, 2011)

(China Daily 2011) 2. Improving traffic, waste-water treatment and village facilities in the suburbs Edmonds (2008) discusses that The areas of demand within the water sector in Shanghai are the same as in all cities across China: to increase capacity to meet growing needs, and to bring improvements in standards of service in order to deliver a high quality of water services to consumers, in terms of water quality (a reliable service and water safe to drink) and associated customer services.

(Ariana 2010) 3. Extending rail and highway connections to other provinces in the Yangtze River Delta region Within the Yangtze River corridor from the city of Chongqing to Shanghai there is a real buzz of activity. Due to the massive increase in manufacturing, the government makes efforts to keep infrastructure development ahead of the growth in cargo volume. To improve inland waterways, China will invest around 1.9 billion USD into transportation on the Yangtze River, one of the major traffic routes. (Klako 2009) There are currently 65 bridges and tunnels that cross the Yangzte River Jiangyin Yangtze River Highway Bridge

(China Tourist Attractions 2010)

4. Focusing on projects aimed at reducing energy consumption and waste discharge, including waste-water treatment and garbage-burning factories. The Shanghai Industrial Investment Corporation (SIIC) hired the consultancy Arup to design a city which would exclusively use sustainable energy, be self-sufficient and reduce energy consumption by 66% in relation to its neighbour Shanghai. The plan is for Dongtan to house 500,000 people from rural areas. (Danish Architecture Centre n.d.) Dongtan (Danish Architecture Centre n.d.) 5. Expanding the city's mass-transit system, including Metros, vehicle tunnels and bike-only roadways The Shanghai Metro system is one of the fastest growing metro systems in the world. Many lines are under construction or planned to be constructed in the near future. After the completion of these lines, a uniform numbering system will be put in place. According to the latest report, by the end of 2020 the network will comprise of 22 lines spanning 877 km.

Nairobi Infrastructure
Nairobi is currently the 13th largest city in Africa, based on population and 4th largest in infrastructure development and its size. Nairobi is currently undergoing major road constructions in order to update its infrastructure network. The new systems of roads, flyovers and bridges would cut outrageous traffic levels caused the inability of the current infrastructure to cope with the soaring economic growth in the past few years. It is also a major component of Kenya's Vision 2030 and Nairobi Metropolis plans. The following areas of investment have been identified towards sustainable economic growth and development of infrastructure in Nairobi; as envisioned in the metro 2030 strategy. 1. Nairobi Metropolitan Mass Rapid Transit Programme To improve accessibility within the metropolitan region through a new bus system with designated bus lanes. This will require investments in infrastructure and buses. The bus rapid transit system will start with three transport corridors; Athi River town to Kikuyu town, Thika to the central business district (CBD) and Jomo Kenyatta International Airport to the CBD.

2. Rapid light rail This will entail provision of light rail to ease traffic congestion and improve efficiency of transportation between the CBD and other parts of the metropolitan area including the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport; a distance of 15.6 kilometres and serving about 150,000 passengers daily.

3. Provision of non-motorised transportation Investment to help decongest traffic within the metro CBD is required and this will involve: integrated traffic management systems, pedestrianisation of city streets, provision of non-motorised transportation and the installation of street lights in the metro local authorities and all major urban centres.

4. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) CCTV has in the last few years proved to be a very effective device in both deterring criminals and arresting perpetrators of crime in many developed countries. In Kenya, as envisioned in the Vision 2030, all the major cities are preparing to become 24 hour operational centres. There is need to install surveillance cameras to enhance security in these cities.

5. Parking system Investment opportunities exist in the provision of both space and technology that complements promotion of public transport. This require provision of vehicle parking services and development and management of a multi-storey parking in designated places of the CBD and other outlying commercial hubs. Land has already been identified in potential areas for the development of the parks.

Matthew Morgan Impact on Cities Impact on Cities

(Figure One: The Urban and Rural population of the world, 1950-2030) (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2006)

It is estimated since 2005 that more than 50 percent of humanity is living in urban settlements, which is rapidly increasing each year (Thompson 2002). Rapid population growth into Cities if unplanned can have negative impacts

on

the

citys

residents

(United

Nations

2006).

(Figure Two: Growth rate of urban population in 2006) (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2006)

Settlement effects in Kenya, Nairobi

Urbanisation is not always attributed to high density. In Kenya, Nairobi the cost of living has forced many residents to live in low quality slums (Byerlee 2008). Nairobi is one of the most populate and economically successful cities in Africa, however also posses the largest slum Kibera which is home to an estimated 2 million people (Byerlee 2006). Polarization of rural to urban migration has contributed to poor living conditions to many Kenyans living in Nairobi (Byerlee 2006). Rural to Urban migration has also taken agricultural workers from rural areas, which has impact on the availability of food in Kenya leading to famine (Byerlee 2006).

Settlement effects in China

Figure 3- Millions of empty dwellings in China do little for the urban poor Three: Image taking from the Date line website (Dateline 2011).

China is building 10 new cities each year, however it is estimated that 64 million apartments are vacant while migrants from rural areas powering the economy are living in slum like conditions (Dateline 2011). The United Nations

(2005) suggests that by 2005 50 per cent or more of the Chinese population will be living in urban areas (Over 650 Million people). Recently 100 million migrants have moved from rural provinces to the industrial zones and large cities in China (Henderson 2006). Chinas cities are experiencing rapid spatial changes however these changes are being designed for an over saturated demographic. (Henderson 2006)

(Figure 4- Four: Image taken from11 am in Zheng Zhou District, please note the time of day is 11am and the lack of activity on the street) (Dateline 2011).

Effects in Australia, Perth

Australia is highly urbanized with more than 70 per cent of the total population living in cities (United Nations 2006). The major issue in Australia affecting Cities has been the diminishing proportion of young people (i.e. those age 1524) in regional and rural areas (ABS 2006). The key factors in this migration of youth are the greater access to employment and education in urban areas and the decline of opportunities in rural areas (ABS 2006). The increase of population in Perth from rural and regional areas is not large enough to influence the shape of the city, however rural and regional settlements are left disadvantaged from the youth drain (Hillman 2007).

Solutions
While China is experiencing unprecedented economic growth in the long term is may prove to be unsustainable. I believe that China should organically progress its Cities through policy, governance rather than Government Intervention. Kenya needs to reduce the amount of rural migrants that are coming into Nairobi as a large majority of them end up living in poor conditions or subject to famine. Nairobi needs to solve its food issues by either reinvesting into regional agriculture or by encouraging more urban farming. Rural migration to Perth does not affect the spatial design of the City however it is suggested that it is impacting upon the spatial design of rural areas. I believe that increased investment into Regional centers that provide employment and education opportunities will influence youth (or Migrants) from leaving regional areas. Jordan Koroveshi 13961378 General Problem Additional to the aforementioned implications of an urbanising city, there are a number of environmental effects that can have a significant impact upon a developed area and its surrounds. This is supported by Clement from an who states that when looking at urbanization environmentalsociological perspective,

researchers have mostly argued that urbanization and urban growth contribute to environmental degradation. (Clement 2010) General problems that come about as a result of rural to urban migration include those such as temperature anomalies, air

pollution, water issues, and destruction of habitat. (BBC 2002) This is due to large demands that are put on the environment from taking over farmland, polluting waterways and producing large amounts of waste in order to meet the populations need for food, water and energy (EDNA 2009) There are, however, problems that are unique to each city of study Effects in Nairobi The main environmental effect of Nairobis urbanisation is the loss of water resources. This occurs in the form of decrease in soil moisture, which occurred as a result of clearing of forests and construction of hard surfaces, leading to more water run off (Opijah and Mukabana 2004) Effects in Shanghai Shanghai is facing a dramatic environmental transitionand is simultaneously trying to respond to environmental problems. (Solecki and Leichenko 2006) The major problem affecting Shanghai is the loss of its rivers. The length of streams in the centre of Shanghai City have been reduced by 60% between the 1950s and the 1990s, also the water area has reduce by 27% during this same time period. (Yuan 2010) Effects in Perth One of the main problems for Perth in regard to rural-urban migration is urban sprawl and the negative effects on the environment that arise because of it. The key problem with urban sprawl is the rise in commuting activity levels and vehicle miles travelledand a degradation of regional air quality through transport related pollution (Bednar-Friedl et al. 2011) Perth also suffers from a loss in a large number of forests due to the low

density housing and, consequently, large urban deferred land zoning that is supplied around the rural-urban fringe. General Solutions Bednar-Friedl et al. (2011) offer the suggestion of creating urban agriculture areas to replace the rural agriculture areas that have been destroyed in order to develop a level of self-sufficiency to reduce unnecessary transportation costs. Clement (2010) states that one approach is to increase the density of urban areas without sprawling in order to reduce the ecological footprint and to save rural areas from development or deforestation.